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Hindi-English Pages [304]
OF THE
URDU OR HINDUSTANI LANGUAGE.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
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HINDUSTANI EXERCISES. A
Series of Passages
and Extracts adapted
for Translation
into Hindustani.
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Translated from the Hindustani. "It has been the translator's object to adhere as closely as possible to the original text while rendering the English smooth and intelligible to the reader, and in this design he has been throughout successful." Saturday Review.
GRAMMAR URDU OR
HINDUSTANI LANGUAGE.
JOHN DOWSON,
M.R.A.S.,
LAT5 PROCESSOR OF HINDCSTANI, STAFF COLLEGE.
Cfjtrfl
(SBitton.
LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & :
DRYDEN HOUSE, GERRARD STREET, W. 1908. [All riijhts reserved.]
CO.
L
Printed by BALLANTYNK,
At the Ballantyne
HANSOM &*
Press,
Edinburgh
Co.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PACK
PREFACE
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ix
THE ALPHABET
1 . Pronunciation . Alphabetical Notation or Abjad Exercise in Reading .
.
.
THE AKTICLE THE NoraGender Declension. Izafat
THE ADJECTIVE Declension
Comparison
PRONOUNS Personal.
.5,217
.
1
.
.
.
...... ...... ... ...... ......
Demonstrative Respectful Reflexive
.
Compound.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Irregulars
.
.
37 39 40
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.49 54 .57
Hona Additional Tenses
2004670
42 42 43 45 46 46
Substantive and Auxiliary
Conjugation of Neuter Verbs Active Verbs
32 32 33
.43
VERB Formation of
31
.42
.
.
.
....... .
.
20 20 21 24
41 41
Possessive Relative and Correlative
Interrogative Indefinite Partitive
7
18
.
58 60
CONTENTS.
....... ...
VERB
(continued) Passive Verb Formation of Actives and Causals
Nominals Intensives Potentials
Completives Continuatives Desideratives
62 65 69 70
..... .72 .... ..... ....
.
.
.
.
73
Frequentatives . Inceptives Permissives
.
.
.
.
74 75
.76 ..... ......... Acquisitives Reiteratives
ADVKRBS
.
.
.
.
PREPOSITIONS CONJUNCTIONS INTERJECTIONS
....... .........
NUMERALS
Cardinal Ordinal
Aggregate Fractional
Ralcam Arabic Persian of
Agency
.
.
.
.
101 101
.
.
.
.
103 104
Locality, etc
Abstract Diminutives
Feminine
91
92 96 97 97 98 99 100
.
DERIVATION
Nouns
76 77 83 90 91
.
.104
.
.
.
.
.
105 105 106
.
Adjectives Negative Prefixes
SYNTAX. Order of Article
Words
107 108
CASES OF THE NOUN
Nominative
Agent Genitive
.
109 113 116
CONTENTS.
Norx
CASES OF THE
Vll
(continued}
Accusative Dative Ablative Locative Vocative
.
.
.
.
.
ADJECTIVES
NUMERALS PRONOUNS
.
.
.
.
Personal
Respectful Reflexive Possessive
....... ......
Relative and Correlative Interrogative . Indefinite
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.159
.
.
.
123 124 127 135 139 139 145 147 147 156 156 157 162
.
.164
.
VERBS 167 169
Substantive Active
Neuter
169,217
Infinitive
and Verbal Noun
.
.170
.
.
175 177 178 179 182 184 185
Aorist
Future Imperative Respectful Forms Indefinite
Present Tense
Imperfect Tense
and Pluperfect . Additional Tenses Present and Past Participles Past, Perfect
.
.
, .
.185
.
.
.
.
.
187
.
188,193
.
Conjunctive Participle Adverbial Participle
Noun
of Passive Causal
Agency
........ ... ....... .... .
Compounds
.
.
.
190 194 194 195 196
.196
.
Nominals
196
Potentials and Completives
200 200 200 201
Continuatives Frequentatives and Desideratives Inceptives, Permissives, etc.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
c as TEXTS.
via
...... ...... ......
I'AOE
201 203 205 206 207 208 209 211 212 212 213
PREPOSITIONS
ADVERBS
CONJUNCTIONS IDIOM
.... .... .... .... .... .... ....
Relative and Correlative
The Negative
Repetition of Words Verbs khdnd, uthdnd and khainchnfi lagna milnu
chuhna rahnu
murna farmdnd bannd
.
.
baithnu parnu. and letna
.
213 214 215 215 215 216
.
.
APPENDIX. I.
NAGARI ALPHABET
218
ARABIC WORDS IN HINDUSTAN! III. SHIKASTA WRITING IV. THE CALENDAR
224 242 255
II.
DIRECTIONS FOR PLATES. Plate
1
to face
Pag3
99 243 246 247 249 250 251 253
PREFACE.
I OFFER no apology for adding one
the
list
of
Urdu Grammars,
does not justify
its
for, if
more
to
the book itself
publication, no excuse will
avail me.
Urdu
or
Hindustani Grammar has been de-
veloped and reduced to a system by Englishmen, or under their supervision.
From
Gilchrist
to
Shakespear, and from Shakespear to Yates, Arnot, and Forbes, each new Grammar has thrown
new
light upon the language, and has lightened the labour of learning it. Excellent as is the Grammar of Forbes, both teachers and learners
have long since discovered its deficiencies. The Grammar of Professor Monier Williams made a great step
in advance
;
and the author of
book fully admits his obligations to
it,
this
for the
has given him as a teacher, and for the help assistance it has afforded in the preparation of this work. But Professor Williams's Grammar it
printed entirely in the Roman character, and so is unfitted for the use of young officials who
is
X
PREFACE.
have to read and write
the language
In the
character which the natives themselves employ. In this work I have availed myself of the
labours
of
my
and I
predecessors,
fully
re-
cognize my obligations; but with their rules I have embodied the results of my own study and observation.
In a few instances I have ventured
from those who have gone before me, but more has been done in the way of addition to differ
and
and in the drawing of distincthings have been noticed which
classification,
tions.
Many
hitherto have been passed over unperceived, or as being, perhaps,
to
weigh with me
and self-evident " another; and
"
plain and
I have not allowed this last con-
self-evident."
sideration
as Forbes says,
to
it is
;
one student
what
is
" plain
may not be for
so to
one who
hardly competent to determine what points are so clear and manifest that no student will
knows the language
It may be imever require to be told them. possible to produce a perfect Grammar ; but the
smallest matters should be included in
it,
as well
as the greatest.
In dealing with the alphabet, Forbes's plan of showing every letter in its separate, initial, medial, and final forms has been set aside, and the old plan has been reverted to of giving only
XI
PKEFACE. Forbes's plan had
the separate letters.
its
advan-
but it is really unnecessary, and it gives the alphabet a very formidable appearance, which has often exercised a very discouraging influence " There are thirty -five letters, upon beginners, and each letter has four distinct forms. Pour tages,
times thirty-five are a hundred and forty what I have often had to combat work!" etc., etc. !
this view, far less
and
than
to
it
the ardour of
show that the
many
difficulty
was
has damped I have a willing youth.
seemed.
Still
it
endeavoured to obviate this by a brief explanation of the
ways
and modified
in
which
letters are contracted
A
for combination.
careful study
of the alphabet and of the observations in para-
followed by a diligent and repeated " " perusal of the Reading Exercise in paragraph 22, ought to give the learner an adequate know-
graph
6,
ledge of the character.
The Accidence former grammars
differs ;
still it
but
little
from that of
contains some additions
and changes which have recommended themselves for adoption.
It is in the
differences will be found.
Syntax that the greatest This part of the sub-
ject has been dealt with more systematically, and has been reduced to short distinct rules fully il-
lustrated
by various examples.
It
may be thought
PREFACE.
Xli
that the examples are sary;
and
to
more numerous than neces-
some minds they may he
so.
But the
perusal of these different illustrations will help
upon the memory, and it will probably happen that now one, and now another, will address itself to the apprehension, and lay hold
to fix the rule
of the
memory. The work being intended for practical purposes, I have endeavoured to make the rules applicable to each part of speech complete in themselves, so
that the student
may
readily find whatever he
may seek. This has involved some repetition. For instance, the suffixes of the Genitive case are in reality Adjectives, and have the same concord as Adjectives the rules applicable to the :
Genitive of the
Noun apply
also in the
the Genitive of the Pronouns
;
main
to
they might there-
have been dealt with together. But instead of generalizing and proceeding upon a theory acceptable to a philologian, but unintelligible to a
fore
learner, I
have preferred the more simple course,
and have constantly kept in view the wants of the learner. The cross-references from one Rule to another will enable the intelligent student to
make
his
own
comparisons, and he will profit
by
the labour.
In laying down the rules of Syntax
it
has been
PREFACE.
Xlll
the primary object to ascertain and follow the general practice of the best writers. But Urdu is a
new language;
its
grammatical canons cannot
have been definitively laid down or generally understood. Writers have been guided by the usage of the language rather than by rule,
be said
to
and even now a native will
ally
accuracy of a
by any recognized Such being the case, novelties are continucreeping in, and solecisms are of constant
passage by law.
test the
his ear rather than
occurrence.
The many
alternative
methods which
show how unsettled have been the laws of composition, and it is not too much to say that breaches of the simplest and are noticed in the Syntax
grammar may be found in all writers. Therefore, without insisting upon the strict accuracy of every axiom laid down in the Syntax, the student must not infer that any given rule is not generally correct because he has met with one or even several passages with which it is inconsistent. In page 113 I have taken the opportunity of citing some transgressions of the clearest principles of
most important and peculiar rule of the language, that of the use of the
Nominative Case. inherited
Agent instead
This construction
from the
decided partiality for
of the
has been
Sanskrit, which evinces a the Instrumental case and
XIV
PREFACE.
the Passive voice, but it has hecome and continues the most remarkable characteristic of the
Urdu.
A
1
short chapter on the Deva-nagaii alphabet
gives
all
to master
that it,
necessary for enabling a student and to read such books as the BaitTil is
Pachlsi and Singhasan Battlsi, which, so far at least as relates to
grammar and
construction, are
Urdu rather than Hindi, Urdu abounds with Arabic derivatives which have brought with them the grammatical powers To fully comprehend of their original language. the meanings of such words, and to understand how their various forms are developed, some little
The
insight into Arabic brief chapter
the
on
hoped, learner,
and enable him
This,
necessary.
this
to acquire
I speak only of the true Urdu, not of the
of the South.
is
subject will, requisite assistance to
afford
1
Grammar
Dakhm
or Hindustani real vernacular,
has heen exposed to a variety of influences not affecting the Urdu. it
the
an intelligent
which can hardly be considered a
the language of isolated Musulmans, so
is
it
It
is
has adopted some Persian
Urdu does not recognize ; and, on the other hand, has heen affected by the idioms and phraseology of those vernacular languages in the midst of which it is used. This dialect does not admit terminations, which the jt
Jn one or two
the peculiar construction of the Agent with the Verb. points perhaps this dialect has improved
acknowledged that
it
is
generally inferior.
best are generally ready to do battle in their partiality.
upon Urdu, though
its
Still,
favour,
those
and
to
it
must be
who know show cause
it
for
XV
PREFACE.
apprehension of the relations and powers of a large and important class of words.
In another chapter an endeavour has been to smooth the way to an acquaintance with
made
the Shikasta or "broken
hand" used
in ordinary
This free running hand differs correspondence. no more from the printed characters than our English running hand differs from its exemplar. But, as in England, so in India, there are writers whose negligent and crabbed scrawls tax the patience and often baffle the ingenuity of the ill-used beings who have to read them. It is
obvious that
but the leading peculiarities of the broken hand " have been pointed out, and
difficulties
"
can be done to remove such
little
;
the various examples and transcriptions will aid the advanced student in understanding its intri-
become master of any tolerably
cacies so far as to
written document.
Some few
errors have
the print, partly from oversight, partly from accidents in printing. They have been noticed in the Errata,
and the student
crept
into
requested to correct them. Other trivial errors, such as the dropping out of a vowel point, may be met with, but these are unavoidable, and
barrassment.
is
ought not to cause any em-
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR. The Urdu language, commonly
1. is
called Hindustani,
a language formed by an admixture of the Arabic and
Muhammadan
Persian of the
conquerors with the Hindi
or vernacular language of the conquered Hindus.
everywhere the language of the Musulmans, and
Lucknow, and other
made
power has
places,
the deepest impression,
mon, language of the people.
more
words instead
is
2. ters
;
This language
the is
com-
written
;
employ native Hindi and Sanskrit
these people use the Deva-nagarl alpha-
The Arabic being
one used in bet
it is
or less ignorant of the Arabic and Persian
of the Urdu, and
bet.
in Dehli,
Muhammadan
But vast numbers of Hindus
in the Arabic alphabet.
are
where the
It is
this
the alphabet of the
Grammar, but
Urdu
is the,
the Deva-nagarl alpha-
given and explained in an Appendix.
The Arabic alphabet to these the Persians
consists of twenty-eight let-
added four, to satisfy the
quirements of their language;
re-
and three more have been
added in India to represent sounds unknown to Arabic or Persian.
So the alphabet of the Urdu
thirty-five letters.
It is
read from right to
consists of
left.
i
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
3.
NAME.
TUB ALPHABET.
ALPHABET. 4. ters
Iii
3
transcribing the above letters in
some
diacritical
marks
the various forms of the z,
t,
Roman
charac-
are required to distinguish
Those employed in
s, etc.
the foregoing table are those used in Shakespear's Dic-
They
tionary.
are not perhaps the best that could be
devised, but for a learner they are preferable to
system which would establish
Grammar and The
5.
Dictionary.
p,
are
called
four dots,
,
as i^^H sat,.~> sabr.
j~^ and ^ >^x/
printed books the forms to
_^x^and ^'^Xin and as
i_.J
and
medials
i_J
initials
A,
contracted
combination, are very
commonly
c
.
r, as medials *,
tegh.
,
p
and
used instead of
j
and i as
finals *.
;
chakr.
J
from alif by an initial is ^ or ^
a/d/, Ju
u/
thus u-o kof, ^Lo sofar.
becomes
to $
and
1
%
as
t
is
as
an
initial is
a medial
and final
a
it is
when
Jb
,
but in
g or ^ it is
as a medial
;
and v^f as
\^
or +
separate.
it is
The
e, is
A
The
.
when
letter
kab,
JS
distinguishable
MS. more commonly
as a final
and has the sound of
*
and as
a,
always joining the next letter. ,
written
initials are
thus jls
as initials are written
and medials are reduced
y?-
-j
Mlm letter
^
it is
A as
;
joined
o, when
commonly
as
it ia
written ^_
.
ALPHABET.
O
7. Pronunciation.
c__>
and c->
eu
and
thus captain
;
s > an d
c/**
Arabic, are ,
and 5 d are the same as the
letters are t
used as the repre-
and d when
all alike
_j
u
?>
is
written
though
pronounced
_:.
j
h
is
M
'.
differing in
sound in
s in Hindustani.
and ch have the English sounds as like the
in
jar
French
a very strong aspirate.
is
^a
\
necessary letters in
^^-^
and church; they are never pronounced j and ch. '-
it is
an English word containing those
to write
softer
an intermediate sound between
is
tk.
and are
teeth,
the ch of the lr
z, z, z, z,
German nacht
or Scotch loch.
have distinct sounds in Arabic,
but only one, that of a simple z, in Hindustani. is
J
r pronounced very distinctly.
r
a stronger sound of this letter obtained by
is
placing the tongue fur back on the roof of the mouth.
There
j i
zh
is
no word that begins with
is
(jh is
this letter.
the French^' as in jour.
pronounced
like the
Northumbrian
r,
a sound
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
6
similar to that which
is
the French and to the i^S k
in
some
g by
the ordinary sound
is
parts given to the r
by
the Germans.
j
;
k
more
is
guttural,
coming from the throat rather than the mouth.
nary sound of n
^
gift.
nun-i so/* or pure n has the ordi-
but when followed by a b or
;
p
it is
At pronounced as m, thus UJ lamba, U-^> saumpna. the end of a native Hindi word it frequently has the 1
nasal sound of the French n as in bon. the
ha-e mukhtafi, the obscure or imperceptible ^eilsr* ,-U It.
The forms
g
and ^ are medial
varieties of the k,
which are used indiscriminately by natives lowing distinction made by Dr. Gilchrist in printed books,
acceptance.
and
is
is
;
but the
generally used
so useful as to merit universal
In Nagarl every consonant that
is
capable
of being aspirated has a distinct aspirated form
k and
M
fol-
are represented by distinct letters.
;
thus
These
1 So in English we write and say consign but combine, intact but impact, the con and in having been converted into com and im.
ALPHABET.
7
aspirated letters are represented in the Persian character " " to the butterfly form by the addition of the g or
simple consonant called the
thus
;
^
J^
is
>
ph and
g
This
is th.
is
ha-e murakkab or compounded h.
This h must be pronounced as a distinct aspirate, and should not be allowed to merge into a modified sound thus
should be pronounced as in up-hill, though
ph
often heard pronounced as in phase
th sounds as in
;
the words at home, never as in then.
;
it is
to this
According
by a vowel. When preceded by a vowel sound or by a con-
rule the 4 can never be preceded
the letter h
is
sonant incapable of aspiration (as
Thus *\# is
is
lhal, but
kaha, and munh ha-e
ijA\\s. ,_U
is
kfialis,
j j) which never join
^^
is
written
ri)
the
bahin, \$
^.
the pure h.
is
^
employed. but
is ftha,
This h
is
l^S
called
After letters (such as
the following letter the initial form
& must
be used, so that dhan and da/tan are alike written
i^b^.
A
final s
words and stani
it is
is
with two dots over
pronounced
t,
it is
but in Persian and Hindu-
frequently converted into c^?
the dots are omitted, and then the letter 8.
Li
of a
t.
is
Sometimes
sounded as
h.
Vowel Points and Diacritical Points.
fatha or^jj zabar written above has the sound
as in servant. *j*
like
found in Arabic
i
kasra or
in pin.
^j
zer written beneath
is
sounded
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
8
J zamma like
This
jazm.
*y>-
that
'stationary,'
is
sounded
placed over a consonant to
what the grammarians
it is 1
that
meaning
it is
call
^U
sd/an,
not followed by a vowel
In other words, jazm (which means amputation)
sound.
away
the vowel sound, and the consonant combines
with the one following
it O
and
is
u in put.
show
cuts
or ^JL?} pesh written above
word
as in the
being always
sd/fin
;
thus
"'
+j>-
^ mard ^
jazm
and
itself.
jj ddmi,
Final consonants
do not require jazm.
"
This word signifies corroboration,
JuJkjJJ tashdld.
and the sign strengthens or corroborates a consonant by doubling it. It is written above the letter. Thus -
hakk.
is
t
madda means
or *Jv
initial alif
gives
it
prolongation, and
a long sound
;
thus,
t_JT db. J--~a
?
\
9
lunar or weak
followed by a solar or strony
is
u
t-l>
sound, and this change y
i,
c_?
J Jj j
Followed by one of these the
.
is
letter.
(j* /
^
of al
noted by marking
the initial strong letter with tashdld,
y
^j
Ruhnu-d Daulah,
Harunu-r Rashld tannin. It
call a
assumes the sound of that strong
withjazm and ^
converted into another
what the Arabs
/ is
solar or strong letters are ijo
^js
of the article al
and when al
letter,
The
I
This
means the addition of
tion' or fl-ing.
This
is
^
is
'
Pillar of the State
(the celebrated khalif ).]
another Arabic contrivance.
n and has been
effected
called 'nuna-
by doubling a vowel s
*
point at the end of
;*
an, # in,
vn.
These mark the cases of the noun in Arabic.
The
a word, thus
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
10 tannin of the
and
stani,
or
'i,
vowel
first
the only one used in Hindu-
written under
\
pronounced; thus, hikmatan.
hamza
!*
\S\AJ\.
This n
is
ittifakan,
represented
gins with a vowel. It
When
UL>^ by
not
is
4-S^
ahyanan,
as c^--: sait.
j as c^?-s
M
writing so as to
I
^ as ^-^ scf ^
,,
the vowel points.
and
by
o
The diphthong The
11
The ^is
used.
___
by a modified form, called the
^-^U^
muhiisl or reverted ye.
The zabar
(')
or short a
pronounced like the a in
is
adore and America; a
is
vowel as in the word
and sometimes as
is
the short
the long sound of ihe
of the word pin
i
machine ; the ee offeet.
last
first is
Pesk
(') is
the
i
; I is
in all.
same
Zer G)
the long sound as in
of ft, the second
is
pronounced as in put; u as
like the in rule,
or as oo in rood ; e has the French sound as in fete, or the English sound of a in fate ; aisle ; o as in note,
and au
like
ai is
sounded as in
ou in house.
10. Initial Vowels.
All words beginning with a vowel
with either
\
must commence
alif or & ain, accompanied
but practically the
hamza
is
by the tiamza, Both these suppressed.
letters are considered consonants,
and in
fact they are
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
12
mere breathings without sound.
movement
tion or
am
of the throat;
These
tion. is
of the breath effected
being consonants, the vowel sound
to
them by the vowel point or long
vowel appended to them, as L^-O so cy). is
and
it,
case and the
\
an
un
n In
11.
x
and
lit,
ciJjj
is lot,
initial c-> in the
one
and the j impart the sound.
un an
in
The
ot.
cj>j!
is
in the other are the letters which give the
motion while the
an
by the muscles
a deeper or more guttural aspira-
is
letters
communicated
Alifis a slight aspira-
an
MSS. and
un
on
on
iin
aun
en
In
aun
In
in lithographed
ain
en
an
works the vowel
points are very sparingly used, the reader being sup-
posed to be acquainted with the proper sounds of the words.
But
in printed books, especially in such as are
intended for the use of students, the necessary points are supplied
jazm
is
reader.
;
zer and pesh are invariably inserted, and
given whenever
its
Zalar, the most
generally omitted, but learner, for as
absence would mislead the
common
this
of the vowels,
is
need not embarrass the
the zer, pesh, and
jazm
are supplied
wherever they are required, the vowel zalar (a) must be added to every consonant unmarked by one of those points.
Thus, (JJX*
is
mulk, and
clL
is
milk, because
ALPHABET.
13
cadi consonant bears either a vowel point or i\\ejazm
but
ilL
vnm
is
and
maJ'ik,
in malik
dL
;
malak, because the
is
and both the mim and the lam
in
malak
being without points have the zabar understood.
12.
The
Of
letters rcao
the Letters ^
and ^j.
and ye are used both as vowels and
They have vowel sounds when they are by a consonant, but they are consonants when
consonants. followed
they are followed by a vowel j^-s
is
sarvad;
^
;
is
thus, 4j~>
is sair, is but^-..?
siyar.
sud, hut
As
initial
they are consonants, and so at the beginning of words they invariably have the consonantal sounds.
letters
13.
Technical Grammatical Terms.
Several Oriental grammatical terms have incidentally
appeared in the foregoing pages, but there are some others relating to the alphabet which
it
will be well to
notice before passing to another subject. 14. called
Alif
is
When i
the letter alif bears the
j.j^
c_jjH
alif4 mamduda,
it is
found at the end of some Arabic words written
in the letter ye, thus
&jf4A*
mark madd
the prolonged alif.
u_c3\
alrf-i
J^
or J>.
This
is
called the
ma/esura, the abbreviated alif ;
it is
sometimes a sometimes pronounced a as in jJU3 taald, Ai ala. In Roman letters it is written a or a. as in
14
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR. some Persian words the
15. In
after the letter
kh
nunciation; such a
wdo is
1
passed over redo!
Miud and kkusk
;
t
letter
^ ndo,
coming
slurred or passed over in pro-
is
called
Jjjuc*
^ ndo-i madala,
Thus &y>. and are pronounced \J*y>~ ~ Ithmesh are
pronounced with a slurred and very indistinct sound of
Such a ndo is represented
the tvdo.
in
Roman
characters
by u or w. 16.
The word sdkin has been explained
a consonant which
by
stationary/ not being followed
is
Consonants which are followed by a vowel
a vowel.
are said to be
means of
as applied to
'
cl^sa^ mutaharrik, moving or movable by
that vowel.
Thus
in the
word
*Jcj banda, the
and the d are mutaharrik ; they mom by means of the vowel, but n is sdkin or stationary, not being followed b
by any vowel. 17.
Maruf t_J.yc* and majhul
ndo and
^_$
ye.
unknown
u and
the sounds o and e are
I,
in that language; so
sometimes called
The
distinguish
haw-wax or
letter it
u and
are said to be
I
The majhul sounds
and e are majhul.
maruf, but
to the letters
In Arabic the simple vowel sounds of
these two letters are
18.
known and un-
These Arabic terms are applied
known. ^
J_jfs",
j>i^ ^joml
or Persian.
_ $
,Ja>.
is
called
from A which
is
#a-0 $MiV, to
^U
called the '
iiT-v*
,-U
/*
'
'
a certain -'
9
\&
'/
'
muli kutta,
s
kuchh
used as a partitive article some ;' as c5/^ -fp
1
'
some sugar/ 25.
Under .
?
'
is
kuchh misrl,
1
The pronoun ^s?
that or the dog.'
the term
The Noun
^\.
Ism or Noun the grammarians include:
The Noun or Substantive
^^y
2.
The Adjective
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