A Test of Holland's Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments PDF [PDF]

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©test of holland's theory of vocational personalities and work environments Kristine D. Toomey Edward M. Levinson Eric J. Paimer This study investigated the validity of J. L. Holiand's (1997) theory of vocational personalities and work environments. The sample consisted of 241 randomly selected members of the National Association of School Psychologists, each of whom completed a demographic data form, the Self-Directed Search-Revised (SDS-R; J. L. Holland, 1994) and a modified short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (D. J. Weiss, R. V. Dawis, G. W. England, & L H. Lofquist, 1967). Only limited support was found for major constructs associated with Holland's theory, although the study found several significant relationships between 3-letter SDS-R codes and desired role function as would be predicted by Holland's theory.



Holland's (1997) theory of vocational personalities and work environments is one ofthe most well-respected and widely used theories of career development. It is frequently the basis for the use and interpretation of assessment instruments used by employment counselors, career counselors, and other professionals. Holland believed that there are six major personality types and that people and occupations can be categorized according to combinations of these types. Congruence, or the degree of similarity between an individual's personality and any given work environment, can be determined and can be used to predict job satisfaction, job performance, and job stability. Differentiation, or the variability among scores representing each of the personality types, can also be assessed and influences the prediction of these vocational outcomes. However, there is empirical ambiguity regarding some of the theory's basic constructs. In a large-scale meta-analysis, Spokane (1985) reviewed 40 correlation and 23 change studies on congruence. The overall finding was that congruence was significantly and positively correlated with academic performance and persistence, stability of choice, perceived congruence, personality (ego-strength), and job satisfaction. In spite of the relationships, the correlations rarely exceeded .25 to .35. In response, Assouline and Meir (1987) conducted an analysis of 41 congruence studies. Results yielded negligible residual variance for studies measuring congruence stability and congruence achievement, with correlations of .15 and .06, respectively. In contrast, there was a great deal of variability in congruence—satisfaction • • • • Kristine D. Toomey, Baltimore County Public Schools, Towson, Maryland; Edward M. Levinson, Department of Educationai and School Psychology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Eric J. Palmer, Western Beaver County School District, Industry, Pennsylvania. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edward M. Levinson, Department of Educationai and Schooi Psychology, Indiana University of Pennsyivania, 246 Stouffer Haii, Indiana, PA 15705 (e-maii: [email protected]). © 2009 by the American Counseling Association. Atl rights reserved. 82



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study results, with the overall correlation falling at .21. When congruence between an individual's personality code and the modal code for people in his or her work environment was compared to satisfaction, the mean correlation was .29. The 16 studies that compared a person's personality type and overall occupational satisfaction yielded a correlation of .21, whereas those comparing interests to within-occupation specialty yielded a correlation of .42. Spokane, Meir, and Catalano (2000) reviewed the congruence literature from 1985 to 1999. They concluded that research on congruence needs to be further refined and research methods need to be improved. However, Tinsley (2000), in his review of the congruence literature, was more direct and concluded that Holland's (1997) model lacks validity when it comes to person—environment fit and needs to be revised. Many researchers have studied the congruence-satisfaction relationship by investigating the relationship between the individual and his or her work environment using outcome measures such as job satisfaction. Early studies found support for the validity of Holland's (1997) model in a single occupation (Doty & Betz, 1979; Spokane & Walsh, 1978). Holland (1997) summarized the literature on predictive validity by stating that the predictions of occupation from interest inventories have been "statistically significant and usually moderately efficient" (p. 103). However, some recent studies have suggested otherwise. For instance, a study by Lent and Lopez (1996) found mixed results for the congruence-satisfaction relationship. Overall findings demonstrated that low congruence was associated with more satisfaction, which is opposite of what would be predicted by Holland's theory. Young, Tokar, and Subich (1998) also reported mixed results when they demonstrated that satisfaction is related to congruence only for certain personality types and in certain occupations. They found that the relationship was strongest for investigative types, but not significant for social types. They also found that people in artistic occupations had the highest congruence—satisfaction relationship whereas those in realistic settings had the lowest. Finally, Meir and Tzadok (2000) found that congruence was related to satisfaction when comparing each worker's Holland code with every other worker's code, but did not find a relationship when congruence was calculated by the traditional method (comparing an individual's code to an environmental code). Miller, Bass, Wallace, and Cowger (2004) recently provided evidence contrary to Holland's (1997) model. They found no correlation between congruence and job satisfaction. Within-occupation congruence studies seem to have yielded higher congruence correlations than those at the more general career level. These studies differed somewhat from the traditional congruence studies in that a person's scores on an instrument designed to measure interests in specialty areas within an occupation were compared with the person's actual specialty choice (Meir & Yaari, 1988). Exploring within-occupational interests is especially important given the diversity in many occupations and the myriad specialty choices a person has to make throughout his or her career (Meir, 1988). In a study within the engineering profession, it was determined that the higher the individual's preference for the job function that characterized his or her current job.



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the higher the level of job satisfaction (Meir & Erez, 1981). Correlations between .44 and .62 were found between specialty congruence and satisfaction. Similarly, Meir and Yaari (1988) found that the mean correlation between specialty congruence and satisfaction was .41, which exceeds the .30 noted by Spokane (1985). Attempts have been made to investigate the congruence-satisfaction association over a longer period of time using longitudinal research. A study by Gottfredson and Holland (1990) found a correlation of .36 between Vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, 1985) congruence and satisfaction of bank tellers over a 4-month period. A positive relationship between congruence and satisfaction was also reported in a similar study with bank tellers in Israel (Meir & Navon, 1992). A study of Dutch employees also yielded a correlation between congruence and satisfaction and found that over time, worker profiles tended to fall more in line with their occupation (Feij, van der Velde, Taris, & Taris, 1999). Several studies have tested Holland's assumption that individuals will search for more congruent occupations when changing careers. In one study (Oleski & Subich, 1996), the data suggested that for career changers moving toward a more congruent occupation, job satisfaction was correlated with congruence at .32 to .33, depending on the congruence index used. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN CONGRUENCE STUDIES In a review of the literature, Arnold (2004) proposed 14 reasons that congruence studies have yielded either mixed or weak correlations with satisfaction. He categorized these 14 reasons into three categories: changes that may be needed to Holland's (1997) theory, research methodological problems, and changes in the world and the way in which individuals approach work. One reason cited by numerous researchers regarding differing results in congruence studies is the use of discrepant measurement techniques (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). Use of different congruence measures may also yield different results. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN DIFFERENTIATION STUDIES Like congruence, research on differentiation has produced mixed results. A welldefined interest profile has been found to be related to vocational stability (Longthorp & Pattison, as cited in Holland, 1997). In a study with teachers, differentiation was correlated with job satisfaction at .19 and was the next best predictor after congruence (Wiggins, Lederer, Salkowe, & Rys, 1983). In a study by Gottfredson and Holland (1990), the construct was not supported. Holland (1997) summarized the research by saying that although differentiation is a weak concept, "successful investigations have typically included diverse and large samples, an appropriate design, and standard outcome measures" (p. 148). Given the ambiguity associated with research on Holland's (1997) theory, particularly the constructs of congruence and differentiation, the study reported in this article was designed to test aspects of Holland's theory with a heretofore unstudied



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occupation and one similar to employment counseling, that is, school psychology. The data presented here were collected as part of a broader study by Toomey (2001), and partial results from that study have been presented elsewhere (Toomey, Levinson, & Morrison, 2008). Specifically, research questions to be answered by the data presented in this article are as follows: • What is the relationship between congruence and overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction? • What is the relationship between congruence and intent to remain in the field? • Are there any significant relationships between scores on the Self-Directed Search-Revised (SDS-R) and desired role function? • What is the relationship between differentiation of the SDS-R profile and job satisfaction? METHOD Participants A systematic random sample of 450 full-time, school-based psychologists was selected from the membership directory of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). instruments Data form. This form was used to obtain demographic information and respondent characteristics to assist with identifying correlates of job satisfaction. Additionally, it elicited participants' responses regarding the actual time they spent in various roles and the time they desired to spend in various roles (assessment, counseling, consultation, administrative tasks, clerical tasks, research). SDS-R {Holland, 1994). This is a self-administered and self-scored measure that is based on Holland's (1997) theory and is used primarily for career counseling. As we have reported elsewhere (Toomey et al., 2008), internal consistency reliability of the SDS-R has been reported to be in the .80s and .90s, for the Activities, Competencies, and Occupations scales. According to information presented in the manual (Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1994), the SDS-R yielded correlation coefficients of .90 to .94 for summary scales and .37 to .84 between the two self-estimates. The test-retest reliability ranged from .76 to .89 for the summary scales. In tests of concurrent validity, the overall hit rate between high point code and aspiration/ occupation was 54.7%. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The MSQ is a widely used measure of job satisfaction that is based on the theory of work adjustment postulated by Dawis and associates. The theory of work adjustment is well-established and well-respected, the result of considerable research that has been conducted on it (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Tinsley, 1993).



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Several versions of the MSQ are available, including a long form, a modified long form, a short form, and a modified short form. The long form of this instrument contains 100 items that yield intrinsic, extrinsic, and general scales, with internal consistency coefficients of .86, .80, and .90, respectively (Dawis, 1992). Zytowski (1994), in a review of the MSQ, reported that internal consistency for the 21 scales ranged from .59 to .97 among 27 different norm groups. However, 83% of these coefficients were above .80. Test-retest was reported as .83 after 1 week, and .61 after 1 year, for the 20 facet scales. There is also a short form of the MSQ, which is self-administered. The short form comprises one item from each of the 20 subscales of the long version that correlated highest within the original sample. A study by Hirschfeld (2000) demonstrated that the original MSQ short form did not differ significantly from a revised version and reported excellent alpha coefficients for both versions. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-Modified Version (mMSQ; Weiss et ai, 1967). The original MSQ was first modified by Anderson, Hohenshil, and Brown (1984) to increase face validity of job satisfaction ratings for school psychologists. Since that time, the mMSQ has been used extensively in a number of similar studies with school psychologists (M. B. Brown, 1992; Levinson, 1989; Moore, 1999; Rhodes, 1993; Solly & Hohenshil, 1986; South, 1990; VanVoorhis & Levinson, 2006). The mMSQ has been shown to have excellent psychometric properties and concurrent validity (Anderson et al., 1984; Levinson, 1990, 1991). Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-Modified Short Form (mMSQ-Short; Weiss et ai, 1967). In the current study, we made modifications in the mMSQ-Short, similar to those of Anderson et al. (1984) for the mMSQ, for purposes of generalization to the school psychologist's work environment by changing "boss" to "supervisor" and "company" to "school system." Additionally, thefive-itemresponse format was changed to a four-level, Likert-type scale in accordance with previous studies. Each of the 20 items on the mMSQ-Short represents a job reinforcer and corresponds to a scale on the MSQ long form (Dawis, 1992). Cronbach's alpha was utilized to estimate the internal consistency of the two scales of the mMSQ-Short. When analyzed at an item level, the reliability for the Intrinsic scale was .81, whereas the reliability for the Extrinsic scale was .71. The coefficient alpha for the Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Overall scales of the mMSQ-Short was .86. The overall job satisfaction score on the mMSQ-Short was correlated with a one-item job satisfaction item on the data form to determine concurrent validity. The Pearson correlation coefficient was .72 (p< .001), which indicated that the relationship between the mMSQ-Short and the data form is statistically significant. Previous studies have also yielded statistically significant correlations with this procedure (Anderson et al., 1984; Levinson, 1989,1990, 1991; Levinson, Fetchkan, & Hohenshil, 1988; Solly & Hohenshil, 1986). Procedure The survey materials were distributed and returned by mail. The data collection process consisted of four steps: initial survey distribution, a postcard reminder, and two follow-up mailings.



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RESULTS Response Rate Although the 450 school psychologists to whom packets were sent was a systematic, random sample at the time data were collected, only 70.2% (316) of the sample returned questionnaires. Furthermore, 19 of the respondents indicated that they did not wish to participate. Fifty-six other surveys could not be used because the respondents were not working full-time or were not working in the capacity of a school psychologist. Therefore, the data from 241 respondents were included in the analyses. As a consequence, the final sample was not wholly representative of NASP membership at the time of data collection. Demographics At the time data were collected, a total of 72.3% of NASP members were women, but a total of 78.6% of the respondents were women. Therefore, the sample slightly overrepresented women and slightly underrepresented men. The mean age of the sample was 42 years, with a range from 26 to 67.1 years. The sample represented the following NASP geographic regions: North Central (18.3%), Northeastern (25.3%), Southeastern (23.6%), West Central (15.8%), and West (17%). These percentages were similar to the regional representation reported in the NASP population at the time the study was conducted. Although 25.5% of NASP members held a doctoral degree at the time data were collected, a total of 15.6% ofthe sample reported that they held such a degree. Thus, doctoral-level practitioners were slightly underrepresented in the study. Whereas 53.9% of NASP members held either a master's plus 30 hours or a specialist degree at the time data were collected, 74.3% of respondents reported that they had earned a 60-hour master's or specialist degree. Hence, the sample slightly overrepresents master's plus 30 hours and specialist-level practitioners. A total of 10.1% of respondents indicated that they had earned a master's degree. The mean number of years as a school psychologist for the sample was 8.9, with a standard deviation of 6.4. Although 46.3% of the NASP population had less than 10 years' experience at the time data were collected, almost 73% of respondents had served less than 10 years. Hence, the sample slightly overrepresents school psychologists with less than 10 years of experience. Congruence-Satisfaction Relationships Two indices were used to calculate the congruence between individuals and their work environment. The congruence scores were then correlated with three mMSQShort measures of job satisfaction: Overall, Intrinsic, and Extrinsic scales. In order to calculate the congruence between each individual's code and the ascertained modal code of the school psychologist, the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b) and



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the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) were used. The lachan Index considers all three code letters as well as their relative importance in each pair of codes, with some pairings receiving weights. The weights range from 1 to 22, with higher scores representing increasing levels of congruence. Although this index assumes the RIASEC (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) order, it does not incorporate the circumplex assumption of Holland's (1997) theory. The Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) is based on the premise that three dimensions need to be met. First, the measures need to have symmetrical underlying distributions so that cases at the upper and lower ends ofthe distribution can be discriminated. Second, they should be able to discriminate among individuals with like but out of order codes. Third, they should be consistent with Holland's (1997) circumplex model. Scores for Overall, Intrinsic, and Extrinsic scales measuring job satisfaction were obtained from each individual's responses on the mMSQ-Short. A correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between personality-occupation congruence and job satisfaction with each of the congruence measures. We used t tests to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between results with the lachan and Brown and Gore C indices. What is the relationship between congruence and overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction when using the lachan Index? Because SEI and SIE were equally acceptable three-letter codes based on the data, calculations were completed with each as the modal code. Congruence was calculated with the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b) for SEI and SIE. The lachan method for treating ties in scores was used. For instance, if the code SIA/SIE was compared with the modal code of SEI, congruence was calculated for SEI and SIA, as well as for SEI and SIE. The average of the two was used as the congruence measure. No significant correlations were found between overall job satisfaction on the mMSQ and congruence with the lachan Index. Correlations were similar when SEI (r = .11, p = .09) and SIE (r = .12, jo = .06) were used as the modal code. These were much lower than the levels previously found in meta-analyses on congruence (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). When intrinsic job satisfaction was compared with congruence, no significant correlations were found. Although there was a statistically significant relationship with extrinsic job satisfaction, it was not meaningful, because the correlations were not above .16 with any pair. What is the relationship between congruence and overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction when using the Brown and Gore C Index? Calculations were completed with both SEI and SIE as the modal code. The Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) was also calculated for each protocol. Although the authors did not stipulate how to deal with ties, the same averaging procedure was applied to allow for comparison between the two indices. No significant correlations were found between overall job satisfaction on the mMSQ and congruence when using the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994). When SEI was used as the modal code, the correlation was .12 (p - .067). When SIE was used, the correlation was .03 (p = .635). There were no significant correlations when either intrinsic or extrinsic job satisfaction was used as an outcome measure.



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What is the relationship between congruence and intent to remain in the field? There were no significant correlations between intention to remain in the current position and congruence when measured with the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b). There was a statistically significant negative correlation (r = -.22, p < .01) between the SIE code calculated with the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) and intention to remain in the field of school psychology. Are there any significant relationships between SDS-R seores and desired role function variables? To further investigate the construct of congruence, an analysis was conducted using SDS-R scores and desired role functions. The relationship between congruence and job satisfaction was not significant; there were, however, some noteworthy relationships among the SDS-R scores and role function variables. There was a statistically significant positive correlation between a participant's total Social score and desired time in counseling (r = .26, p < .001), as well as a negative correlation with desired time in assessment (r = -.20, p < .01). The total Enterprising score was also negatively correlated with desired time in assessment (r — —.27, p < .001) and positively correlated with desired time in administrative activities (r = .22, p < .01). Desired time in research was positively correlated with the Investigative (r = .23, p < .01) and Artistic scales (r = .20, p < .01), whereas the Conventional scale was positively correlated with desired time in clerical activities (r = .24, p < .001). What is the relationship between differentiation ofthe SDS-R profile and job satisfaction? To answer this question, the lachan (1984a, 1984b) Differentiation Index was used to determine the level of differentiation of each SDS-R profile. Then, a correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between differentiation and overall job satisfaction. Differentiation was calculated for each protocol using Iachan's (1984a, 1984b) Differentiation Index and compared with the job satisfaction variables. The correlation between differentiation and overeJl job satisfaction was statistically significant but not meaningful (r = .13, p < .05). The correlation between intrinsic satisfaction and differentiation was not statistically significant. However, the correlation between differentiation and extrinsic job satisfaction was significant but not meaningful (r = .19, p < .01). DISCUSSION Congruence and Job Satisfaction No significant correlations were found between overall job satisfaction on the mMSQShort and congruence with either the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b) or Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994). With the highest correlations falling in the .11 to .12 range, they were far below the levels previously found in metaanalyses on congruence (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). This finding is consistent with other studies that have failed to find a congruence-satisfaction relationship (Lent & Lopez, 1996; Leong, Austin, Sekaran, & Komarraju, 1998; Miller et al., 2004). This is especially interesting given that prior studies indicated a strong congruence-satisfaction relationship for primarily Social types (Assouline & Meir,



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1987) like the group of professionals included in our study. Instead, our results are similar to findings of a study by Young et al. (1998) wherein no significant relationship was found between congruence and job satisfaction for Social types. In addition, when intrinsic job satisfaction was compared with congruence, no significant correlations were found. Although there was a statistically significant relationship with extrinsic job satisfaction, it was not meaningful. It appears that the personality of school psychologists is rather diverse and job satisfaction at the occupational level is not related to personality code. In fact, the various correlations between desired role functioning and personality type suggests that job satisfaction may be more influenced by the specific role an individual school psychologist has than by the congruence between his or her personality and the modal code for the profession. A possibility suggested by numerous researchers regarding the reason for dif-. fering results among studies is the use of discrepant measurement techniques for calculating congruence (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). Spokane argued that by using different procedures for measuring congruence, the number of participants who could be labeled as such varied from 30% to 70%. However, the criticism of discrepant measurements does not apply to our study because two different congruence indices were used, and still no significant and meaningful relationship was found. When considering the two congruence measures for the modal codes SEI and SIE, there was a significant correlation for each pair. The lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b) and Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) yielded correlations of .67 for SEI and .63 for SIE, which is fairly consistent with what has been reported in the literature. Previous comparisons between the two measures in the literature yielded correlations of .48 (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) and .75 (Young et al., 1998). There was also a statistically significant difference between the pairs, depending on the index used. intention to Remain in the Fieid There were no significant correlations between intention to .remain in the current position and congruence as would be predicted by Holland's (1997) theory. There was, in fact, a statistically significant negative correlation between the SIE congruence code calculated with the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) and intention to remain in the field of school psychology. This finding is opposite what would have been expected based on Holland's theory. Differentiation of the SDS-R and Job Satisfaction The correlation between differentiation and overall job satisfaction was statistically significant; however, it was not meaningful. The correlation between intrinsic job satisfaction and differentiation was not statistically significant. However, the correlation between differentiation and extrinsic job satisfaction was significant and does offer some support for Holland's (1997) theory as applied to the occupation of school psychology. It appears that school psychologists with more clearly defined'



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SDS-R profiles are more satisfied with the external reinforeers of the job. The reason for this is unclear, however, and warrants further investigation. Consistent with our study, there are numerous others in which a relationship between differentiation and overall job satisfaction was not supported (Gottfredson & Holland, 1990; Nafziger, Holland, & Gottfredson, 1975). Holland (1997) himself described differentiation as a weak concept. Limitations of the Study One factor that may have influenced our results was the choice of instrumentation. A potential limitation of congruence studies is the choice of outcome measure (Arnold, 2004; Spokane et al., 2000). The mMSQ-Short, rather than the longer version of the measure was used because of the number of protocols included in the survey packet. Therefore, there was a smaller sampling of items than would have been the case had the long form of the MSQ been used. A variety of respondents also expressed dissatisfaction with several of the items on the mMSQ-Short, which may have influenced responses. Relatedly, a different measure of job satisfaction, or another outcome measure such as performance, might have produced different results. Recommendations for Future Research In light of our findings, the following questions might form the basis for future research in this area. 1. Would congruence be found at the role function or micro-level of the occupation if an interest inventory had been devised specifically for school psychologists, as has been done for other professions (Hener & Meir, 1981; Meir & Engel, 1986; Meir & Erez, 1981)? 2. Would the congruence hypothesis be supported if another personality or job satisfaction measure had been used? Future researchers should attempt to answer such questions and should also attempt to replicate our findings with similar occupations like employment counseling. Would similar results have been obtained if employment counselors instead of school psychologists had been used in the current study? Caution should be exercised in generalizing our findings until such studies are conducted. These questions, and limitations of our study notwithstanding, only limited support for the validity of Holland's (1997) theory with a heretofore unstudied occupation—school psychology—was provided in this study. Given these results, employment counselors and others who use assessment instruments based on Holland's theory, and use the constructs of congruence and differentiation when interpreting and using assessment data, should do so with caution. REFERENCES Anderson, W. T., Hohenshil, T. H., & Brown, D. T. (1984). Job satisfaction among sehool psychologists: A national study. School Psychology Review, 13, 225—230.



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Arnold, J. (2004). The congruence problem in John Holland's theory of vocational decisions. Joumal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 95-113. Assouline, M., & Meir, E. 1. (1987). Meta-analysis ofthe relationship between congruence and well-being measures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 319-332. Brown, M. B. (1992). School psychologists' job satisfaction: Ten years later. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, 03A. (UMI No. AAG9311570) Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1994). An evaluation of interest congruence indices: Distribution characteristics and measurement properties. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 310-327. Dawis, R. V. (1992). Person-environment fit and job satisfaction. In C. J. Cranny, P. C. Smith, & E. F. Stone (Eds.), Job satisfaction: How people feel about their jobs and how it affects their performance (pp. 69-88). New York: Macmillan. Dawis, R. V., & Lofquist, L. (1984). A psychological theory of work adjustment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Doty, M. S., & Betz, N. E. (1979). Comparison of the concurrent validity of Holland's theory for men and women in an enterprising occupation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 15, 207-216. Feij, J. A., van der Velde, M. E. G., Taris, R., & Taris, T. W. (1999). The development of person-vocation fit: A longitudinal study among young employees. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 7, 12-25. Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1990). A longitudinal test of the influence of congruence: Job satisfaction, competency utilization, and counterproductive behavior. Joumal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 389-398. Hener, T., & Meir, E. I. (1981). Congruency, consistency, and differentiation as predictors of job satisfaction within the nursing occupation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 18, 304-309. Hirschfeld, R. R. (2000). Does revising the Intrinsic and Extrinsic subscales of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Short Form make a difference? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 255-270. Holland, J. L. (1985). Manual for the Vocational Preference Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Holland, J. L. (1994). The Self-Directed Search. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Holland, J. L., Powell, A. B., & Fritzsche, B. A. (1994). The Self-Directed Search: Professional user's guide. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. lachan, R. (1984a). A family of differentiation indices. Psychometrika, 49, 217-222. lachan, R. (1984b). A measure of agreement for use with the Holland classification system. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 24, 133-141. Lent, E. B., & Lopez, F. G. (1996). Congruence from many angles: Relations of multiple congruence indices to job satisfaction among adult workers. Joumal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 24—37. Leong, F. T. L., Austin, J. T., Sekaran, U., & Komarraju, M. (1998). An evaluation of the cross-cultural validity of Holland's theory: Career choices by workers in India. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 52, 441^55. Levinson, E. M. (1989). Job satisfaction among school psychologists: A replication study. Psychological Reports, 65, 579-584. Levinson, E. M. (1990). Actual/desired role functioning, perceived control over role functioning, and job satisfaction among school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 27, 64—74. Levinson, E. M. (1991). Predictors of school psychologist satisfaction with school system policies/practices and advancement opportunities. Psychology in the Schools, 28, 256-266. Levinson, E. M., Fetchkan, R., & Hohenshil, T. H. (1988). Job satisfaction among practicing school psychologists revisited. School Psychology Review, 17, 101-112. Meir, E. I. (1988). The need for congruence between within-occupation interests and specialty in midcareer. The Career Development Quarterly, 37, 63-69. Meir, E. I., & Engel, K. (1986). Interests and specialty choice in medicine. Social Science Medicine, 23, 527-530.



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