How To Make Perfume by Charles Jean [PDF]

Citation preview

Creating & Duplicating Fragrances Of Your Own



Table of Contents I. Basics of Creating a Perfume........................................................ 6 Introduction......................................................................................................................6 Working within a Framework ........................................................................................7 Pricing ..............................................................................................................................7 Packaging........................................................................................................................7 Finding Ideas for Scents ...............................................................................................8 Inspiration ........................................................................................................................8 The Practical Foundation ..............................................................................................9 Inspiration: Response to Stimuli ..................................................................................9 Trial And Error...............................................................................................................10 Colors .............................................................................................................................10 Jeancard on Composition ...........................................................................................11 Limitations of Formulae ...............................................................................................12 The Perfumer’s Knowledge of Chemistry.................................................................12 Creativity in the Art of Perfumery...............................................................................14 Charles’ Method ...........................................................................................................14 Merit of Carles’ System ...............................................................................................16 Tone ...............................................................................................................................18 Volatility..........................................................................................................................18 Intensity..........................................................................................................................19 Volume ...........................................................................................................................20 Atmosphere ...................................................................................................................21 Tenacity .........................................................................................................................22 Fixation...........................................................................................................................23 Systematic Recording of Data....................................................................................23



II. How to Make Your Own Perfume ............................................... 25 The Steam Distillation..................................................................................................25 Heat Maceration ...........................................................................................................25 Enfleurage À Froid (Cold Maceration) ......................................................................25 What to Use and How..................................................................................................26 1. Basic Perfume Recipe ............................................................................................26 2. Recipe for Orient Nights Perfume .........................................................................26 3. Recipe for Whispering Rain Perfume ...................................................................27 4. Recipe for Falling Stars Perfume ..........................................................................27 5. Recipe for Enchanted Perfume .............................................................................27 6. Recipe for Amaze Perfume ....................................................................................28 7. Recipe for Misty Passions Perfume......................................................................28 Cologne Recipes ..........................................................................................................28 1. Homemade Love Tonic (Cologne) .....................................................................28 2. Peace Cologne Recipe .......................................................................................29 3. Contented Cologne Recipe ................................................................................29 4. Lemon Spirit Cologne Recipe ............................................................................29



III. Aromatherapy ............................................................................. 30 2



1. What Is Aromatherapy and How to Use It .......................................................30 2. Scents, Fragrances and Mood ..........................................................................30 3. Not Only Mood But Memory Also......................................................................32 4. Invent Your Own Scent, Fragrance or Even the Pheromones .....................33



IV. Flower Perfumes and Their Formulation ................................. 37 Introduction....................................................................................................................37 Rose ...............................................................................................................................37 Jasmine..........................................................................................................................41 Orange Flower and Neroli...........................................................................................45 Violet...............................................................................................................................46 Acacia.............................................................................................................................48 Broom.............................................................................................................................49 Carnation .......................................................................................................................49 Types of Carnation.......................................................................................................49 Oeillet de nice ...............................................................................................................49 Garden pink...................................................................................................................49 Sea pink .........................................................................................................................50 Cyclamen.......................................................................................................................51 Fougere (Fern)..............................................................................................................51



V. Raw Materials of Perfumes (Natural Origin) ............................. 53 Introduction....................................................................................................................53 Natural Odorants Employed In Perfumery ...............................................................53 Concrete Oils ................................................................................................................54 Absolute Oils .................................................................................................................54 Essential Oils derived from Distillation......................................................................56 Essential Oils Obtained by Expression.....................................................................57 Isolates from Essential Oils ........................................................................................57 Natural Odorants as Tinctures ...................................................................................58 Balsams and Resins ....................................................................................................58 Concrete Oils or ‘Concretes’ ......................................................................................59 Absolute Oils .................................................................................................................59 A. Floral Series .............................................................................................................59 1. Rose Notes ...........................................................................................................59 2. Jasmine Notes......................................................................................................60 3. Hyacinth Notes .....................................................................................................61 4. Lilac and Lily .........................................................................................................62 5. Orange-Blossom Notes ......................................................................................62 6. Tuberose Notes....................................................................................................62 7. Violet Notes ..........................................................................................................63 8. Mignonette Notes.................................................................................................65 B. Woody Series...........................................................................................................65 1. Sandal Notes ........................................................................................................65 2. Peppery Notes......................................................................................................65 3. Caryophyllaceous Notes.....................................................................................65 C. Rural Series .............................................................................................................66 1. Herbaceous Notes ...............................................................................................66 3



2. Green Notes .........................................................................................................66 D. Balsamic Series.......................................................................................................67 1. Resinous Notes....................................................................................................67 2. Vanilla Notes ........................................................................................................68 E. Fruity Series .............................................................................................................68 F. Animal Series ...........................................................................................................68 1. Amber Notes.........................................................................................................68 2. Maritime Notes .....................................................................................................69 3. Musk Notes ...........................................................................................................69 G. Empyreumatic Series .............................................................................................69 1. Tobacco Notes .....................................................................................................70



VI. Raw Materials of Perfumes (Synthetic Origin) ........................ 71 Introduction....................................................................................................................71 A. Green Notes .............................................................................................................75 1. Group A (l) ............................................................................................................75 2. Group A (2) ...........................................................................................................76 B. Fruity Notes ..............................................................................................................77 C. Melon Notes .............................................................................................................80 D. Woody Notes ...........................................................................................................80 E. Empyreumatic Notes ..............................................................................................81 F. Animal Notes ............................................................................................................82



VII. Classification of Odors and Odorants .................................. 104 Introduction..................................................................................................................104 Classification Based On Physical Characteristics ................................................109 Group 1: Floral Series ...........................................................................................110 Group 2: Woody Series.........................................................................................110 Group 3: Rustic Series ..........................................................................................110 Group 4: Balsamic Series .....................................................................................110 Group 5: Fruity Series ...........................................................................................110 Group 6: Animal Series .........................................................................................110 Group 7: Empyreumatic Series............................................................................110 Group 8: Repulsive Series....................................................................................110 Group 9: Edible Series ..........................................................................................110



VIII. Packaging of Perfumes ......................................................... 112 Introduction..................................................................................................................112 Packaging in the Past................................................................................................112 The Impact of Aerosols .............................................................................................113 Perfume Identity .........................................................................................................113 The Name....................................................................................................................114 The Bottle ....................................................................................................................114 Labels...........................................................................................................................115 Cartons and Coffrets..................................................................................................115 External Wrapping......................................................................................................116 Perfume and the World of Fashion..........................................................................116 The Question of Color ...............................................................................................116 The Means of Advertising .........................................................................................117 4



Press Publicity ........................................................................................................117 Samples and Models .............................................................................................117



IX. Perfumery Compounds ........................................................... 118 1. Rose Concrete .......................................................................................................118 2. Rose Absolute ........................................................................................................118 3. Process of Manufacture........................................................................................118 4. Water Distillation ....................................................................................................119 5. Water and Steam Distillation................................................................................119 6. Steam Distillation ...................................................................................................119



X. Environmental and Health Aspects of Scents/Fragrances ... 120 General Introduction ..................................................................................................120 Basic Components of Fragrances ...........................................................................121 Why Fragrance Safety & Labeling is a Consumer Issue .....................................122 The Biggest Problem is Fragrance Industry is Self-Regulated...........................123 Research Findings on Fragrances and the Sense of Smell................................124 Why Specifically Women Should Be Concerned ..................................................127 The Latest Trend Would Be a Fragrance-Free Future.........................................128



XI. Useful Books/Guides/Resources............................................ 131 XIII. References.............................................................................. 135



5



I. Basics of Creating a Perfume



Introduction



The art of making perfume is an ancient art, dating back thousands of years. The word "perfume" comes from the Latin per fume "through smoke". One of the oldest uses of perfumes comes form the burning of incense and aromatic herbs used in religious services, often the aromatic gums, frankincense and myrrh, gathered from trees. The Egyptians were the first to incorporate perfume into their culture followed by the ancient Chinese, Hindus, Israelites, Carthaginians, Arabs, Greeks, and Romans. During that time the original fragrances were produced by using the highest quality natural essential oils from flowers, precious woods, and aromatic essences. The earliest use of perfume bottles is Egyptian and dates to around 1000 BC. The Egyptians invented glass and perfume bottles were one of the first common uses for glass. As the world grew bigger and religion became more wide spread and technology advances became faster occuring, perfumes found their way into modern day culture. For a long time scents were kept by the houses of religion by priests and such. Catholicism, once the religion of almost all of Europe helped increase the acceptance and use of aromatic scents. Improved transportation methods and the printing press allowed the world to experience cultures as never before. The world became more focused on travels and conquests, as expansionism became popular. Great Britain had colonies in India, the Far East, Africa, and the Americas, as did also France and Spain. From ancient hyroglyphics to Socrates to Shakespeare, perfume’s presence is documented in great works of art and literature. In 1190 the first record of perfume sellers was recorded in Paris by the first registered letters of patent granted by Henry VI of England and France. Perfumes continued their ascent into cultures because, since the beginning of time, man has been a vain creature, one that wants to create his own history, his own image. Perfume has remained an important cosmetic, a snake that charms the nose. It is for these reasons and more that it has managed to preserve its allure into the world we are familiar with today. Undoubtedly, our eyes are the mirrors to our souls, they are the biggest tool for communication, they speak a lot; but I think, they merely reflect the world around us. Our nose, however, envelopes life's aromas and sucks them into our bodies, savoring them. It is a selfish creature, taking in all that comes in its path and trapping its chords, like a familiar melody, into our memories. The experienced 6



nose can recall a scent at moment's notice. It can awake images, emotions and romance turning a key to unlock a treasured memory. In an instant it can also provoke fear and agitation. It is mysterious, yet familiar; we can easily identify a smell, but it is hard to define it. The eyes, they can lock on an image and our tongues easily find words to describe its sight. But smells, they elude us, and in that is their intrigue. With this thing in mind, we can say that to produce novel and quality perfume, perfumer requires perseverance, a great nose, in depth of knowledge of different scents and perfumery chemicals, imagination, and a trained mind. Working within a Framework Pricing Perfumery is a very different art from painting and sculpturing, and commercial craft such as creation of hand jewelry. It operates within relatively strict limits of price. The topmost perfumes having very high price ceiling and a very low limit might not succeed the object of pleasing whatever section of public the perfume is designed to reach. Even if perfumer, is working with a reputed organization or has renowned his work, has to consider the necessity of working out price level acceptable to buyer. One must not exaggerate the importance of cost factor because it will put restriction on the performer’s general freedom of action. The most important difference of perfumery as an art is complete absence of amateurism. In case of sculpture and painting a large number of amateurs or dilettantes are found, whereas as an amateur it is very difficult to learn the art, craft and techniques of perfumery. Even if there are few amateurs available, but due to heavy demand they tend to become involved sooner or later as professionals. Packaging In the world of fashion and beauty, packaging is the important activity that contributes to the acceptance of a fine perfume. It involves the designing of bottles, the choice of casket or carton, the label, the color scheme, the general ambiance - and, of course, the name. Everyday we are bombarded by the mixing scents of hundreds of perfumes. Each one has its own identity, its own harmonious composition. Undoubtedly, utmost importance has to be given to the perfume itself—even with the prettiest and most luxurious presentation, the perfume must fulfill all the demands made of it in agreeable odor, originality, tenacity, strength etc., or else it will soon disappear from the market. But identity goes beyond the smell hidden in the bottle; its signature is sealed by the shape of the packaging enclosing it and the name branded lavishly on its side. Obsession, Sunflowers, True Love, Wrappings, 360, Beautiful, Meagnet, Essence, Encounter . . . these are just some of the titles given to the liquid treasures, creating their own images and perceptions, even before the scent hits the nose. They change the original scent, forming it into an ideal or an emotion, whatever the name implies. Some of the bottles are exquisite works of art by 7



themselves. They have curves and facets, complemented by a palette of colors that would make a rainbow seem pale. Finding Ideas for Scents Besides images and ideas, perfumers have said that their creations come from dreams, traveling expeditions, reading, and inhaling the scents all around them. Consider that Vanilla Fields was inspired from the kitchen, while other perfumes hold traces of exotic smells such as rain forests or rare plants that only bloom once a year. Perfumers have found themselves at the four corners of the Earth trying to find an original scent, one that will be the completion to a palate, the final piece to create the finest perfume. As new scents run out, perfumers find themselves in a faster-paced competition to find and create these scents. The number of new releases each year has increased more than 400% over the thirtyyear period since 1973, yet perfume makers such as Givaudan-Roure added only twenty new notes to their 3,500 palate in 1993 (Hwang, 1994). Inspiration Frankly speaking, in almost every thing we have read, the art of perfume is compared to music; with different notes all combining to create harmony. Perfumes are composed of three notes: notes of the head (top notes), notes of the heart (middle notes), and notes of depth (base notes). The top notes are the most volatile and evaporate the fastest, hence the name "notes of the head". Each of the notes creates is its own scent, yet blends with the others to create a smell, an emotion. But the real mastery only comes apparent as one reads the words of the creators of these wonderful pieces. The perfumer, in fact, is inevitably one of a team. Like all star performers, he is apt to have his idiosyncrasies and peculiarities. His inspiration can come from many sources, not the least of which may be conversations with his colleagues or even with rival perfumers. On some occasions, it is true, he may be absorbed entirely in his own thoughts and impressions work out certain basic accords and proceed to devise a perfume—that is truly ‘himself’. But even then he owes much, like any other artist or craftsman, to the thoughts and teachings of those who have preceded him. On other occasions, however, the inspiration will definitely come from outside. This inspiration can never be same to everybody—they can come from almost everything around us. May it be nature, may it be other’s work, or may it be from original sweet scent of your beloved’s body! For example when Edmond Roudnitska, a great perfumer, was asked what inspires him to create a perfume, he said, “It’s very variable. It’s never actually done twice in the same manner. It depends on the idea one has. I work with ideas, an idea for a perfume. A thought comes to mind. I foresee, I visualize a certain form for a perfume. A try to construct it. I try it with the raw materials I lay out form myself. . . I try to modify it, and, step by step, this study goes along, because a study of nature can last several years, and as it does, I might have my hand on some new raw material, and I say to myself, well, now, this might be just the thing I need to complete the 8



form. And that how the experiment progresses, nothing else! The Practical Foundation The first important point to remember is that for creating a new perfumes one should have complete study of natural and synthetic materials, and their characteristic odors should be fixed in olfactory memory. It is essential to have knowledge of the differences that exist between high and low grade products, and the new products appearing on the market. But how to aquire that knowledge is the main question? Similar to other fileds of art and science, it also requires a detailed knowledge and shear hard work. Actually, perfume creation is essentially bilateral: one side is intuitive, aesthetic, imaginative, subjective, while the other is technological, methodical, and to an increasing extent objective and scientific. Neither side can operate successfully in total isolation. So we can safely say that perfume creation is an art and science both—art, as it comes through practice and science as it involves certain rules, regulations and methodologies! The perfumer’s inspiration comes from many quarters: from the laboratory, the perfumery boutique, the garden, the boudoir; from the beach, theatre or fashionable restaurant; and even from books. The talented perfumer, not only qualified by technical expertise but also endowed with an imagination, may well have some especially attractive woman in mind when ideas come to him, or he may merely be excited by life in general. But the perfumer at this stage will not be thinking in poetic or musical or literary images. His ideas will come to him as top notes and accords, as aldehydes, esters, lactones—a touch of this, a background of that, a hint of something else, something subtle and unusual, and beyond that initial phase the need to improvise, to discover, to round off, and perhaps, at last, to achieve a new climax of originality and seduction. Although these are words, but he at that time will be thinking in odors. Inspiration: Response to Stimuli Different perfumers react to different stimuli. Henri Robert of Channel suggested that odor-diary should be maintained by perfumer during their travels. On returning back to the laboratory perfumer with the notes in odor diary, attempt to create in memory the various olfactory impressions that has been received. A perfumer should be most concerned with expressing his personality in his compositions. His perfumes should incorporate an ideal - his ideal - and should therefore be characteristic, so that they cannot be confused with any other compositions. Later on, when he has gained more experience, the perfumer must see to it that each perfume combines strength of odor with diffusive power, without dispensing with the fineness and purity of the odor. He will have to devote his special attention to the volume of odor, which is usually more important in use and is often harder to achieve. This is practically guaranteed if one limits oneself to simple compositions and takes careful observations of the reactions of the 9



various ingredients used. Here we can clearly see the essential association of artistic and technological factors. The former may perhaps range, as in painting, from the representational art typified by the simple flower perfume through impressionistic and expressionistic concepts down to those which are almost purely abstract; while the technological side of the perfumer’s craft will control the actual form and outcome of his efforts. Trial And Error Irrespective of source, the perfumer’s feelings and ideas must eventually result in action, which can be accomplished by traditional trial-and-error methods. One such procedure consists of forming a nucleus of a few essential oils and synthetics, and to proceed by tentative additions of further constituents. As one can add in this context but not subtract, many false starts and fresh beginnings may thus be involved. A perfumer works surrounded by raw materials using a set of precision scales, and by experimental dosages, trial and error he gradually succeeds in creating a good perfume. He is both artist and technician and his nose is of more use than any modern instrument. A "Nose" can remember and recognize up to 3000 different smells. Seated at his perfume organ (a miniature laboratory), the perfumer mixes his formulae and smells them on small dipsticks of paper soaked in perfume. He works at compositions for months, sometimes years, until he finds a definitive accord. His aim is to create a harmony of fragrances as one creates a color harmony or a melody in music. There are approximately one thousand perfumers in the world but less than fifty of them are "Noses", that is, perfumers whose creativity and originality are such that they are able to launch real trends. There are two ways to carry out trial and error method. In first case one may work up a base suitable for incorporation in an already established composition, so that when it is properly adjusted and added all that is necessary to round off the harmonious finished composition is the addition of a few final touches here and there. Another method is to work on a base, self-made or purchased from outside, by adding different products to it, little by little, in accordance with the type of perfume that one is setting out to create. This method of making perfumes can only be practiced satisfactorily, of course, after the perfumer has acquired a long and intimate experience of the effects of mixing odoriferous substances together. When the mixtures or blends are produced perfumer must observe very attentively and acutely all the little olfactory phenomena which takes place. These were the only methods of producing perfumes and it is still used today. Colors Creating a perfume is analogous to painting. A painter knows that if he would like to get certain shade e.g., flame, he just gives touch of yellow to saffron to obtain 10



effect. Similarly the touching effect can be obtained in mixture of odors wherein the part played by induction is enormous. Nevertheless, in the mixture of colors we have the conventional decomposition of light passing through a prism into the primary colors: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red, that is reduced to three: blue, yellow, red, which by being mixed enable all the others to be obtained. This process is not so complete with odors. Then there is the Chevreuil disc which aids the process of mixing colors. We have nothing comparable for mixing odors. Until we have a reasonable theory of olfaction, enabling us to conduct similar work, we shall remain more or less subject to the trial-and-error methods of empiricism. That is the reason why so many research workers have suggested practical methods relating to the technical side of perfume composition and paid little attention to the indispensable artistic inspiration. As their views collectively present many points of interest, we attempt to look at them briefly but critically in the paragraphs that follow. Jeancard on Composition As per the idea of composition proposed by the Jeancard, the perfume will have a prelude and a finale, which will frame the motif and bring it out. We have a distillation at ambient temperature and pressure, where according to their vapor pressure, components will become dissociated and volatilize, undergoing a true fractionation. This evolution, governed by the laws of physics, is a function of the molecular weights and vapor pressures, which express the volatility of the mixture. Highly volatile odorants with an evanescent effect can have their action modified and made more tenacious by being admixed with a less volatile component. This has been clearly demonstrated in the cases of methyl amyl ketone and benzyl acetate in alcoholic solution, with and without benzyl benzoate. We should not overlook the formation of azeotropes, i.e., a mixture of substances which distil as though they in fact formed only one single substance. In theory it is possible, when there are only two or three substances, to calculate the formation of azeotropes, but the picture becomes too complicated when there are a considerable number of substances present. Many years ago, it was noticed that the great perfumes which had a lasting success behaved on evaporation almost always in an identical way. It indicates that there must be, in all of them, a similar azeotropic evaporation that would show up in an evaporation curve. An experiment was conducted. First collect considerable quantities of different well known perfumes having the qualities sought and recognized, originality, atmosphere (character), power tenacity, diffusiveness etc. Extract the perfume concentrate using pentane and separate leaving behind a residue which resembled closely that used at the time of making the perfume. Evaporate the solvent separated at the ambient temperature, 1520°C and relevant curves obtained for temperature against time. It was found that 11



all these curves were almost identical or at least their outlines were very similar. While in nature, i.e. in the essential oils, azeotropes must undoubtedly exist, the complexity of these phenomena becomes quite formidable when one has to deal with mixtures of many different substances, as opposed to mere binary systems. Here the empirically derived experience of the perfumer has to take over in judging a priori the substances to be associated and the relative proportions that will be required to obtain a desired note. Limitations of Formulae For those who have come into possession of a formula and think they are going to have success with it, they should remember that a formula is only of maximum value, if the person using it knows exactly the origin and name of the supplier of each of the raw materials and it is, moreover, olfactorily necessary for every raw material in the formula to be identical with that used in the creation of the perfume. As per Felix Cola: “A perfume is composed like a poem, a symphony. It is a happy inspiration which decides the substances that have to be used and the respective proportions of the constituents which have to be employed.” He also put forward that the proportions are gradually modified to obtain a better balance. Then, an attempt is made to simplify the formula, while still retaining its special character; for if the number of constituents is unduly increased, the perfume will be deprived of personality. It becomes grey and undistinguished - what a painter calls grisaille. In other words, the finest of the natural essential oils seem to consist of several basic organic substances which form the typical note, but this characteristic basic odor is rounded off by the presence of infinitesimal quantities of a large number of organic substances, related or not to the first ones, which combine to give fineness, distinction and sweetness, which characterize the quality of these essential oils. Otto Gerhardt, expert seems indispensable that a perfumer should have above all else an artistic talent, experience, and complete knowledge of the development of the composition. He should of course have a full knowledge of the raw materials (natural and synthetic) and way to use them. In this case, an olfactory memory plays a leading part. The Perfumer’s Knowledge of Chemistry Knowledge of chemistry helps perfumer to understand perfume mainly from synthetic products in better manner. Of course, there is no incompatibility between the fact of having studied chemistry and that of having artistic tastes. Perfumers who have not had scientific training have usually endeavored later on to acquire at least a minimum of chemical knowledge, after realizing that they lacked it and were thus at a disadvantage. This does not mean that any chemist can become a perfumer. Whereas, it is quite possible that many people who have never studied chemistry have been excellent perfumers.



12



For perfumer, it is necessary to remember the composition of the principal types of perfume, so as to have a comprehensive knowledge of possible combinations. At the same time, he should know the majority of the natural and synthetic odorants. He must have an excellent and extensive olfactory memory, which has recorded all the knowledge he mentions and which will enable him to identify and copy each special note, floral or otherwise, just as occasion demands. A perfume creation today consists of a unity in which three different notes succeed each other in consistency and fragrance: • • •



Top note Middle (heart) note And base note.



The top note is formed of volatile short-lived components that last under two hours. The middle note is most often composed of flower extracts and lasts for around four hours. Nowadays the base note takes its warmth and tenacity (from one to twenty-four hours and up to three months on an isolated dipstick) from very long-lasting fixatives or base raw materials such as oak moss and patchouli. From the formula thus created, the perfumer has a compound made which will become, depending on level of concentration: • • •



Perfume (about 20% of concentrate) Toilet water (10% of concentrate) Or eau de cologne (5-6%).



To hold the fragrance thus produced, a bottle is imagined, conceived and designed to reveal the character of the perfume. Name, image and bottle design create a new message, for a perfume is never worn by chance. Frank Atkins wrote in a series of articles on the Use and Abuse of Fixatives, in which he dealt with fixation as an integral part of perfume composition. Marcel Billot, in a long and heavily documented review of Fixation in Perfumery, also looked at fixation in the general content of composition. The Russian perfumer, contributed on fixation and other aspects of perfumery. According to him: •



The persistence of perfumes depends on the coefficient of useful work, i.e., the nature of the evaporation and the value of the threshold concentration;



•



The stability increases with the coefficient of useful work and with reduction in the threshold concentration;



•



The change in the rate of evaporation and the proper use of threshold 13



concentration values should be carefully studied by perfumers and research institutes; and •



Qualities demanded of the perfumer are the ability to conceive his objective clearly, to persist in his purpose, to have immense patience, and to have the requisite wide knowledge of his medium.



The perfumer must have an intimate knowledge of thousands of aromatic substances. He must be familiar with the odor value of each, its source, and the characters that determine its quality, as well as its floral type and blending range. Moreover, he must also select and use each one of them efficiently and effectively to compose, reinforce and shade his basic note until it becomes a symphony of fragrance. But this is not all; for his creation to be employed as a perfume for cosmetics and soaps he must also have a profound knowledge of their composition and the effect each of their raw materials will have upon every constituent of his original fragrance, which involves cunning substitution and fresh blending to achieve ultimately the same finished note. Creativity in the Art of Perfumery Creativity in the Art of Perfumery is based on the following Principles: •



Chose and work out a harmony or a pleasing combination of harmonies: original, agreeable and carefully completed.



•



Perfect the top note or depart with light components which harmonize with the base.



•



Complete the basic note so that it harmonizes with the general, characteristic note of the perfume as a whole.



Charles’ Method Jean Carles, a perfumer of high repute opposed to the idea of ‘exceptional nose’. According to him, there is no doubt people whose sense of smell are naturally keen, but the highly developed olfactory sense can only come from education and training, and particularly from education of the olfactory memory (just as for other memories). No perfumer can exist without an olfactive memory. Carles conducted a study of both contrasting and similar odor of each family which suggested that each perfumer should prepare for his own use an empirical classification of this kind, listing all raw materials, natural and synthetic, according to their relative volatility, i.e. as (i) top notes- or very volatile products lacking tenacity; (ii) base modifying notes - or products of intermediate volatility and tenacity; and (iii) base notes - or products of low volatility and high tenacity. Carles make a very important point, that the skilled perfumer, like the skilled 14



musician, should be able to ‘smell’ his perfume by setting it down on paper and thinking about it. The preliminary ‘blending’ thus goes on in the mind, although it has to be put to material proof, tested and modified, before it can be regarded as satisfactory. The steps in Carles method to produce perfume are: •



First find combination of two or three odorants capable of providing the basic note of a perfume;



•



Examine them rapidly and make a mixture of -two substances which is possibly an attractive blend or accord;



•



Perfect them quantitatively. Assume these two odorants as ‘A’ and ‘B’. Prepare series of a trial using different ratio of ‘A’ and ‘B’ as under:



Serial No.



‘A” Parts



‘B’ Parts



Total



1 2 3 4 5



9 8 7 6 5



1 2 3 4 5



10 10 10 10 10



From these series, perfumer can select what seems best to him. In case this series fails to provide best perfumer may prepare series of solutions having reverse proportions, i.e. Serial No. 1 2 3 4



‘A’ Parts 1 2 3 4



‘B’ Parts 9 8 7 6



Total 10 10 10 10



In many cases he would presumably make less than the suggested five trials. The basic group obtained by this method may consist of two, three, four or even five substances, although we should not forget that an excessive increase in the number of constituents of such a basic accord will involve the risk of ‘extinguishing’ or ‘blanketing’ a perfume—leading to the production of grisaille or a merely nondescript odor. After preparing a mixture of odorants, add modifier or modifiers. The modifier is a substance of intermediate volatility and tenacity, chosen to enhance the character



15



of the basic accord and to sweeten, subdue or round off any harshness exhibited by the latter. As Carles points out, most basic accords - and he instances one composed of 6 parts of oak moss absolute and 4 parts of an ambergris/cistus compound - may have a rather unpleasant top note, which soon gives way to a pleasant, long-lasting note. The chosen modifier, in this case a rose compound, is added for the dual purpose indicated and then itself surmounted, as it were by a top note that further develops the character of the blend. At each step the perfumer may proceed either by experience or by trial-and-error tests of the type used in his selection of the basic accord. The best example shows that an oak moss absolute and a certain Ambergris 162 B form a more balanced accord in the ratio of 6:4 than in any other ratio. This simple blend is further improved by the addition of 1 Part of musk ketone. The modifier Rose d’Orient 2644, is shown to function best in the proportion of 3 parts, while the top note of this highly simplified Chypre perfume consists of 4 parts of sweet ‘range oil and 1 of bergamot. As a very general guide Carles suggests the following: Top notes (notes de tete)



20-25 per cent



Body notes (modifiers)



20-30 per cent



Base notes



40-55 per cent



These indications are not of course binding, but will be modified according to the character of the materials used and the type of perfume—that it is intended to make. Musk ambrette, for example, is one of those basic constituents, which also emerge as part of the top note. Nevertheless, as Carles points out, a perfume containing 20 per cent of bases,’ 30 per cent of modifiers and 50 per cent of top notes would lack tenacity, since the percentage of bases would be relatively too low as compared with that of the more volatile modifiers and top notes. Therefore, the proportions are selected so as to obtain a balanced evolution during evaporation. Merit of Carles’ System It enables a balanced nucleus to be formed in a simple, straightforward way, and for that nucleus to be modified or extended at will. Thus he starts by illustrating his theory with a Chypre theme based on a carefully adjusted accord of oak moss absolute and an ambergris specialty. He subsequently suggests that this might be replaced by accords of oakmoss/patchouli/vetiver, oakmoss/methyl ionone/vetiver, or oakmoss/ciste labdanum/musk ketone. Any of these basic accords might likewise be modified by the addition of products other than rose, e.g. orange flower absolute, jasmine, lily-of-the valley or carnation. The top note 16



will naturally be modified accordingly. He suggested modifications as below: 1. Chypre modification A Sweet orange Bergamot Orange flowers 1103 or absolute, colorless Absolute oak moss Ambergris 162 B Absolute jasmine Musk ketone 2. Modification B Bergamot Laurel nobilis Angelica seeds Juniper berries Muguet 113 Absolute oak moss Vetiver Patchouli Ambergris 162 B Aldehyde C14 Absolute Jasmine Musk ketone 3. Modification C Bergamot Lemon Linalyl acetate jasmine 1103 Geranium African Orange flowers 1103 Aldehydes C9, C10, C11 Absolute oak moss Gardenia Invar Styrallyl acetate Vetiver Ambergris 162 B Musk ketone The important feature of Carles’ method is that certain odorants are regarded as ‘accessories’, which in general are products to be used in small quantities, and to impart special effects! These products can not be used in large amounts in basic accords or as conventional modifiers. Addition of traces of these products in some formulation results in complete change in the character of the latter and imparts to it unique cachet, e.g., aldehyde C12 (MNA) and C14, Styrallyl acetate, isobutyl quinoline, galbanum, cascarilla and the like. There are sometimes, of course, exceptions to this rule of moderation. We quote: ‘Aldehyde C12 (MNA}, for examples, proves to be an exception and it should be known that some products such as Geranium give most successful blends with as much as 50 per cent of it. The advantages which may be derived from the use of accessory products are therefore readily apparent...’ Carles advised his young pupils against a quest for maximum equilibrium. “Dominantly effective notes in perfumes should be neither feared nor deliberately avoided. Such “faults” have quite often been responsible for tremendous 17



success”. Sharp contrasts have their place in fine perfumes, as in the other arts. An excess of polish or rounding-off can, at worst, results in a subdued, characterless composition. The point has been made that Carles’ method may overstress the importance of the basic notes, but this need not be so if sufficient interest is taken in the top notes and the accessories. Raymond Kling, another perfumer, had some interesting notions about aids to creativity. His ideas were colored by his early training as an engineer and he never ceased seeking for a methodical mode of procedure. Like Carles he started with the notion of an accord of two, three or four odorants which would together provide a homogeneous base. This basic accord was obtained by creative artistic induction or by trial-and-error tests extended almost ‘ad’ infinitum with an extraordinary degree of patience. Kling classified odorants into - top notes, basic, notes, exalting or lifting agents and proposed new concept called as “place creators”, which is defined as a substance which, in an already established composition, insinuates itself among the constituents and forms a place to enable odorant substances of a different nature from those existing in the composition as originally conceived; to “hang on to” this place creator like touches of bright paint against the grisaille of a background cloth. The substances of relatively mild or moderate odor and having great viscosity, with rather low volatility, such as hydroxycitronellal, nerolidol, benzyl benzoate etc., are included in the class of place creators. Although our understanding of odors and odor phenomena remains limited, certain factors such as tone, volatility, intensity, volume and tenacity to some extent, can be studied. Tone Tone is the general character of an odor. If the note is acidulated, acute or ‘pointed’ (e.g. lemon oil or octyl aldehyde) it is said to be sharp. If mild and even, like the odor of rhodinol or geraniol, it is medium. If warm, a little muffled or heavy, like sandalwood oil or Peru balsam, it is described as low. Volatility Volatility means evaporation or the more or less rapid sublimation of an odoriferous substance. It is proportional to the vapor pressure of the substance, and inversely proportional to its molecular weight. This factor may be expressed by the formula: m = p√M/2X22/7 RT



18



Where m is the rate of evaporation in g/cm2/sec., P the saturating vapor tension in atmospheres of the substance at T° absolute, M the molecular mass in grams, and R the constant of the law of perfect gases which, in the system of atmospheric units and cm3 is equal to 82. The formula thus becomes:



m=P√M/515 T



It has been confirmed that the theoretical figures are matching with practical figures obtained by evaporation in air. It is also found that the classification of the products is the same in both cases. The result is that, to keep to simple practical data, it is sufficient to determine figures that are proportional to the volatility of each substance and characterize each of them. The coefficient of volatility is carried out in the following manner. Carles’ method is different from this one. In this process evaporation is conducted in similar condition i.e., same room, place, time, day, temperature (about 18°C) and free from draughts. The capsule is weighed with a standard uniform weight for each of the substances whose volatility is to be measured. First of all we observe how evaporation takes place, eliminating for the purposes of measurement the terpene notes and the base or residual notes. Only the characteristic note of the product is taken for effecting the measurement. Now take dry extract in a small flat bottomed capsule having dimensions about 56 cm diameter and 1-2 cm depth. Note the weight and entering time. As soon as no further characteristic odor is perceived, the capsule is re-weighed and the time noted. With all these figures noted, a calculation is made of the weight of the evaporated product and the time necessary for this evaporation. Taking the quotient obtained by dividing this time period by the evaporated weight, we have the ‘coefficient of volatility’, which must be differentiated from persistence or tenacity. In the composition, the substance of appropriate volatility can be selected as required. The study of volatility makes it possible to specify and state the three fundamental properties, which are of great importance in perfumery, are: intensity, volume, and atmosphere. Intensity It is the unprovable psycho-physical proposition. Weber-Fechner law states that the intensity of the sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the stimulus. It is unprovable precisely because the sensation is not at present capable of being measured. Billot and Appell have both produced variants on this law and thus helped to elucidate the rather complex matter of odor intensity. Appell, indeed, 19



has set out to measure the ‘absolute intensity’ of odors and as a result has listed over 250 odorants, including natural and synthetic materials, in order of intensities rated from the minimum of 1 (rosacetol or ‘rose crystals’) to 10 (citronelly) oxyaldehyde, skatole and violet leaves absolute), 12 (2-hexenal) and the maximum 15 (crude nonadienal). We may note that all the aliphatic aldehydes from C7 to C12 are shown in the Intensity 8 or 9 groups. Angelica, bay, cardamom, costus and camomile oils are all to be found under Intensity 9, together with methyl heptin carbonate, rose oxide and some of the paramethyl quinolines. Hydroxycitronellal and ionone are grouped under Intensity 4, in the company of lavender and lemon oils, bergarnot, and cyclamen aldehyde and musk ambrette. Ylang-ylang and orange flower absolute come under Intensity 6, jasmine and rose absolutes and styrallyl acetate under Intensity 7; and benzyl acetate under Intensity 2- in the company of benzyl salicylate, guaiacwood acetate and phenyl ethyl alcohol. Guaiacwood oil is assigned the same intensity rating as lemon oil, and sandalwood oil the same as citral. It is evident, as Appell states that a distinction must be made between absolute intensities, i.e. the intensity factor of the substance itself, which must be distinguished from the psychological response. Elsewhere, in the same series of papers, he observes that ‘we must make a distinction between apparent intensity, i.e. the psychological response to odor as perceived by the sense of smell and true or intrinsic intensity of the odorant. The first is the intensity of the sensation; the second is the intensity of the stimulus. He adds that, whatever we measure or deduce, we do not of course know the nature of this (intensity) factor or stimulus. Referring to the Purkinje phenomenon, which in the study of colors relates to the great difficulty of comparing, for example, the intensities of red shades with those of blue shades? Billot emphasizes the comparable difficulty of comparing equal or disparate intensities of two odors of completely different character. At the present time the perfumer has no practical alternative, in the matter of judging or estimating comparative intensities, to prolonged experience based partly on trial-and error. The theoretical approach to the subject is nevertheless well worth pursuing. Volume The concepts of ‘volume’, ‘atmosphere’ and even ‘lift’ or exaltation tend to merge into one another and are frequently confused. Volume refers in general to the fullness or amplitude of a perfume. It is analogous to the volume of sound that fills a room. It somewhat resembles the ‘body’ of a wine. A good perfume has volume; a poor one is thin. Roudnitska says, volume in this sense is an aspect of form and is not to be confused with strength or effective range (portee). The concept of volume is more applicable to blended perfume compositions than to simple odorants as such, although some of the latter, as for example essential 20



or flower oils, will have more volume than, say, a relatively ‘flat’ synthetic like linalyl acetate. Billot has suggested that evaporation curves of individual odorants should be plotted as a function of time. The angular coefficient of each curve will, in his view, represent the volume. He adds that the curves of a blended perfume can enable the perfumer to see at what moment its major characteristic portion evaporates, and thus to form a positive idea of the perfume’s structure, with a view to making it more homogeneous by suitably filling in any gaps. This would merely serve as an aid to what a skilled perfumer would do almost automatically. Atmosphere The “atmosphere” of a perfume has been described as its more or less pronounced faculty of dispersion. In practice, it is the perfumed wake which a woman using perfume, leaves behind her. It is to some extent possible to measure its value comparatively as follows: We measure the rate of propagation of the molecules carrying the odor through a long tube of fairly thin diameter. These different times will provide coefficients proportional to the dispersion, thus characterizing the atmosphere, the shortest time representing the greatest atmosphere. Closely associated with the idea of atmosphere are that of effective range (portee); that of “lift” or exaltation; and Francis Bacon’s division of flowers and plants into those which “do best perfume the air” and those whose scents are detectable only at close quarters. Bacon the wide ranging fragrance of double violets, wallflower, clove pinks, lime blossom and honeysuckle. To this list E.S. Maurer has added hawthorn, lilac, heliotrope, evening primrose, mignonette and nicotiana. Maurer considers that the aerosol-like, zephyr effect of these natural perfumes must be due not only to the obvious and admittedly potent osmophores which they contain, but also to some kind of ‘carrier wave’ mechanism which operates simultaneously from the radiating flower center and may involve the emission of odorous or inodorous volatile materials concurrently with the more potent and characteristic odorants. As carriers or boosters he tentatively suggests certain terpenes, formats, acetates, and simple aliphatic ketones, a preference being given to products of high mineral oil solubility. He adds that a perfumed spray made up on these lines operates best in an atmosphere of high humidity. An Indian writer has similarly observed that a balanced blend of all the known constituents of a natural jasmine perfume would not in fact exhibit the airborne fragrance of growing jasmine flowers. He thinks that the flowers in the living plant generate ...some gaseous lifters or organic compounds of low boiling point and high vapor pressure, which blend with the odor of the flowers and carry it away to a distance. His thoughts on artificial substitutes for these natural exaltants tend in the direction of ethyl alcohol, methyl and ethyl formates, methyl acetate, etc. He also mentions the chloro-fluorinated propellants used in aerosol perfumes.



21



At the other end of the scale are the tenacious, long-lasting synthetic musks of the cyclopentadecanolide type. A Firmenich booklet, referring to the nomenclature of Exaltone and Exaltolide, states that ‘this designation comes from the fact, which was immediately evident, that large-ringed ketones and lactones possess an exceptional power of exaltation on perfumes’. To predict the “lift” of a perfume by reference to its individual constituents is very difficult. One may consider, however, the exalting properties of such esters as isoamyl acetate, ethyl aceto-acetate, ethyl oenanthate and pelargonate (nonanoate) and p.tert. Butyl cyclohexyl acetate; and such terpenes as myrcene, d-limonene and pure alphaphellandrene. One might note that methyl heptin carbonate, anisyl acetate, methyl nonyl acetaldehyde and other perfumery aldehydes, and of course the synthetic musks are odorants of lower volatility. The elucidation of the problems involved in ensuring adequate lift or exaltation await further developments in olfactory research. Meanwhile the empiric approach must make what use it can of the simple test that we have described or smelling the sprayed perfume in a spacious smelling chamber, as suggested by Carles. (It must be remembered, however, that a perfume allowed to evaporate from a surface is in a different physical form from that which it assumes when sprayed into space and that different odor effects can be expected from space spraying). Tenacity Tenacity is the ability of a perfume to last a longer or a shorter time on its support, is somewhat complex. The nature of the support plays a significant part. Thus a fur retains perfume well, whereas a silken fabric does not. Wells has investigated the tenacity of perfumes on the human skin. Two aspects of tenacity or persistence have to be considered: •



Strength of persistence, which is the relative force of a perfume after a limited period of evaporation (two hours, for example) expressed as a percentage of its original odor; and



•



The duration of persistence, which is expressed by the number of hours or days which elapse until no further odor is perceived.



In the first case the note remains in general unchanged over the period, whereas in the second case it may have become completely different. All determinations of this kind should be performed under identical conditions (time, temperature, same paper, same quantity of perfume etc.). A disc of filter paper is taken. On each disc is placed the same standard quantity of perfume. It is allowed to evaporate until nothing more is smelled, and the time taken is noted. This time represents for each substance the total tenacity. It might be possible to note the specific tenacity, which would be the time of evaporation from the start and throughout the time of evaporation, while the characteristic note remains, until it stops and changes to another note. 22



Fixation A fixative is simply a substance whose odor lasts a sufficient length of time. The idea of fixing a perfume in order to retard or prevent the evaporation of its volatile constituents is chimerical. There are no means of fixing the odor of top notes, of linalool for example, whatever the nature of the fixative or mixture of fixatives. Further it was observed that If the evaporation of these volatile bodies (such as amyl and propyl acetates) is slowed down a little by tricks of blending, the fact is certain that this slowing down will be of short duration and will not respond to the perfumer’s idea of fixation. The odd fact is that Bassiri outlines some simple experiments with ethyl alcohol, diethyl phthalate and benzyl benzoate, very similar to those with which Pickthall appeared to arrive at opposing conclusions. Poucher had almost simultaneously carried out yet a third series of tests of this kind. While the traditional high boiling, low vapor pressure “fixatives” with little or no intrinsic odor (e.g. diethyl phthalate, benzyl benzoate) are undoubtedly useful materials their utility, is strictly limited. Although they exert a retarding action on the evaporation of the more volatile constituents of a perfume, their mere addition to a blend will not necessarily make the desired odor more lasting. Such an addition may in fact unbalance or exert a deadening effect on the entire complex. There is a place for these fixatives in the formulation of perfumes, and especially of those of a volatile, evanescent character, but for a properly constructed formula the perfumer must pay maximum attention to basic accords and graduated persistence. ‘If he is a master of his craft,’ writes Poucher, ‘he will ... select his aromatics in accordance with their lasting properties, rather than rely upon dubious additions which might, in effect, impair his work of art.’ Billot’s conducted study on the Problem of Fixation which should be noted, and a comparison made of the various fixatives listed by Bassiri, Maurer and Cerbelaud; The last-named divides fixatives into eight separate classes and these are still worth studying even if the theory uniting them has become rather out of date. Systematic Recording of Data The first draft or sketch of a perfume, no matter when or how the inspiration or creative impulse comes, must subsequently be reinforced by patient and often painstaking technique. It is here that properly recorded information can facilitate the flow of ideas and save both time and effort. Billot’s method of card-indexing essential information has been expounded at some length. In summary, each odorant used by the perfumer has a large card allocated to it. The name of the product provides the heading. Then are recorded, in order: its note and the series to which it belongs, its nature (i.e. essential oil, absolute, resinoid, synthetic, composite base, etc.); its concentration, tone, volatility, tenacity, color and dermatological behavior, etc. The card has also space for “uses” to be entered and solubilities, as well as “analogies”.



23



All these cards are filed in a card index in alphabetical order, separating the natural from the synthetic products by making two different card indexes. A third index could be made with the bases and specialties. To complete this information, however, there are registers which gather together for each fundamental property, as enumerated above, the list of products classified according to their places in these properties. There are five registers: •



Register of the tone of the note - three classes: sharp - medium - basic, and in each of these classes the list of products connected therewith.



•



Register of volatilities - from -1 to 100, 100 being the figure for the least volatile product. Against each number is inscribed the list of substances having such volatility.



•



Register of Intensities - in sections from 30 to 120, the greatest intensity being represented by 120 30 - 60 - 90 – 120



In each of the sections a list of substances with intensity corresponding to that section. •



Register of volumes - in sections of 15 of the angular coefficients of the evaporation curves up to 90 15 - 30 - 45 - 60 - 75 – 90



In each section a list of substances having a volume within that section. •



Register of Atmospheric Diffusive Values, in sections of proportional coefficients from 10 - 30 - 50 - 70 etc., the lowest figure representing the largest ‘atmosphere’ or the most marked diffusive properties. In each of the sections, a list of substances belonging to that section.



Finally, for tenacity (persistence), the coefficient is indicated on the card. For this property, it is not deemed necessary to have a register. By way of illustration the original paper shows models of the index cards, although each firm or individual can easily modify them according to his own ideas. Admittedly the compilation of such indexes and registers involves a good deal of time and effort, but it systematizes masses of what would otherwise be heterogeneous and perhaps inaccessible information and, in the long run, can be both helpful and time-saving. It is a task, moreover, that may well be entrusted to an assistant or apprentice, provided that the work is conscientiously carried out and well controlled.



24



II. How to Make Your Own Perfume Let’s see some useful information while making perfumes: The Steam Distillation When a mixture of flowers and water is boiled in a still it produces perfumed water through condensation. The still invented by the Arabs in the 4th century has been considerably improved on since. In perfume making today we use hydro distillation, which takes place in stainless steel stills to avoid the raw material becoming colored, a frequent occurrence when copper stills were used. The still is tall with a head and a well-insulated swan's neck preceded by a mechanism to prevent fumes and impurities passing through. The still is filled with fresh or dried plants, gum or roots, to which is added a minimum of five times their weight in water. The process takes place at a very high temperature and five or six atms of pressure so the steam can act. The steam traps the essential oils of the product being distilled; these then pass through a worm immersed in cold water, which condenses them into essence. The condensed mixture of essential oil and water flows out of the worm into an essence bottle, or Florentine flask, where the two liquids separate out because of their different densities. • • •



To extract 1 kg of essence of lavender, you need to distil 200 kg of lavender. For 1 kg of essence of neroli, 1000 kg of orange blossom are used. For 1 kg of Cabbage rose essence, over 3000 kg of roses are required.



Heat Maceration Heat maceration or enfleurage à chaud was invented in Grasse. The flowers are steeped in a mixture of very pure fat at a temperature of around 60°C. The flowers are stirred with a wood ladle for two hours and are replaced with fresh flowers every day until their smell is concentrated in the fat. This produces pomades, which are then processed to give absolutes. Enfleurage À Froid (Cold Maceration) This method, no longer used today, served to extract the perfume from fragile flowers such as jasmine and tuberose. A layer of fat was spread on either side of a glass frame and covered with flowers. The flowers were replaced (30 and 40 times per frame) every day until the fat was saturated with fragrance. At the end of the season the perfumed fat was melted down and stocked in vats in cool cellars. 25



It was then washed in alcohol, which absorbed the perfume. This perfumed alcohol was then evaporated in a vacuum leaving a residue of absolute. What to Use and How •



Fragrance oils may be used in place of the essential oils for a cheaper version.



•



Cover your work area with a plastic sheet. Essential oils and fragrance oils may damage surfaces.



•



A good fragrance formula should consist of 75% dilutants such as vodka, and 25% fragrances. Glycerin is a good fixative which can be added to formulas to help it retain its scents.



These recipes are samples to give you a place to get started; it’s a good idea to create your own scents to suit your unique personality. Have fun and don't be afraid to experiment! The following are some of the simplest recipes for perfume making you can do at home: 1. Basic Perfume Recipe Ingredients 1 cup water 1 cup fresh chopped flower blossoms Directions In a bowl place cheesecloth where the edges are hanging over the bowl. Fill with 1 cup of flower blossoms of your choice. Pour water over the flowers until they are completely covered. Cover and let sit overnight. The next day using the edges of cheesecloth pull it out of the bowl and gently squeezes the scented water into a small pot. Simmer the water until about 1 teaspoon is left. Cool and place into a small bottle. Making perfume this way has a shelf life of about 1 month. Some suggestions for flowers Lavender, Lilac, Orange Blossoms or even Honeysuckle. Anything that is highly fragrant works best. Similarly you can try more! 2. Recipe for Orient Nights Perfume Let the orient sweep your heart away with our easy to make at home Orient Nights perfume recipe. Create your unique fragrance today. Ingredients: 26



• • • •



4 drops sandalwood essential/fragrance oil 4 drops musk essential/fragrance oil 3 drops frankincense essential/fragrance oil 2 teaspoons jojoba oil



Directions: Mix all the ingredients together, shake well. Place in a dark color bottle. Then allow the perfume to settle for at least 12 hours. Store in a cool dry area. 3. Recipe for Whispering Rain Perfume Ingredients: • 2 cups distilled water • 3 tablespoons vodka • 5 drops sandalwood essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops bergamot essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops cassis essential/fragrance oil Directions: Mix all the ingredients together, shake well. Place in a dark bottle. Then allow the perfume to settle for at least 12 hours. Store in a cool dry area. 4. Recipe for Falling Stars Perfume Easy to make and truly inspired, our Falling Star Perfume recipe is soon to become your favorite. Catch your falling star. Ingredients: • 2 cups distilled water • 3 tablespoons vodka • 5 drops lavender essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops chamomile essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops valerian essential oil Directions: Mix all the ingredients together, shake well. Place in a dark color bottle. Then allow the perfume to settle for at least 12 hours. Store in a cool dry area. 5. Recipe for Enchanted Perfume Ingredients: • 2 cups distilled water • 3 tablespoons vodka • 5 drops everlasting essential/fragrance oil 27



• •



10 drops peony essential/fragrance oil 10 drops sandalwood essential/fragrance oil



Directions: Mix all the ingredients together, shake well. Place in a dark color bottle. Then allow the perfume to settle for at least 12 hours. Store in a cool dry area. 6. Recipe for Amaze Perfume Ingredients: • 2 cups distilled water • 3 tablespoons vodka • 5 drops hypericum perforatum essential oil (St.John's wort) • 10 drops cypress essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops rosemary essential/fragrance oil Directions: Mix all the ingredients together, shake well. Place in a dark bottle. Then allow the perfume to settle for at least 12 hours. Store in a cool dry area. 7. Recipe for Misty Passions Perfume Ingredients: • 3 drops passionflower essential/fragrance oil • 2 drops ylang ylang essential/fragrance oil • 3 drops neroli essential/fragrance oil • 1/2 pt (300ml) 70 percent alcohol or vodka Directions: Pour the alcohol into a dark bottle or jar. Add the oils and shake well. Leave for 1 week. Cologne Recipes 1. Homemade Love Tonic (cologne) This Love Tonic Increases your feelings of love, Aphrodisiac. Ingredients: • 3 drops sandalwood essential/fragrance oil • 2 drops vanilla essential/fragrance oil • 3 drops cedarwood essential/fragrance oil • 1/2 pt (300ml) 70 percent alcohol or vodka



28



Directions: Pour the alcohol into a bottle or jar. Add the oils and shake well. Leave for 1 week. Go easy on this stuff. You can always make more! 2. Peace Cologne Recipe Peace Cologne Recipe Combats fatigue due to stress, tension and anxiety. Ingredients: • 3 drops Bergamot essential/fragrance oil • 2 drops Frankincense essential/fragrance oil • 3 drops cedarwood essential/fragrance oil • 1/2 pt (300ml) 70 percent alcohol or vodka Directions: Pour the alcohol into a bottle or jar. Add the oils and shake well. Leave for 1 week. Don't forget to try and make your own scents as well, after all you're unique...shouldn't your cologne be too? And don't forget to give it a name...maybe something that sounds like your personality...so if you're a strong type then, “Soldier" or "Journey", you get the point. 3. Contented Cologne Recipe Enjoy feeling relaxed and refreshed! Ingredients: • 3 drops Peony essential/fragrance oil • 2 drops Sandalwood essential/fragrance oil • 3 drops everlasting essential/fragrance oil • 1/2 pt (300ml) 70 percent alcohol or vodka Directions: Pour the alcohol into a bottle or jar. Add the oils and shake well. Leave for 1 week. Time to feel relaxed! 4. Lemon Spirit Cologne Recipe Lemon Spirit Cologne Recipe feels refreshing. Ingredients: • 1 cup distilled water • 1 cup vodka • 3 drops lemongrass essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops lavender essential/fragrance oil • 10 drops lime essential/fragrance oil Directions: Combine the essential oils and vodka in a bottle. Shake well. Set aside for 3 weeks. Add distilled water then set aside for 1 week. Shake once a day. Store in dark bottles or keep in a cool dark place.



29



III. Aromatherapy 1. What Is Aromatherapy and How to Use It Aromatherapy is the therapeutic use of aromatic substances. Aromatherapy stimulates your sense of smell, your moods, behavior, physical and mental well being. Aromatherapy is the use of oils called essential oils that have been distilled from herbs, fruits, petals, bark, rind, sap, flowers, roots, seeds, leaves, grasses. Carrier Oils Carrier oils are vegetable oils used to dilute the concentrated essential oils, they help to slow down the evaporation of the essential oils and help absorb them into the skin. The carrier oils should be "Extra virgin or cold pressed vegetable oils" for maximum benefit. Some good carrier oils include avocado oil, grapeseed, canola, safflower, sunflower, sesame, wheat germ, olive and peanut oil. Storing the Essential Oils Store essential oils in brown or dark blue colored glass bottles with a close fitting plastic screw cap. Do not store in plastic containers, they could become contaminated. Keep them in a dark, cool place to prolong the shelf life. Always store out of reach of children. Safety in Aromatherapy Pregnant women and children under the age of two should not be treated with Aromatherapy. Essential oils are highly concentrated extracts so keep away from the eyes. If oil comes in contact with the eyes, rinse it out with a few drops of pure Sweet Almond Oil, not water and seek medical attention. Never take them internally. They should not be applied directly to the skin but mixed with carrier oil such as avocado oil to dilute them, as the oils are in concentrated form. Never increase the dose of essential oil. Some oils are toxic in large amounts. 2. Scents, Fragrances and Mood Scents, fragrances and mood are closely associated. The right fragrance can bring you up almost any mood you desire: romantic, tranquil, sexy, playful, and downright joyous. When you think of mind-altering substances, fragrance probably doesn't top the list. There can be many reasons behind it, but lack of knowledge is perhaps the most important reason. If we see the history of fragrances, we see long before perfume came in bottles or even consistent formulations people were using it for attitude adjustment and mood changers. Consider the etymology: Per fumare is



30



Latin for "through smoke," a reference to the millennia-old ritual of burning incense to create a devotional mood at religious ceremonies, says Mandy Aftel, a natural perfumer and author of Essence and Alchemy: A Book of Perfume (North Point Press, 2001). And science has proven what the ancients intuited: Scents affect our emotions. "The receptors that are responsible for detecting odors are literally about two synapses away from the area of the brain that processes mood and emotion," explains Craig Warren, Ph.D., scientific adviser to the Sense of Smell Institute. "This is why we say the sense of smell is the most emotional sense we have." Start discovering the mood-boosting for yourself in different situations, some commonly tested are given below:



Many experts and research findings agree that scents affects mood, and perhaps we all have seen in our own life for ourselves that these scents and fragrances do have some effect on our mood. According to Alan Hirsch, M.D., a neurologist and psychiatrist, who has been studying the effect of scents and smells for more than 16 years at Smell and Taste Treatment and Research Foundation, in Chicago: In order for something truly to be considered therapy it must be scientifically proven to affect a mood state or disease state and at this point, he says, it's too early to tell if there's any real validity to aromatherapy. Part of the problem with aromatherapy is explained by the general affective theory of odors. According to this theory, there are certain scents that people inherently like; obviously, these vary from person to person. So if a particular smell always brings a smile to your face, it probably puts you in a more positive mood. But what is inherently wrong with that is anything that improves one's mood can be considered as a therapy. And in our research-driven and educated medical culture that alone is not just enough. Regardless of the scientific merit of aromatherapy, undoubtedly smells can lift our spirits. If you like a smell and it makes you happy, then more power to you, so go for it without any hesitation. Research Findings Smell and Taste Treatment and Research Foundation, in Chicago, has published more than 200 double-blind, crossover scientific studies on the effect of smells on disease states. Some of the most interesting findings are that green apple smell can help reduce the length and severity of migraine headaches, that green apple/cucumber smell can reduce claustrophobia, that barbecue smell has been found to help reduce agoraphobia (fear of open spaces), and that mixed floral smell has been shown to improve learning ability. According to Margaret Kershey Rivera, M.Ed. and Aromatherapist, who has been practicing for 23 years says, “Since ancient times aromatherapy has worked for a



31



variety of conditions, such as muscular aches and pains, burns, infections, stress, and even arthritis”. And that's reason enough to use it -- albeit safely, she says. True aromatherapy works through the use of what are known as essential oils -those that have been derived from plants. A strong whiff of an essential oil can trigger certain body responses. When used appropriately, essential oils can treat the mind, body, and spirit, according to Rivera, who consults and lectures on aromatherapy in Newtown, Pennsylvania. Most of the time essential oils are diffused in the air with hot water; other times they are put on a tissue and inhaled or even added to a vegetable oil and used as a rub for a variety of conditions. For example, an individual with a cold might mix eucalyptus oil with vegetable oil and rub it on the chest at night to help break up mucus. But she warns buyer! However, much of what you'll find in stores that calls itself aromatherapy really is not, asserts Rivera. Many of these preparations are made with synthetic fragrances rather than with verifiable (and often expensive) essential oils. And synthetic fragrances don't provide the same health benefits, she adds. Rivera explains that big businesses saw the popularity of aromatherapy and tapped into it. As a result, there are hoards of substandard products sold under the guise of aromatherapy. "The field of aromatherapy is fraught with fraud," she explains. "You have to be really careful of what you buy." 3. Not Only Mood But Memory Also1 According to a team of UK researchers, the calming and sedative effect of the aroma of lavender may impair memory and attention, but the stimulating effect of rosemary may enhance certain aspects of mental function. As study author Dr. Mark Moss, University of Northumbria at Newcastle told Reuters Health that natural aromas can influence mental performance. To investigate, Moss and his colleagues performed an experiment involving 144 young adults. Working in cubicles infused with either no scent or with the aromas of lavender or rosemary, the participants completed tests of attention or reaction time; long-term memory, such as word recall and picture recognition; and working memory such as remembering a set of numbers. Adults working in lavenderscented cubicles exhibited poorer performance on tests of their working memory and reaction times than did their peers who worked in unscented cubicles. Those who worked in rosemary-scented cubicles, on the other hand, had better longterm memory than those who worked in unscented cubicles. Further, results of mood tests taken before and after the adults completed the memory exercises revealed that those who worked in the lavender- and rosemary-scented cubicles felt more content after they completed the memory



1



Excerpts taken from British Psychological Society's annual meeting in Blackpool, UK.



32



tests than they did initially. Study participants who worked in lavender-scented cubicles, however, reported feeling less alert after their memory exercises, while those who worked in rosemary-scented cubicles reported feeling more alert, both of which "may be reflective of their (respective) performance(s)" on the exercises, Moss said. Those who worked in cubicles with no aroma did not report any great changes in either contentment or alertness. Despite the finding that rosemary seemed to improve long-term memory and alertness, Moss did not recommend that students take a whiff of the scent the night before a big exam, as the aroma is never going to take the place of hard work. But his major belief is that these effects are not life-changing in themselves-we cannot provide a short-cut or quick fix. However, it may be that we can use natural compounds to improve our everyday lives without any harm. For example, the aroma of lavender may be inappropriate for cars and other vehicles if it will slow the driver's reaction time, according to the researcher. But since individuals generally use lavender to relax, the findings suggest that this purpose may be “ideal”. Certainly lavender is good if you want to relax and rosemary may be good if you want to feel a little bit brighter and (don't) want to take caffeine in the morning," Moss suggested. 4. Invent Your Own Scent, Fragrance or Even the Pheromones Essential oils have complex chemical structures. Their actions and effects are enhanced by creating synergetic blends that work with your unique body. What they do is put ones own natural components into proper balance. The balance can be focused on boosting sexual charge, but you will be surprised by the many benefits you’ll encounter. Aromatherapy has been used since antiquity for all means of health and cosmetic use. In ancient days only the wealthiest folks could afford it. Thus, its use in creating sexual chemistry was limited to the very lucky. As the distillation methods became more efficient, the process of cultivating plants was also making great strides. It looked like the common Joe and Jane might have a chance to get lucky too. Technology takes many turns. The science of using pure essential oils lost its pep with the advent of imitation scents, which smell good, and are much less expensive to produce, but don’t contain the essential elements which work to get us and those around us horny. We live in abundant times; it’s the best time in history for hedonism. The good stuff can be had. Dozens of essential oils have had success, amongst them are: Anise, Allspice, Basil, Black Pepper, Cedarwood, Cinnamon, Clove, Nutmeg, Ginger, Jasmine, Rosemary, Rose, Neroli, Patchouli, Rosewood, Sandalwood, Ylang Ylang, Clary Sage, Thyme, Geranium, Benzoin, Naouli and more. Alone, these oils can have 33



minimal success. Patchouli is common aphrodisiac oil, but it tends to be overpowering alone. This might be due to its powerful effect on the nervous system, too much can cause insomnia; therefore it needs to be intermingled with other oils to appeal to most. Many spice oils smell great, but they can be toxic or damaging to skin solo. Also, single oils do not create the mystery that combined blends do. People have a natural curiosity and on a sub-conscious, almost hypnotic level, scent brings back memories and anchors the wearer to others. Essential oils layer individual scents up through each other, so slowly different elements are being released, and mixing in the nose of your adored. There’s something familiar, but they’re not sure what. Once this mental connection occurs, and others tune into your body scent, your own natural pheromones within the mix come to light, and if there is chemistry between you-- it can be more easily discovered. If the curiosity is not there with everyone, don’t be discouraged, without chemistry the sex wouldn’t be that great anyhow. In this sense, you can weed out those with pretty packaging and not much sexual substance. When creating blends to enhance sex, all potential issues must be considered. Our society generates stress, lack of confidence, and self-consciousness, all which mess with our mojo. Many libido enhancing oils bring the brain and/or nervous system into balance, giving rise to more positive moods. Essential oils can help respiratory health, aid in circulation, speed the healing process, and make skin and hair glow with health. These benefits, along with the direct sexual rewards, allow us to be the sexiest we can. Not every oil should be used in the same percentages with men and women. For example, oils such as, clary sage, anise, and geranium effect estrogen levels; they are not harmful to men (when used properly), but they really charge women. Some essential oils should be avoided during pregnancy and breastfeeding, as well as for those with high blood pressure or epilepsy. Some should be avoided in direct sunlight due to a phototoxic effect on the skin. When using any new oil, it is important to test (diluted in the proper percentage) on a small part of your skin before using liberally. This is to make sure you don’t have an allergic reaction. The worst negative symptom when using Aromatherapy externally is likely to be a skin rash. Gentle oils such as lavender and chamomile can be used more generously than most. Spicy, peppery, and camphor-like oils must be used sparingly as they can burn the skin if not properly diluted. Some essential oils create a very happy, euphoric feeling. You might be tempted to jump right in and try everything. Before you do, it would be prudent to learn more about the science and how to mix properly. There is plenty of information out there: Research oils before you try them; research the safety issues surrounding the oils you intend to try. It’s fine to learn slowly. If you’re impatient with the process of learning on your own, seek the advice of a qualified Aromatherapy practitioner. Remember, not all schools of Aromatherapy agree on everything, which means extreme caution must be taken. Safe mixing depends as much on what we know about Aromatherapy as a science, as it does your individual body and your distinctive needs.



34



It’s not difficult to figure out what your body needs. The best blends are personalized. Creating personalized aphrodisiac scents involves asking many questions and sniffing a lot of oils. Oils which work best for you usually have scents which are most pleasing to you. With scent, we are partial to what is beneficial for us. You might be surprised at the different combinations people choose for themselves. Some would seemingly not mix well at all. That is, before they are organized by notes and layered in proper proportion to one another. This is where the art of Perfumery enters the discipline of Aromatherapy. Layering essential oils properly requires as much intuition as it does education. In this sense it is very similar to having both a talent for cooking, and knowing how to accomplish nutritional healing. Aromatherapy is the marriage between Perfumery and Holistic Healing. Perfumery entails several basic concepts. Good blends are comprised of top, middle, and base notes. At first it’s best to stick with one of each; as your talent develops you’ll be able to layer many notes successfully. Top notes should have bright, fresh characteristics. Citrus oils make good top notes. Top notes are the first to hit the nose, so they form the immediate impression of the scent. Middle notes are the core of the blend and in general are mixed in a greater percentage than the top and base notes. Their scents take time to emerge. They add depth and a feeling of the unknown coming to light. I usually choose oils with woody and/or herbaceous traits as middle notes. Nice base notes are rich, heavy, and heady. Base notes surface slowly and linger. They often have fixative qualities that keep the lighter, more volatile oils from evaporating too quickly. Benzoin is a favorite base note of mine. Oils should be chosen around the mood we wish to create. When creating aphrodisiacs we obviously strive to create a sensual mood, however according to our own needs we may wish it to also be relaxing, stimulating, cheering, or any of the other encouraging effects Aromatherapy can deliver. Choosing essential oils can be confusing. There are many oils in the aphrodisiac family. Finding the perfect blend of oils for yourself will take trial and error. Learning about, and being honest with yourself about which facets of your body and mind need improvement is a wonderful start. Fear, anxiety, and depression definitely minimize sex appeal. Oils like, Ylang Ylang, Jasmine, and others may be used to treat these ailments. Learning which oils offer the effects you need will narrow the scope greatly. Keeping your oils properly organized can aid your development. You may organize them by notes, by fragrance types (floral, herbaceous, woody, etc.), by effect, or alphabetically; whichever way works best for your learning process. Writing down your discoveries as you learn them will help you remember them and grow from there. Once you find blends that are right for you, don’t be surprised if you find others flirting wildly with you. It’s often tempting to jump right in and go for it when someone wants you. Aromatherapy in no way is intended to replace traditional medical care. It is used to enhance wellbeing, positive moods, and sexual charge. Put it to work, any way you choose. When you are experimenting with essential oils, make sure to 35



understand the potency and/or health risks some oils can cause if not used properly. When in doubt, ask a professional aroma therapist/herbalist or at the health food store for more information.



36



IV. Flower Perfumes and Their Formulation Introduction For the perfumer flowers and perfume has immense importance. There are three different reasons cited: • They are stimulus, a point of reference, pleasure source and provides immense information; • • They are irreplaceable even with drawback and higher cost; and •



Many flower notes or floral accords have become essential structure.



Flowers and their perfumes are still of very considerable and even basic importance to the perfumer. In the first place they are a stimulus, a point of reference, and a source of pleasure and invaluable information. In the second, some of them are still irreplaceable raw materials, despite any disadvantage that may attach to them in respect of scarcity or cost. And, in the third place, many flowers notes or floral accords form part of the essential structure of even the most advanced, and up-to-date fantasy perfumes. The prime object of this chapter is to obtain the true note of each flower using the various constituents for each flower and provide illustrations of complete formulae. Here it is necessary to point out that such formulae can only be considered as the sum of the actual materials used in preparing them in the first place; and that subsequent reproduction must involve olfactory adjustments in order to give the desired result. Let us begin with the more familiar perfumes based on flower notes. Rose Rose notes differ considerably one from another. Besides the basic constituents for red rose, rose damascena, and rose centrifolia naturally occurring esters, few aldehydes and acetals are required as auxiliary notes. The traces of many other odorants create significant effect (Table 6.1). Into the composition of specialized rose notes, e.g., those of the tea rose, Banksiana, Zephyrine Drouhin and Marechal Niel types. Table 6.1 Effects of Some Odorants S.No. 1.



Type of Rose Notes Red rose



Main Constituents



Special effects



Rhodinol, phenyl ethyl Rose absolute, Bulgarian alcohol, a-ionone, nerol Otto Bulgarian geranium oil



37



2.



Rose damascena



Rhodinol, geraniol, Natural oils and esters ex palmers oil, phenyl ethyl alcohol cinnamic alcohol



3.



Rose centifolia



4.



Tea rose



5.



Rose Marechal Niel White rose



Citronellol, geraniol, phenyl ethyl alcohol, rhodinol Citronellol, phenyl ethyl alcohol, geraniol Geraniol ex palmarosa oil, Citronellol Rhodinol, phenyl ethyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, linalool



6.



C, aldehyde citral guaiyil acetate menthone, tuberose absolute isoeugenol, benzoin, sandalwood oil bergamot, phenyl ethyl acetate



Bulgarian rose has played very creative role in almost all rose perfumes. It is often required but due to higher cost pure Bulgarian rose oil’s use is restricted. This necessitates research into compositions ‘de coupage’, i.e. diluents or extenders, and these must be the best possible for the purpose. By using certain raw materials judiciously one can in fact arrive at some very interesting extenders which will blend well with the natural oil, giving an excellent quality of end product at a reasonable price. The raw materials in question are relatively few in number. One thinks of phenyl ethyl alcohol, oil of geranium - such as the Geranium incolore de Grasse, geraniol, rhodinol, Lcitronellol; and very small quantities of nerol and farnesol. An example is given below in formula 1. This is a convenient point to emphasize that no formula can be better than the type and quality of its individual constituents. It is therefore essential for perfumers to make their own trials and adjust their final formulae accordingly. Formula 1 Rose Extender 1



Parts by weight



Geraniol ex Palma rose, 1st quality



1.50



Oil of Grasse Geranium, incolore



0.50



Phenyl ethyl alcohol Linalool ex bois de rose, 1st quality Brazilian



2.50 1.20



Rhodinol ex African geranium oil



1.20



1-Citronellol



3.00



Nerol, pure



0.07 38



Farnesol, pure



0.03



Total



10.00



With the aid of this ‘extender’, following blends can be produced. Formula 2 Odorants



Rose Blend No. 1 %



Rose Bulgarian 75 Bulgarian absolute oil --of rose Rose extender 1 25 Total 100



No. 2%



No. 3%



50 4



25 3



46 100



72 100



The above table shows that three different rose formulae having Bulgarian rose tonality and different prices can be easily produced. Formulation over a reasonably wide price range is thus facilitated. Some formulae of actual rose perfumes are given in Formulae 3-6.



Formula 3 (Rose F) Constituents Rhodinol, 1st quality lonone alpha Rose-2 Phenyl ethyl alcohol Bois de rose Brazil Rose de Grasse absolute Jasmine absolute Menthone Total



Parts 40.0 23.0 6.0 12.0 12.0 6.5 0.5 trace circa 100



39



Formula 4 (Rose H) Constituents Rhodinol, 1st quality Phenyl ethyl alcohol Cinnamic alcohol Geraniol Citronellol Linalool Hydroxycitronellal Linalyl acetate Eugenol Rose de Grasse absolute Geranium (African) oil Phenyl ethyl acetate Total



Parts 10.0 20.0 6.0 20.0 10.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 10.0 1.0 100.0



Formula 5 (Rose rouge) Constituents Violettone A (Firmenich) Rose-1 Rose de Grasse absolute Phenyl acetic acid Lorena (Firmenich) Phenyl ethyl alcohol Rhodinol Total



Parts 18.0 4.5 13.0 0.4 4.5 9.6 50.0 100.0



40



Formula 6 (Rose Blanche) Constituents Rose-1 Sandalwood oil Patchouli oil Tuberose Tubereuse (Synarome) Orris resinoid Jasmonis (Givaudan) Benzyl acetate Geraniol synth, pure Lorena (Firmenich) Phenyl ethyl alcohol Iraldeine 100% (de Laire) Rhodinol P (Rhone-Poulenc) Aldehyde C9 Aldehyde C10 Aldehyde C12 (lauric) Total



Parts 13.50 6.30 6.30 5.50 5.00 5.00 3.50 2.00 12.00 9.00 11.00 9.00 11.50 0.10 0.15 0.15 100.00



Where specialties are cited under the names of specific firms, this simply means that no firm makes and offers exactly the same end product as the others. In each case one must take into account the fact that chemicals included in a process as trace impurities are not likely to be present in exactly the same pattern or proportions in a competitive product. Jasmine Rose and jasmine are the most important flower notes used in perfumery. Singly or together, they provide a conventional floral background for a great diversity of perfumes. A wide range of formulae for ‘jasmine artificial’ have been resulted after conducting many experiments based on analytical research of jasmine oil. The 41



basic constituents of these formulae include benzyl acetate, amyl and hexyls cinnamic aldehydes; benzyl alcohol, formate, salicylate and other esters; indole and derivatives; phenyl ethyl alcohol, dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate, hydroxycitroneilal, linalool, linalyl acetate; esters of propionic and butyric acids; Peru balsam etc. The use of jasmine absolute chassis may be made to sweeten formulae for artificial jasmines which may be crude and synthetic. Jasmine absolute chassis is the absolute obtained by petroleum ether or benzene extraction from jasmine flowers that have previously been treated by the enfleurage process but which have nevertheless retained some of their perfume. This must not be confused with the actual absolute of jasmine d’enfleurage. It is a principle in fine perfumery that natural materials should be used to sweeten and soften the odors of synthetic blends. When costing considerations prevent the more liberal use of ‘naturals’, the result of judiciously incorporating even small quantities will usually prove conclusive. (Formulae 7-10) Formula 7 (Jasmine 1) Constituents Benzyl acetate, pure a-Amyl cinnamic aldehyde prima (Descollonges)



Parts 28.0 20.0



Jasmine chassis absolute ex benzene (Schmoller & 110.00 Bompard), 10% in benzyl benzoate Benzyl propionate Paracresyl isobutyrate Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate Benzyl alcohol Linalyl acetate Methyl anthranilate Isojasmone (Descollonges) Bois de rose oil, Brazil Geraniol (synth, chem., pure, Firmenich) Iraldeine 100% (de Laire) Allofloral [AIlondon-Firmenich) Ylang-ylang oil Indole, 10% Total



4.00 3.02 1.06 9.02 2.00 0.04 0.05 6.00 1-06 2.00 6.75 2.04 2.08 100.00



42



Formula 8 (Jasmine 2} Constituents Benzyl alcohol Linalyl acetate ex bois de rose Benzyl acetate Benzyl benzoate Ethyl phthalate Jasmine chassis absolute, ex benzene (Schmoller & Bompard) Laurine (Givaudan)



Parts 11 11 19 6 3 6



Phenyl ethyl alcohol Linalool Bergamot oil, sesquiterpeneless Peru balsam Ylang-ylang oil Benzyl salicylate Total



8 9 4 5 3 5 100



10



Formula 9 (Jasmine 22.0, Fantasy 3) Constituents Phenyl ethyl alcohol Benzyl acetate Cinnamic alcohol Methyl anthranilate Diethyl phthalate Citronellol Geraniol (synth, chem. pure, firmenich) Ylang-ylang oil Cananga oil Isoeugenol Benzyl salicylate



Parts 22.0 45.5 3.5 2.0 5.5 3.5 5.8 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.5 43



Ethyl salicylate Cedrenol (ex cedar wood oil) Virginia cedar wood oil Total



0.2 3.0 3.0 100.0



Formula 10 (Jasmine Base 5) Constituents Cinnamyl acetate p-cresyl isobutyrate Methyl anthranilate Benzyl alcohol Benzyl acetate Linalool Benzyl propionate Terpineol pure (BBA) Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Methyl eugenol Linalyl acetate Raldeine D (Givaudan) Hydroxycitronellal p-Methyl methylsahcylate p-Cresyl phenyl acetate Phenylpropyl aldehyde Aldehyde C10 Indole Tolu tincture Total



Parts 0.8 1.1 0.3 18.0 18.0 4.6 3.1 3.1 15.3 1.5 7.5 3.8 3.1 1.5 0.7 2.0 0.15 0.45 15.0 100.40



Formuia 11 (Jasmine base 5a) Constituents Parts Jasmine Base No. 5 70.0 Jasmine d’Espagne (Givaudan) 13.0 Jasmine Frutal (Polak’s Frutal works) 13.0 Jasmine chassis absolute ex benzene (Schmoller & 4.0 Bompard) Total 100



44



Orange Flower and Neroli The difference between Orange flower and Neroli are well known to the perfumers. Both are frequently used, and it could even be said, that there are relatively few compositions into which the orange flower note does not enter. Neroli is particularly valuable in eau de Cologne and related notes. Here are some (Formulae 12-13). Formula 12 (Orange flower A) Constituents Linalyl acetate Petit grain oil, terpeneless Flonol 160 (de Laire) Indole 10% Eugenol Geraniol synthetic Geranyl acetate Brouts absolute (Robertet) Ylang-ylang oil Phenyl ethyl alcohol Lentisque (Mastic) oil Methyl anthranilate Citral Total



Parts 7.1 3.4 14.3 4.7 2.2 5.6 3.7 19.0 1.2 4.7 0.8 2.4 0.9 100.0



From the above example Brouts Absolute is extracted from petit grain bigarade water or a mixture of this with orange flower water.



Formula 13 (Neroli A) Constituents Petit grain oil pays (Grasse) Methyl anthranilate



Parts 31.5 25.0 45



Eugenol Geraniol Phenyl ethyl alcohol Linalyl acetate Indole 10% Aldehyde C8 10% Total



18.5 6.0 4.25 7.3 4.7 2.75 100.00



This formulation is useful for blending with natural neroli, in certain applications, as a diluent. A suggested proportion is 1 part of natural neroli oil to 2 parts of Neroli A. Flower perfumes such as honeysuckle, syringa, gardenia, and narcissus not only has orange blossom note but also has fruity note of apricot. Violet The classic note of violet is favorite of ladies. There are two examples of violet perfume. The simple violet (Nice or Toulouse) may be based on a blend of methyl ionone, alpha ionone, orris absolute or resinoid, and violet leaf absolute and phenyl ethyl alcohol. A floral note, projected as it is by a trace of MNA aldehyde, is imparted by jasmine or Cassie. The double or Parma, violet is based on varying proportions of beta ionone, alpha ionone and methyl ionone, together with orris resinoid or concrete, a little phenyl ethyl alcohol, methyl octin carbonate, a trace of vetiver, and a small quantity of hydroxycitronellal and even, sometimes, bergamot. Very small amounts of violet leaf absolute may be included, but the green leafy note of Parma violets is much less accentuated. For imparting the necessary sweetness to the base of Parma violet. Use may be made of a plum or Mirabelle note. Wood violets, with their rather earthy background, may be simulated by the inclusion of very small quantities of a pure grade of amyl acetate, which helps to provide the odor of damp earth and humus. Other humus notes may be similarly employed. (Formulae 14-15) Formula 14 (Violet 1) Constituents lonone alpha 10 Iralia (Firmenich) Irisone extra (Givaudan) Jasmine No. 2



Parts 10 10 20 46



Ysminia (Firmenich) Jasmonis (Givaudan) Violet leaf absolute Orris absolute or Irophore (Firmenich) Ylang-ylang oil Ylang-ylang absolute Cassie absolute Rose No. 1 Neroli oil Phenyl ethyl alcohol Bitter orange oil Oak moss absolute (Robertet) Folione (Givaudan) Linalool Bois de rose Brazil Cinnamylal (Givaudan) Heliotropin Musk ambrette Musk ketone Vanillin Civet tincture Peru balsam tincture Total



5.0 2.0 2.0 1.1 1.0 0.6 0.55 0.1 0.06 1.0 0.6 0.16 0.03 0.5 3.0 4.5 2.0 0.1 0.5 0.2 16.5 8.5 100.00



Formula 15 (Violet 2) Constituents Violet No. 1 Irisone Beta (Givaudan) Iralia (Firmenich) Cetone V (allyl ionone, Givaudan) Ylang-ylang absolute Irophore (Firmenich) Violet leaf absolute Cassie absolute Mimosa absolute Jasmine absolute Mirabelle (Firmenich} 1% Total



Parts 60.0 6.0 10.0 9.0 4.0 1.0 2.6 0.8 1.3 1.2 3.5 100.00



The absolute oil of Parma violets, which had a delightful odor, is no longer commercial. The following formula given in formula 16 yields a product of fine



47



odor which may be utilized as a ‘reconstituted’ absolute oil of Parma violets. Formula 16 (Parma Violets Absolute Art) Constituents Violet leaf absolute (Schmoller & Bompard)



Parts 1.8



Irophore (Firmenich) Violettone B extra fine 100°/u (Firmenich) Parmanthene (Firmenich) Benzyl benzoate Total



4.0 4.0 0.2 90.0 100.0



The basic formula that follows gives a product of fine quality, which can be used in a multitude of different combinations in order to give effects approaching those of a little violet bouquet. The delicate odor of earth and humus that is so often found in a bunch of violets is mixture of amyl salicylate and pure amyl acetate, etc. (Formula 17). Formula 17 (Violet Base) Constituents Paracetone (Givaudan) Beta-iso methyl ionone Irisone extra incolore (Givaudan) Beta methyl ionone Boronia absolute Ionone alpha Violet leaf absolute Orris absolute (Robertet) Total



Parts 24 32 24 3 1 16 10 10 120



The concrete and absolute oils of Boronia, which contain ionone beta in its natural state, are much sought after in violet compositions, where they soften any harshness and add a tendency towards the Parma violet note. Acacia This is not in fact a true acacia. The Cassie is true species represented in perfumery. This perfume is widely accepted in warmer climates. It has fragrant and orange flower like odor of the tree Robinia pseudoacacia. The composition of acacia has basic odorants such as, phenyl ethyl alcohol, cinnamic alcohol, benzyl acetate, hydroxycitronellal, methyl naphthyl ketone, methyl anthranilate, linalool, 48



terpineol, anisic aldehyde ex anethole, and just a touch of apricot. Broom Broom, genista or genet is a shrub very popular in the south of France and in Spain; particularly in Catalonia, where the hills of Barcelona and the Tibidabo are covered with retama (the Catalan name for broom) at the approach of summer. From the perfumery point of view, the base is one of orange blossom: methyl anthrapilate, fleur d’oranger, etc., associated with methyl paracresol, methyl acetophenone, anisaldehyde and Grasse absolute of genet. Other constituents include alpha ionone, terpineol, linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, heliotropin, synthetic musk and olibanum. Carnation There are three main types of carnation: (i)



The carnation of Nice has a rather rosy, honeyed odor



(ii)



The garden pink has a spicy odor recalling cloves and pepper



(iii)



The so-called sea pink (not to be confused with Armoria maritima) has the basic odor of carnation plus a note of phenyl acetic aldehyde. In all carnations oleoresins are used as fixatives therefore they have slight resinous note.



Types of Carnation Oeillet de nice Here the basis is a blend of eugenol, isoeugenol and methyl eugenol, in varying proportions, accompanied by phenyl ethyl alcohol, benzyl salicylate, and sometimes amyl salicylate, vanilla, vanillin or ethyl vanillin. This base is sweetened with rose notes from rhodinol or rose de Mai absolute, carnation absolute or concrete and, above all, tuberose absolute. Unfortunately, as the latter has become very expensive, it must usually be replaced-as by a blend of synthetic tuberose with the natural material, or by a good ylang-ylang oil or ylangylang absolute. As aids to fixation there are benzyl isoeugenol, heliotropin and socalled heliotropin amorphous (a mixture of heliotropin, vanillin, anisic and benzoic acids). Garden pink Garden pink, known as Oeillet mignardise, has a This indicates that the use of more eugenol and together with a trace of clove oil. The vanilla base vanillin (veratraldehyde). Oils of pimento, bay characteristic note.



slightly more clove-like odor. less isoeugenol in the base, will preferably contain methyl or black pepper will add



49



Sea pink This small pink, which has a simple flower whose color is actually mauve, is found growing wild on dunes by the sea. Its strong odor may be imitated by adding to a garden pink formula amyl salicylate, phenyl acetic aldehyde and, if desired, a trace of hyacinth absolute. Carnation notes have a vital role in all kinds of perfumery. Even they can be fully exploited in the area of masculine perfumes. It is not necessary to go for too familiar spiced-cologne complexes. A straight forward carnation note is much better for use. Some such formulae are shown in formulae 18-19. Formula 18 (Base Claveline 1) Constituents Eugeno Cananga oil Ylang-ylang oil Rose Benzyl acetate Orris absolute Ceylon cinnamon oil Nutmeg concrete Nutmeg oil Benzyl benzoate Heliotropin Total



Parts 51.35 25.7 2.55 5.6 2.55 4.25 0.5 1.5 1.0 3.45 1.55 100.00



Formula 19 (Base Claveline 2} Constituents Eugenol Ylang-ylang oil Cananga oil Rose Cinnamic alcohol Benzyl acetate Vetiver oil, Java type Nutmeg oil Labdanum absolute (Lautier) Heliotropin Total



Parts 61.5 4.6 4.0 4.6 6.7 2.5 1.25 0.65 0.20 4.0 100.00



50



Cyclamen C persicum and C. europaeum important species of cyclamen are scented. The basic elements responsible for scents are hydroxycitronellal, linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, terpineol cinnamic alcohol, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, styrallyl acetate, rhodinol, phenyl acetic aldehyde, ionone, Lilial, Lyral and, finally, the essential cyclamen aldehyde and some of the classic ‘freshness’ components. The interesting variations of the composition of this perfume could result into novel and appreciating formulae. Think, for example, of its association with a group containing cyclopentadecanolide, aldehyde MNA, incense and vanilla. This type of association might well provide a very attractive ensemble. The cyclamen odor and its possible derivatives have not yet, in our view, been fully exploited especially if the cumin note is one of the elements used in its formation. Fougere (Fern) The fern or fougere may be one of several thousand species, but in any case it will rarely have an odor other than a mild and vague effluvium of humus, greenery and earth. This perfume has been created by imaginative perfumers. Most of them have a more or less pronounced note of verdure and moss. Fern perfumes are divisible into two main groups: (i)



Based on the triad bergamot. Tonka bean tincture or coumarin, and a product of musky odor; and



(ii)



In which linalyl, terpinyl, geranyl and above all bornyl and isobornyl acetates, give a compound of more or less rustic or woodland character.



Example 20 (Fougere I) Constituents Tree moss absolute Bergamot oil Lavender oil Rhodinol Rose M.S. Patchouli oil Geranium absolute incolore (Grasse) Methyl ionone Cyclopentadecanolide Petit grain oil, Paraguay Coumarin Musk ketone Heliotropin



Parts 2.0 10.1 10.1 10.1 6.1 3.1 4.1 12.15 1.0 2.0 14.3 6.1 6.1 51



Phenyl ethyl salicylate Methyl salicylate Eugenol Jasmine No. 1 Clary sage oil Amyl salicylate Musk tincture Tobacco (I.F.F.) Total



3.1 1.0 1.0 3.1 1.35 2.0 1.0 0.2 100.00



Now after going through above mentioned information, let’s discuss raw material used in making perfume i.e. synthetic or natural origin. The creation of synthetic perfumes developed as a result of research in organic chemistry. As technology improved, perfumers were able to detect the components of scents using infra red and ultra violet spectroscopy, gas-liquid and thin-layer spectroscopy, and optical rotatory dispersion (Bedoukian, 1967, intro.). Givaudan-Roure and International Flavors & Fragrances use a technology known as "headspace" to capture smells. A machine that looks like a "funnel attached to a box" is placed around the source of smell and the scent is sucked up, breaking the smell into its molecular level. A computer then stores the information like a sort of recipe to be recreated artificially. This has been extremely helpful in capturing rare scents as in exotic rain forests or endangered plants (Hwang, 1994). Many people think of the word synthetic and think that the product is inferior to the natural, real thing. This is not true. Some synthetic materials cost thousands more than natural products, and vice versa. Price is determined because of the beauty and demand of the scent. The creation of synthetic products has even made the amount of compounds available to perfumers increase dramatically because some materials cannot be separated from their natual oils, or there is only a small amount of material available, or the natual oils are very expensive. It is even said that using synthetics makes the process easier because their behavior during the period of evaporation is easier to judge due to the fact that it is a defined product.



52



V. Raw Materials of Perfumes (Natural Origin) Introduction The diversified natural products are used in perfumery. Advances in synthetic chemistry had major repercussions on perfumery and marked the beginning of a new epoch. The enthusiasm resulting from obtaining odors similar to those of certain flowers led at one time to the belief that synthetic products could entirely take the place of natural products. The quality of natural products is very important. It can be ensured through physical and chemical standards; however, olfactory analysis provides final decision. It is necessary that one must be adequately trained and exercised for judging olfactory purity and quality. Points which have to be taken into consideration while examining natural perfumery raw materials are: (1) The custom, more or less permissible, of making mixtures which physical and chemical analysis may or may not detect, and which olfactory analysis can readily detect. (2) For a determined natural product, olfactory analysis recognizes the origin of the product. For instance, a Grasse Jasmine as distinct from an Italian jasmine, or the jasmine of one supplier from that of another firm. (3) The tastes and preferences of a perfumer play a part here. Thus one perfumer will look in a jasmine for the fresh part, the sharp top note; while another will seek rather the warm, rather ‘jam-like’ and sometimes indoloid note. Thus a young perfumer who wishes to know the raw materials olfactorily must have available for his education the largest possible number of products. Natural Odorants Employed In Perfumery The natural odorants that are employed in perfumery can be assigned to seven categories, viz (1) Concrete oils (concretes). (2) Absolute oils (absolutes). (3) Essential oils derived from the distillation of flowers, leaves, roots and fruits.



53



(4) Essential oils obtained by expressing fruits. (5) Aromatic odorants obtained by the fractional distillation etc. of certain essential oils. (6) Odorants (such as tinctures) of vegetable or animal origin. (7) Products in the form of resins and balsams. Concrete Oils Concretes and absolutes are sometimes loosely designated ‘natural flower oils’ in order to distinguish them from the distilled and expressed ‘essential oils’. They are obtained by different processes. For example, the flowers, leaves, roots etc. are subjected to a kind of extraction by hydrocarbon solvents, which dissolve the waxes containing the odorous principles from the flowers. The hydrocarbons are then eliminated by evaporation under reduced pressure so that the heat does not affect the product so obtained, which is called concrete oil or simply a ‘concrete’. The concrete of the flowers so treated has the appearance of a more or less solid wax. It is insoluble in water and virtually insoluble in alcohol. However, it is possible to make tinctures with it, i.e. to dissolve by mixing in the cold state the odorous principles contained in the concrete, by using enclosed blade mixers and 95° alcohol for a considerable number of days (about a month). An odorous product of great fineness is obtained, displaying marked fidelity to the perfume of the flower. This is quite sensational, particularly with jasmine, and certain great perfumes owe part of their fame to this practice, which is moreover of very great antiquity. A variation on the process is based on ultrasonic and the energy which the latter liberate by their intense vibratory movements, producing a series of pressures and decompressions ringing about the ‘bursting of the cells’ which liberates the essential oils contained in those cells. The oils are then recovered, but not apparently without some difficulty. It seems quite possible, a priori, that an adequate medium may be found for each type of product, and that this will facilitate the recovery of the essential oils suspended in the supporting liquid. This process has at least the potential advantage of doing away with malodorous solvents and of obtaining concretes or absolute oils that have not been overheated. Absolute Oils These are generally obtained by extracting the concretes with alcohol, then eliminating the alcohol at reduced pressure. The product so obtained is entirely soluble in alcohol and often has the consistency of honey. The concrete is subjected to extraction by alcohol by heating to the lowest possible temperature in mixers. The product is then concentrated and the alcohol 54



evaporated by heating to a low temperature and at low pressure. A so-called ‘absolute’ essential oil is obtained which will be termed commercially: ‘ether type’. A few years ago a process was invented which is a low temperature one and consists of passing a stream of butane gas (boiling point -0.5°C) through a kind of tube in which the flowers are placed whose perfume is to be extracted. The absolute oil so obtained tends to be relatively light colored and true to type, but in some cases it may not be entirely soluble in alcohol. This process first made it possible to obtain commercially interesting absolutes of lilac and lily-of-the-valley. A very old process is that of the ‘pommades’. There are two ways of carrying it out (1) The process of maceration in the hot state, which consisted of melting an odorless fat and allowing the flowers to be macerated in it, the fat or oil being kept at a medium temperature for the fat to be liquid, without excessive heating. The fat absorbs the perfume. In the past, forms of alcoholate were prepared, by extracting these pommades with alcohol in the cold state. Pommade washings (lavages de pommade) were obtained, which showed their concentration according to the number they bore. Then extractions of these pommades with alcohol are carried out to obtained concentrated solutions, and the alcohol is evaporated, in order to produce the ‘absolute essential oils ex pommade’. Not all flowers can be treated by this process, but only those which are not too delicate: the flowers of Cassie farnesiana, rose, orange blossom, mimosa, hyacinth, carnation etc. (2) The process of maceration in the cold state, or enfleurage. In this process, fat or oil is also used. It involves coating the glass plates of glazed wooden frames with a fat or oil. Inside these frames (termed cadre or chassis), on the part coated with fat, are placed the flowers. The frames are stacked on one another so as to obtain a hermetic seal and they are allowed to stand for 24 hours, so that the effluvia liberated dissolve in the fat or oil. The flowers that have given up their perfume are removed and replaced by fresh ones. This operation is repeated until the fat or grease is saturated with perfume. The perfumed fats are treated with alcohol, and by increasing these extraction operations, followed by chilling and filtration, an alcoholic solution is obtained, which is subsequently concentrated by evaporation to yield the ‘absolute enfleurage essential oil’. The flowers that have given up the greater part of their perfume in the frames still contain perfume. They are treated with volatile solvents (petroleum ether or benzene) so that products are obtained which bear the name of ‘absolute ex chassis, ether type’, or ‘absolute ex chassis, benzene type’. 55



The flowers treated by this process are those which are the most delicate, but which in spite of all continue to ‘live’ and yield perfume after they have been cut. These include jasmine, tuberose, jonquil, narcissus and mignonette. The fats used are lard or vegetable fat. Pork lard is best, and it is preferably deodorized. In these processes, a small amount of fat is always carried along by the alcohol. In the past this habitually gave, when used in perfumes, a liquid that was very slightly cloudy and which had to be chilled and filtered. It is at present possible to obtain extremely odorless fats, some of them synthetic. On the other hand, there were once certain perfumers who were not opposed to the odor sui generic of these fats, which contributed a very slight suggestion of rancio (to use the special term adopted by perfumers in the early part of this century). Essential Oils derived from Distillation This process is applied to flowers, leaves, stalks, herbs, roots and even to certain fruits. There are three main ways of obtaining these products (1) Distillation in a still with naked flame. The essential oil of Bulgarian rose obtained by this process then bore the name of Bulgarian peasant rose (Rose Bulgare Paysanne) to distinguish it from, that obtained by the steam processes. In naked flame distillation, water is placed in the still along with the ingredient to be distilled. It is heated to boiling point, the steam passed through a cooled coil and at the end of the coils the water and the essential oil are collected. The latter float’s on the surface (except in the case of a very few oils of higher specific gravity) after some time and is separated from the water. This process is still used for certain plants for which distillation on the spot is more advantageous. These include lavender, lavandin, rosemary, spike, thyme etc., and in this way the products treated have the advantage of being fresh and undried. (2) The second process is to have large cylindrical stills heated by coils in which steam circulates. It makes it possible to heat more regularly and to avoid the heat surges inevitable with naked flame stills. Water is placed in the still with the raw materials from which it is desired to obtain the essential oil. It is heated and the steam is collected in more or less the same way as in the naked flame process. (3) This process is the same as the previous one, but a stream of live steam is passed to the still, which carries the essential oils along more quickly. In certain cases a partial vacuum is produced which makes it possible to heat to a lower temperature and to obtain finer products. In addition to leaves, sterns and roots, citrus fruits are sometimes treated in this 56



way, i.e. the peel of lemons and oranges. The essential oils obtained in this way are generally less fine and are above all used in the food and beverage industries. Essential Oils Obtained by Expression The fruits that yield essential oils by expression are the citrus fruits or Hesperidaceae. These fruits include: lemons, sweet and bitter oranges, mandarins, bergamots, citrons, limes from Italy or Africa; the highly perfumed West Indian lime, and the shaddock or grapefruit. All these fruits, whose essential oil is contained in the peel, can be simply squeezed out as they are. The whole of the juice of the fruit is thus collected, together with the floating essential oil. The drawback is that the juice is always acid and considerably impairs the essential oil. A number of mechanical processes have since been patented and used to obtain citrus peel type essential oils economically and of good quality. Isolates from Essential Oils These products are midway between the natural products and the pure synthetic products. An example will better show what is meant. From the natural essential oil of Brazilian bois de rose is extracted linalool, of which it contains up tai 90 per cent. This natural organic product has a sweet odor, which is pleasant and recalls the odor of the parent oil, a slightly rosy and at the same time woody odor. This is a very important ingredient in perfumery, which lacks the ‘dryness’ and ‘harshness’ of the products of pure chemical synthesis. That is why, in our opinion, it should not be assigned to the class of synthetic products, but to a kind of special synthetic-natural class. Take the example of linalyl acetate obtained from bois de rose linalool and entirely synthetic linalyl acetate. It has to be admitted that for the perfumer, of the two linalyl acetates, that having bois de rose as its origin is far superior, while the other tends to suggest terpinyl acetate. This will not prevent the use, in high-class perfumery, of isolates etc. obtained from natural products. Sometimes, even, exceptional products are found, e.g. a special bergamot linalyl acetate derived from bergamot oil and having a distinct but subtle odor variation all of its own. However, there is a whole class of products derived for different reasons from essential oils and these are the ‘deterpenated essential oils’. Over forty years ago, a perfumery chemist who caused a great stir at the time, conducted considerable publicity for deterpenated essential oils in the sole Fresh perfumery journal that existed in those days. According to him, all the essential oils should be done away with and replaced by the corresponding terpene-free essential oils. The latter are more soluble in alcohol than those which are not deterpenated, and it is therefore possible to concentrate more in a weakly alcoholic solution. But that is not the only criterion. The terpenes present in normal essential oils play a part, when 57



incorporated in an alcoholic perfume, that is far from negligible and appears to ‘exalt’ the perfume as a whole. This is due in part at least to the fact that, in the scale of volatilities, terpenes are an important link between the alcohol itself and the few boiling esters etc. The example has very often been cited of a perfume made with natural essential oils and the same perfume made with deterpenated essential oils. Taking into account differences in strength, that made with natural, non deterpenated essential oils is often greatly superior. Moreover, what can a terpeneless oil of lemon mean to a perfumer, when the natural essential oil contains 90 per cent terpenes? On the other hand some well-produced terpeneless oils undoubtedly deserve a place on the perfumer’s shelves. It has been frequently stated that perfumes made with terpeneless products deteriorate less rapidly but perfumers are not in entire agreement on this point. Deterpenation is carried out by fractional distillation at reduced pressure. It is also affected by appropriate solvents and other more recent methods. Natural Odorants as Tinctures Some natural products are frequently employed in the form of tinctures, based on their more or less prolonged maceration in 95° alcohol, which is initially used hot or cold. Commonly found in this category are animal musk, ambergris; civet and castoreum, but other materials ‘may also be treated in this way, e.g. patchouli leaves, vetiver root, oak moss. The corresponding essential oils and/or absolutes are in most cases also available. Infusions are similarly prepared, by means of such treatments as processing in 95° alcohol, in a heated closed container fitted with reflux cooling equipment. Balsams and Resins These products are as rule types of resin occurring as exudations on trees or plants, e.g., Peru and Tolu balsams, benzoin, and olibanum. These products were originally used in their raw state, as the bases of alcoholic tinctures. Firms have produced, however, a variety of more conveniently handled concentrates or absolutes, known collectively as resinoids. They are in fact the end-products of extracting these materials with different solvents, including hydrocarbons, petroleum ether, benzene, mineral oil, acetone, the glycols, trichloroethylene and butane. Other procedures include second extraction with alcohol, the inclusion of plasticizing diluents, depolarization etc. The finished, standardized and duly concentrated resinoid may often bear a special name, indicative of its origin, e.g. Gomodor, Clair, and Verarome. Using vacuum distillation, molecular distillation and combinations of extraction crude resins and balsams are also obtained. The various interesting extracts -and components obtained are novel odorants. But the principal part played by these resins and balsams, especially if their 58



resinous texture is retained, is to ‘hold back’ the volatilization of the perfumes in which they are used, probably by the physical or physicochemical properties of the thin varnish-like film that they form. They do not flatten out or restrict the proper diffusion of the perfume. This is the most extra-ordinary feature of these products, in that they can ‘fix’ a perfume without interfering with its other characteristics, whereas materials such as the phthalates and benzoates slow down the evaporation but in doing so alter the perfume’s behavior and make it dull and flat. We now take a closer look at these various categories and the principal substances contained in each of them. Concrete Oils or ‘Concretes’ As the concrete, for each of the flowers to which it corresponds, is not normally used as such but is only an intermediate between the flower and the absolute, we shall not deal at any length with the concrete itself. It may occasionally be used as such, in the form of a tincture. Concretes are not fully soluble, even in 95° alcohol, but the soluble portion does in fact contain the fragrant principles. A typical concrete has the appearance of a more or less granular wax and its color ranges from cream to yellow or almost brown. Sometimes it has a more or less greenish color. All these shades differ, according to the [lowers from which they are prepared. The concrete, in brief, is the wax in the flower, accompanied by the essential oil which is responsible for the flower’s perfume. Absolute Oils Whatever the process of extraction, the absolute takes the form of a more or less consistent syrupy substance, ranging in color from yellow to brown. Some are green or greenish. Others have been treated by depolarization processes. The problem in removing color is to ensure that a significant proportion of the odorous components is not removed or adversely affected in the process. A. Floral Series 1. Rose Notes Absolute Oil of Rose De Grasse This absolute essential oil comes either from the pommade through maceration of the petals, or through volatile solvents to obtain the concrete of Rosa centifolia in the first stage, and after that the absolute essential oil, which is generally denoted by the name of Rose de Mai absolute. The odor of this oil of rose is characterized by a honey note, resembling very slightly a delicate peppery note shading off into a light tonality of natural carnation.



59



Sometimes it is possible to perceive a slightly green odor, depending on the ripeness of the flower and above all on the care taken in manufacture, so also to eliminate as much as possible the ends of stalks, calyxes etc. from the flowers, Bulgarian Rose Absolute This comes from the concrete of Rosa damascena, grown in Bulgaria, and in many cases treated in France to obtain the absolute. Moroccan and Turkish Rose Absolutes The absolute oil of Moroccan rose has a less peppery note than that of the Bulgarian species. The absolute of Turkish or Anatolian rose is produced from Rosa damascena, as in Bulgaria. So far, however, the absolute from these two countries is not as good as that of Bulgarian rose. Absolute of Rose Geranium The rose or Rosat geranium is produced from Pelargonium roseum or Pelargonium odorantissimum, or Pelargonium graveolens, Pelargonium radula etc. These different species are cultivated in Algeria, Morocco, Spain, the Bourbon islands, India etc. For a long time, a Grasse firm made from the concrete a colorless absolute oil of geranium, which was used with some synthetics to make a composition used for blending with Bulgarian rose, so as to have ‘cut’ or blended Bulgarian rose at reduced price. It is regrettable that the Bulgarian government, which manages the rose industry, does not take the initiative of making concrete of Zdravetz (Bulgarian geranium) available. One is convinced that it would be possible to make a colorless absolute oil of Zdmvetz, as was done for Rosat geranium, and far better mixtures could thus be obtained with synthetics than the blends we have mentioned; and this without prejudice to the consumption of Bulgarian rose oil. On the contrary, it would favor the use of such Bulgarian oils in everyday products that must be produced at inexpensive levels. Absolute Oil of Rose Leaves In addition to the flowers that contain essential oils, it quite often happens that the stems, and more often the leaves, contain essential oils which impart perfume to the flower with very often a slight green note. This is what happens with Rose. The absolute oil or rose leaves performs a very valuable service in rose composition and in modern compositions with a green note. 2. Jasmine Notes Absolute Oil of Jasmine The white flower is that of Jasminum grandiflorum or Jasminum officinale or Jasminum odorantissimum etc., whose place of origin was India. It is grown in the south of France, in the region of Grasse. The absolute essential oil of Jasmine revolution is very different from that of the 60



jasmine from France, Italy etc. Its odor is warmer, more like that of orange-flower, very special, and if it were produced in sufficient quantity it would provide the perfumer’s palette with a new and interesting note. The absolute oil of jasmine from the species Jasminum grandiflorum is obtained by the pommade or enfleurage process -but above all from the concrete obtained by volatile solvent extraction or the other processes already described. One of us (M.B.) has taken some jasmine absolute and carried out fractional distillation under vacuum. He found that a portion of this distillation had a very powerful odor that was exceptionally appealing, capable of giving rise, with two or three other original components, to a really fine perfume. It is true that such a process involves a high-priced product, bearing in mind the price of jasmine absolute. But must this be taken into consideration for high-class perfumes. In the same order of ideas, it is possible to take absolutes or ordinary essential oils and extract from them, by fractional distillation, components of the very greatest interest. It is in similar fashion that oil of Virginia cedar wood yields cedrol, which has a very agreeable and warm odor, recalling that of oil of carrot and also methyl ionone. As previously referred to the concrete de chassis obtained from the exhausted flowers in the enfleurage process. This concrete is extracted with 95° alcohol, then the alcohol is evaporated off and a product is obtained termed absolute oil of chassis jasmine, ex ether or benzene according to the soft used. This absolute is brown in colour; it has a very special jasmine odor, with a suggestion of caramel slightly recalling jam. It performs great services when used in a small percentage in synthetic jasmines, to soften their, crudity the type with ether is better than the benzene type. Unfortunately, availability of these products continually declines, owing to die decrease in effleurage. Absolute of Ylang-Ylang In some respects absolute oil of ylang-ylang bears a certain analogy to that of jasmine. The ylang-ylang is a tree of the Anonaceae family: Cananga odorata. The absolute is obtained by the usual processes. The note of ylang-ylang is a very special one and the absolute oil (like the distilled oil) is one of the products that are indispensable in fine perfumery. 3. Hyacinth Notes The absolute oil obtained from Hyacinthus orientalis may be a product of the enfleurage process but usually it derives from volatile solvent extraction via the concrete. The best hyacinth absolutes come from Holland. 61



4. Lilac and Lily Absolute Oil of Lilac This was virtually unobtainable until the Butaflor process made it possible to produce natural oil from lilac in commercial quantities. The shrub which yields the lilac flowers is Syringa vuigaris. Ordinary everyday lilac has an odor characterized by hydroxycitronellal and a rose odor. White lilac has a more jasmine-like odor. All the lilacs also, have, in varying degrees, a mild odor of greenery. Lily-Of-The-Valley Lily-of-the-valley, Convallaria majalis, grows widely in the northern hemisphere. Butaflor absolute oil is available. 5. Orange-Blossom Notes Orange flower Absolute For a long time perfumers denoted this essential oil by the name of absolute oil of orange an obviously incorrect name but one which is nevertheless found in the formulae of ancient books. It is obtained by the same processes, as those used for jasmine (pommade, enfleurage, volatile solvents). Absolute Oil of Orange flower Water The distilled flowers of the bitter orange or bigarade yield oil of neroli, accompanied by floral water which contains an important quantity of essential oil. By extracting this oil from the water by means of petroleum ether, the absolute oil of Eaux de Fleurs d’oranger is obtained. Absolute Oil of Syringa Its absolute, obtained by the usual process of volatile solvent extraction, followed by washing the concrete with alcohol, has a perfume that relates it to orangeblossom, but without indole and with a very fresh initial note of a slightly - lemony type The sole drawback to this absolute is that its production in France is still very small. It could become greater and would certainly perform excellent service to perfumers. 6. Tuberose Notes This note includes those of tuberose and narcissus, which are flowers from which absolutes have been prepared. With the progress of modern technology, and in particular by the use of the Butaflor processes; it should be possible to obtain some other, interesting absolute oils in this sector. Absolute Oil of Tuberose This is a plant originating in India in, the form of the tubers of Polyanthes 62



tuberosa. The absolute oil is obtained by the process of pommade, enfleurage or by volatile solvents. Its odor is heady, and it blends very well, in small quantities, with carnation and lends it distinction: Absolute Oil of Narcissus This absolute comes from the Narcissus poeticus. There are two types of absolute: the Narcissus cultivated on the plains of Grasse and the ‘mountain’ type, which is that of the Cevennes and the hills near Grasse. It is the volatile solvent process that yields the concrete from which the absolute is extracted. This is rather dark greenish-brown or very dark yellow oil, according to its origin (mountain or plain). The type of odor is represented in the crude state by different esters of paracresol and methyl paracresol (acetate or phenyl acetate etc.), with a middle note recalling isoeugenol, and finally a rather characteristic green note. Absolute Oil of Jonquil The absolute oil of jonquil comes from Narcissus jonquilla. It is obtained mainly by enfleurage. Absolute-Oil of Champaca This oil is solvent-extracted from the flowers of two species, Michelia champaca (yellow champaca) and Michelia longifolia (white champaca), of the Magnoliaceae family. Absolute Oil of Honeysuckle This is extracted by volatile solvents from the flowers of Lonicera caprifolium. Its odor somewhat recalls that of jasmine, as regards its fresh part, with a body suggesting tuberose, but rather more orange flower-like and with a slightly fruity background suggesting apricot. Absolute Oil of Lily This absolute oil, which is produced in France in only small quantities, comes from Lilium candidum. It has a heady and rather fatty floral note and could well be of sufficient interest for its production to be more intensively developed. 7. Violet Notes Different kinds of violet flowers have different types of odor. The viola odorata, with a definite violet character, is rather earthy or humus-like. The double violet, also known as the Parma violet, has a very sweet, soft and slightly fruity odor. Absolute Oil of Violet This oil is obtained from the concrete which is itself obtained by volatile solvents, in this case petroleum ether, from flowers of the Victoria violet, which is grown in the Grasse region. It has a definite odor of violet, with a green and earthy note. Absolute Oil of Parma Violet 63



Obtained from the solvent-extracted concrete, its odor is sweeter than that of the foregoing and can be related to that of beta ionone, gamma or delta methyl ionone. It is more flowery and less earthy in odor than the oil of the Victoria violet. Absolute Oil of Violet Leaves This absolute oil is obtained by treating the leaves of the -Victoria violet with petroleum ether, and subsequently processing the concrete in the usual way. It gives excellent service in violet compositions, particularly when used in association with other absolutes which also have a violet note, such as boronia, Cassie, mimosa and iris. Absolute Oil of Boronia The absolute oil of boronia comes from an herbaceous plant, the Boronia polygalifolia, of Australia. After remaining for a varying length of time in petroleum ether, the flowers undergo the ordinary treatment with volatile solvents and subsequently with 95° alcohol. The green-colored syrupy flower oil contains beta ionone, and 1 much appreciated by perfumers, who have found that they can combine it with a wide variety of other notes. Its note de depart is very sharp and somewhat recalls the odor of a sorrel leaf crushed between the fingers. The other part of the boronia perfume is a mixture of the odors of violets, olibanum and ambergris. Absolute Oil of Cassie Absolute oil of Cassie is obtained from the flowers of Acacia farnesiqna. The concrete is prepared with volatile solvents, and extraction by 95° alcohol is then carried out by the usual processes. The absolute is dark yellow in color and contains a violet-.smelling ketone together with farnesol. The absolute oil of Cassie has a warm odor with a few points in common with violet, and some reminders also of mimosa. It imparts to a perfume, richness, body and depth and it can be ‘associated with a large number of products. Absolute Oil of Mimosa There are three kinds of concretes: the mimosa concrete made solely with flowers, the concrete of mimosa and leaves made from mimosa flowers and leaves, and finally the concrete of leaves made solely with mimosa leaves. All these concretes obviously have a tonality of mimosa, but are accompanied by a more or less green note according to the individual case. Mimosa flowers themselves possess a very sharp top note, almost lemony, while in the absolute this is quite absent. Mimosa absolute oil is a relatively inexpensive natural product, but sufficient advantage has not yet been taken of it. Absolute Oil of Iris Absolute oil of iris (orris) is extremely costly, owing to the very low yield of iris concrete or butter from the root of Iris germanica or florentina Dykes, or from the root of Iris pallida, which is of the order of 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. 64



To obtain iris concrete, or butter, dried iris root is subjected to steam distillation. From this concrete, there is obtained by washing in 95° alcohol, according to the ordinary processes, the absolute oil of iris. Quite often, the concrete contains from 13 to 17 per cent iron. 8. Mignonette Notes Absolute Oil of Mignonette (Reseda) Absolute oil of reseda has an odor recalling that of violet leaves, but with a rather fine ‘powdery’ background and a suggestion of rose and a little basil. The synthetics representing its odor are first of all ethyl decent carbonate and also, to-some extent, methyl hexyl ketone. The distillation of reseda root yields oil with a piquant odor, ‘like black radish, or rather horseradish. B. Woody Series 1. Sandal Notes Solvent-Extracted Sandalwood These oils, the products of a technique midway between distillation and extraction, have a fine middle, fraction santalol note but lack the character and bouquet (e.g. the ‘early emerqers’ and mildly animal-empyreumatic notes) of the best quality distilled oils. 2. Peppery Notes Absolute Oil of Thyme This is obtained from Thymus vulgaris, which is found in France and Spain. It has an herbaceous, woody, powerful and, slightly biting odor. 3. Caryophyllaceous Notes Absolute Oil of Carnation The flowers of Dianthus caryophyllus are extracted to give the absolute essential oil, which has the characteristic eugenol isoeugenol odor, shaded with a honey and rose tone, suggestive of Rose de Grasse absolute. Absolute Oil of Clovers This is extracted from the buds of Caryophyllus aromaticus which is a small tree of the Myrtaceae family. It has a spicy, hot, woody odor. Absolute Oil of Tobacco Flower 65



This is derived from various species of Nicotiana. It has a very sweet odor recalling methyl ionone, but is much sweeter, reminding one a little of clove pink. C. Rural Series 1. Herbaceous Notes Absolute Oil of Flouve Flouve or vernal grass is a field grass and among the various species that exist in France, it is the flowers, seeds and stalk ends of this species which serve as the raw material for this absolute. New Mown Hazy Absolute In itself the expression cut or mown hay is very vague. It is represented as an odor by what is perceived in the air. Absolute oil of Lavender The plant yielding this oil is Lavandula officinalis or Lavandula vera. The odor of absolute is sweet and herbaceous, with an almost fruity background. Absolute Oil of Lavandin Lavandin is a hybrid derived from Lavandula vera and Lavandula Spica (aspic). The odor of lavandin absolute is less floral than that of lavender, and drier, slightly spicy. Tea Leaf Absolute This is obtained from the true tea shrub, Thea sinensis, by treating the dry leaves with petroleum ether. Different firms sell it under different names. Owing to its dark coloration, subsequent distillation is often carried out, and a very pale product is then obtained having an herbaceous, rather sweet odor. 2. Green Notes Oak moss (Mousse De Chene) To these extracts one adds natural green or balsamic, synthetics of a green character and other synthetics which blend particularly well with the moss note e.g. the isopropyl and isobutyl quinolines. These latter synthetics, associated with mosses, have formed the basis of some very great perfumes. Oak moss has a strong and persistent odor of humus and forest under growth, but it varies widely according to source and treatment, A product of great interest, it forms the basis of many perfumes. Formerly, oak moss was used as a tincture. By distilling an essential oil such as bergamot in the presence of a certain quantity of the moss, a product may be obtained which is not exactly a bergamot or oil oak moss and has a new character of originality and fineness. 66



Absolute Oil of Fern Although the odor of fern (fougere) is generally attributed to complex synthetic and natural substances. The fern absolute exists and is obtained from the rhizomes of male Aspidium. Its odor is sweet, woody and redolent of earthy humus. Absolute Oil of Ivy This essential oil, Ivy or Lierre, resulting from the treatment of ivy leaves with hydrocarbons, comes from raw material that is very widespread in France and Europe; it is a climbing plant which creeps over the ground or climbs along a wail or up a tree (Hedera helix). Absolute Oil of Tree Moss (Mousse d’Arbre) These lichens are collected from all kinds of trees other than the oak, whose moss has a very fresh and pleasant top note. Tree moss absolute is used for blending with oak moss absolute, chiefly in order to lower the price. Vetiver Absolute Oil of vetiver is extracted from the rootlets of vetiveria zizanoides, of the Graminaceous family, which is found in India, Malaya, Reunion, Brazil, New Caledonia etc. The best quality is that from India. D. Balsamic Series 1. Resinous Notes Absolute Oil of Cypress This absolute oil comes from the needles and sprigs of Cupressus sempervirens, and no doubt from other species such as Cupressus lusitanica; from which the concrete is extracted by benzene, a concrete that furnishes the absolute by further treatment with 95° alcohol. The absolute so obtained possesses an odorrecalling that of conifers like the pine and to some extent has a slightly ambered background. Absolute Oil of Fir Needles The products that come from France as Absolu d’Aiguilles are as a rule those from Abies Alba. The concrete is prepared by treatment of the needles and twigs with benzene, followed by a second extraction with 95° alcohol; the odor is balsamic, with a suggestion of fruitiness and a coumarin note. Everlasting (Immortelle) Absolute This comes from Helichrysum angustifolium. The concrete is obtained by volatile solvents and then the absolute with alcohol. The odor is powerful, warm, dry and very tenacious, recalling coumarin, but a little fruity and slightly honed.



67



2. Vanilla Notes Absolute Oil of Vanilla The plant that yields absolute oil of vanilla is Vanilla planifolia, a native of Mexico. To obtain the black pod with which we are all familiar, the exact treatment varies according to the country of origin. Many French perfumers still use tincture of vanilla, which they make themselves. The best qualities of vanilla pods are those from Reunion and Mexico. Absolute oil of Heliotrope Absolute oil; of heliotrope, although the possibilities, of producing it are great and its price is very reasonable. The absolute is extracted by the process of hot oil enfleurage of the ends of the flowers. It is made in the Grasse region, and in odor is faithful to the perfume of the flower. Here it suggests both vanilla and anisaldehyde, and of course heliotropin, together with herbaceous and woody tonalities which recall the odor of hazel nuts. E. Fruity Series Absolute oil of Fig Leaves is made on a relatively small scale in the south of France. The plant is the, Ficus caria, which produces also the fig fruit. The leaves are treated with petroleum ether for obtaining the concrete, which is then treated with 95° alcohol. The odor is sweet, fruity, honeyied, with a green, grassy tendency, slightly woody. F. Animal Series 1. Amber Notes Ambrette Seed Absolute This absolute oil is obtained from the seeds of Hibiscus abelmoschus, of the Malvaceae family, an herb that can reach a height of 2 m. Only the seeds are used. The plant is a native of India, but grows throughout the tropics. The true absolute of ambrette from the concrete is not the ordinary commercial product, which is in fact obtained by redistilling and selecting the essential oil obtained by steam distillation. Its powerful, warm odor has a tenacious musk and amber character. Anqelica Absolute The treatment of this plant is carried out in Grasse; also in Holland and elsewhere. Its odor is powerful, pungent, herbaceous, and rather musk-like, after the manner 68



of a macro-musk. It bears a slight similarity to that of celery, but is fruitier, less dry and with suggestions of opoponax. Cumin Absolute The plant producing this absolute is Cumbrum cyminum, also one of the Umbelliferaceae. It is the seeds that are processed. Labdanum Absolute Labdanum has a typically balsamic odor, rather flowery, herbaceous, amber-like and very tenacious. The absolute derived from the species growing in Crete is the finest, the most amber-like and the least colored. The absolute is obtained from the concrete by benzene and extraction of the concrete by 95° alcohol. Clary Sage Absolute Clary sage or Salvia sclarae is harvested in Provence, in north Italy and Morocco. The concrete is obtained by petroleum ether from the leaves and the absolute by subsequent treatment with alcohol. The odor is an original, light note, slightly winy, with a muscat character. It has an amber and even slightly fruity background note. 2. Maritime Notes Seaweed Absolute The experimental development of algae and seaweed odorants. One such product, prepared from several seaweeds, has a typically ‘seaside’ odor, recalling ozone, which is also the characteristic note of a synthetic product often termed ‘sea aldehyde’. The association of these two products can give interesting and original results, to obtain striking effects of atmosphere, space and sea: and perhaps of bathers and the odor of salt water on suntanned skins. 3. Musk Notes Costus Absolute From Aplotaxis lappa (Compositae), a native of India and particularly of the Himalayas, at altitudes of from 2000 to 4000 meters, comes costus absolute. The dried and crushed rhizomes are treated by benzene or petroleum ether to obtain the concrete. The absolute of the concrete is obtained by the conventional method. G. Empyreumatic Series



69



1. Tobacco Notes Mate (Pert) Absolute The semi-solid dark green absolute extracted from the dry leaves of mate or Ilex paraguayensis and related species deserves to be more widely used in fine perfumery, especially as the leaves of the South American ‘yerba mate’ are widely available as the basis of a tea-like beverage. The odor is warm herbal-fruity, with peppery phenolic shading and a patchouli-amber end note. This oil can give most interesting effects in fougere, foin coupe, chypre; tabac, leather; and mossy, green, patchouli, woody and aldehydic blend. Melilot Absolute This is extracted from Melilotus arvensis and Melilotus offcinalis. It contains coumarin and methyl coumarin, and has a slightly fruity odor similar to that of mirabelle, with some resemblance to the tobacco note. Tobacco Leaf Absolute This comes from the Nicotiana. Its absolute recalls the smell of a cigar. It also bears some analogy to the body note of musk. Decolorized absolutes are available. Essential Oils, Terpeneless Oils These are the essential oils from which the tarpene components have been removed by extraction and fractionation, either alone or in combination. The optical activity of the oil is thus reduced. The most widely used of all natural perfumery materials, namely the essential oils-distilled from flowers, leaves, roots, fruits, seeds and, in some cases, whole plants. The old type of direct-fired still, heated with a naked flame, has been almost entirely superseded by the indirect type of steam distillation, which in turn can be modified by the use of a partial vacuum. Dry and destructive methods of distillation are also employed in a few specialized cases. Some oils are further modified by ‘rectification’, involving redistillation and possibly fractionation. A very restricted number of essential oils are expressed, not distilled; the most obvious examples being the cold-pressed (i.e. from the peel) citrus oils.



70



VI. Raw Materials of Perfumes (Synthetic Origin) Introduction The significant development in the last few years has introduced the commercial new musks and ambergris-like bodies. The use of myrtenal, myrtenol, esters, rose, oxides, important jasmine odorants was appeared. Maillard derivatives, green and woody and empyreumatic odorants availability has increased recently. Most of the odorants are included in appropriate heading. This chapter deals with selected chemicals having specific odor groups and in particular some important pertaining to perfumes. It has been noted that the classification based on chemical headings (e.g., alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ethers, ketones) is difficult, hence they are grouped according to odor (e.g., scent of ambergris) or application (e.g. as a soap or textile perfumes). In each group, unless otherwise stated, the first section (a) features those synthetic odorants and isolates which normally provide the characteristic odor of the perfume or at least contribute significantly towards it. In the second section (b) and as a supplement to what has already been said in Chapter 2, appear the corresponding natural odorants. The third section (c) consists of modifying and accessory odorants, including so-called fixatives. Other materials (d) capable of giving a special note to different varieties of a perfume (e.g. red rose, tea rose, white rose etc., in the case of rose perfumes) are tabulated in Table 3.1. Rose, jasmine, orange flower and lily-of-the-valley groups are included because of their basic importance not only for specific flower perfumes but as constituents of many other floral and fantasy perfumes. Table 3.1 Different varieties of perfumes Synthetic Odorant Rose Odorant Rhodinol l-Citronellol Geraniol Nero! Phenyl ethyl alcohol Rose alcohol esters Dimethyl octanol C8 to C12 alcohols and acetates C8 to C11 aldehydes



Natural Odorant



Fixative



Blenders



Bulgarian Rose Oil Rose de Mai absolute Geranium oil Zdravetz oil Guiacwood oil Patchouli Oil



Wardia Roselium And Many Others



Benzophenone Bromstyrole Benzyl acetate and esters Cinnamic alcohols Cinnamyl acetate Citral Citionellal Citronellyl Oxyacetaldebyde Omega-Decenol Dimethyl benzyl Carbinol and esters Diphenyl



71



ether Dimethyl phenyl ethyl carbinol Methyl diphenyl ether Ethyl cinnamate Menthyl acetate, p-Methyl phenyl acetaldehyde, musk ketone, phenyl ethyl acetal iso-Pulegol Eugenol, isoEugenol, Benzyl iso-eugenol FarnesoJ, lonones, Linalool, Tetrahydolinalool,



phenyl acetaldehyde Phenyl acetic acid phenyl acetates Rose oxides B-Damascenone



Jasmine absolutes Mimosa



Jasmones Dihydrojasmone



Benzyl alcohol, Benzyl salicylaie



Ylang-ylang oil



Jasmine adored



p-Cresol, cinnamic Amyl aldehyde



Bois-de-rose oil Terpeneless petit grain oil



lactones



dimethyl acetal



Bergamot oil



Cis-Jasmone



ά -Amyl hydrocinnamic alcohol and aldehyde



Jasmine Odorants Benzyl acetate Benzyl esters ά-amyl ciiutamic aldehyde



Jasmone



Bulgarian Rose Oil



Rose Odorant



Celery seed oil



Noane diol-l; 3-acetate



alcohol and aldehyde



Indole



Geranium oil



Methyl dihydro-



Methyl heptenone 72



Peru balsam Styrax resinoid Civet tincture benzyl Benzoira absolute



Jasmon



Dimethyl carbinol Nonane diol-l 3acetate Hydroxycitronellal Phenyl ethyl alcohol and esters p-Cresyl phenyl acetate Linalool, linalyl acetate



Eugenol and iso-eugenol phenylpropyl alcohol and aldehyde p-Methyl phenyl-1 acetic aldehyde Tetrahydro-pmethyl quinoline Farnesol α-Terpineol



Cinnamic alcohol Anisic alcohol ethyl anisate



Nerol, Methyl antranilate and its hydroxycitronellal Schiff base Acetates C8 and C10 Alcohols C8 and C9 Aldehydes C8, C10 and pseudo Orange flower aldehydes absolute C14 and C16 Neroli Oil Orangeftawer and Neroli Odorants Methyl anthranilate



Petit grain Oil, natural and terpeneless Bois de rose oil Camphor oil



Many proprietary specialties, including artificial and reconstituted compositions are of use in wholly or partly replacing the natural essential oil and absolute



Ethyl, methyl (dimethyl) phenyl ethyl and linalyl anthranilates Geraniol Methyl nephthyl ketone, Neryl geranyl and benzyl acetates



Indole 73



iso- Jasmine absolute natural and artificial and



Jasmone, jasmone



Nonyl aldehyde and acetate



Alcohols C10 C12 Aldehydes C8, C9 & C10 Linalool, acetate



linalyl



Phenyl alcohol



ethyl



Nonyl aldehyde and acetate Terpinyl and iso Butyl phenyl acetates β-naphthyi methyl acetaldehyde Bulgarian Rose Oil



Phenyl acetaldehyde Phenyl acetic acid iso-Eugenol isoButyl heptenone yundecalactone pTolyl aldehyde Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Methyl benzoate



Nerol Nerolidol β-methyl napthyl ketone Aurantiol Rose Odorant Farnesol Benzaldehyde



Muguet Odorants



Hydroxycitronellal Citronellol phenyl



Rose de Grasse



phenylacetaldehyde, dimethyl and glyceryl



Sandal wood oil



acetals Cyclamen



East Indian



aldehyde



Citronella oil Aldehydes C10-C12 Ceylon (traces) Lauric Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Cinnamic alcohol Ethyl linalool



ethyl 74



alcohol



Rhodinol Indole Dimethyl benzyl carbinol and acetate Linalool Lillial (Givaudan)



A. Green Notes Fresh green odors, complementary to floral odors as in a flower bouquet, have become an essential component of many fashionable perfumes. They are refreshing, evocative of nature, and serve admirably as a foil- to sweeter and more exotic odors. The impetus for using them has also been stimulated by the discovery and production of naturally occurring ‘leaf alcohol’ and ‘leaf aldehyde’. Nevertheless the more conventional Odorants in this ‘green’ category are still widely used and, in their own way, are difficult to replace. In Group A (l (green category includes following Odorants. 1. Group A (l) Methyl Heptin Carbonate (M.H.C.) The deceptively potent alkyne carbonates should be used with restraint and discrimination. M.H.C., with its fresh, penetrating and at first slightly fruity odor, is almost indispensable as an odorant of green, violet-leaf tonality. Used in a 5 percent dilution, it not only gives excellent effects in violet, cassie, sweet pea, mignonette, stephanotis, gardenia, freesia and other perfumes - even including traces in certain rose and lavender bouquets - it also adds strength and character to the first emerging notes of chypre and fern. Its use in the shading of ionones and isoeugenol is also deserving of mention here. Its odor is long-lasting. Methyl Octin Carbonate (M. O. C.) Methyl Octin Carbonate (M.O.C.), the octin carbonate, has a rounder and fuller tone than M.H.C., which it can sometimes replace (or partly replace) with advantage. The isoamyl heptin carbonate has like M.H.C., been termed Vert de violette. Phenyl acetaldehyde Phenyl acetaldehyde has a pungent green odor suggesting watercress, on a sweet background of hyacinth/almond/rose. It is indispensable as a constituent of spring flower perfumes. Relatively unstable, it should be used with discretion. Its 75



dimethyl acetal, familiarly termed PADMA, has the characteristically green odor of fresh wet foliage, and is probably the most frequently used acetal in perfumery. Hydrotropic Aldehyde Hydrotropic aldehyde has a powerful and penetrating green foliage odor of hyacinthine type. Much stabler than phenyl acetaldehyde, which it may partly or wholly replace in given formulae, it is widely used for spring flower notes and as a constituent of soap perfumes. Its dimethyl acetal has a sweetish green fungal odor, reminding one of green walnuts. It is useful in woody, mossy and certain floral types. P-Iso Propyl Phenyl acetic Aldehyde Para-iso Propyl phenyl acetic aldehyde has a green, sappy, cortexal odor. Group A|2j contains some equally interesting items, most of which are either of natural origin or are synthetic equivalents. They result from a great deal of analytical work carried out on leaves, flowers, fruits and even roots [e.g. those of the radish). 2. Group A (2) Cis-3-Hexenal It has a rather heavy green leaf odor and called as ‘leal aldehyde’. Cis-3-Hexenol or ‘Leaf Alcohol’ It occurs naturally in Japanese mint, green tea, jasmine, geranium and other leaf and flower oils; also in raspberry, grape and other fruits. The odor is heady, powerful, of green leaves and grass. Cis-3-Hexenyl Acetate It is sharp, heady, and green-fruity for green folial top notes and to enhance fresh floral effect. Cis-3-Hexenyl Formate It is fresh green, with suggestion of cucumber and violet. Cis-3-Hexenyl Salicylate It is green-balsamic. Said to smell of carnations trans-2-Hexenal. It is also known as ‘leaf aldehyde’, particularly in the (U.S.A.). Widely distributed in nature. Powerful green-fruity odor. Acetaldehyde-di-cis-3-hexenyl acetal It is leaf alcohol acetal. Intensely green and powerful with a slight woodiness. Stable in milled soaps. Nonadienal. It is also known as violet leaf and cucumber aldehydes. Powerful, diffusive green 76



odor. Used sparingly in a wide variety of compositions. Nonadienal Diethyl Acetal It is fresh cucumber-green odor. An interesting variant on the aldehyde. Nonadiene-2-6-ol-l (nonadienol). Violet leaf or cucumber alcohol. Dihydro-Nor-Dicyclopentadienyl Acetate It is verdyl acetate: Givaudan. It is fresh herbaceous green odor, persistent but very diffusive. Good stability. Useful modifier in chypre fougere, aldehydic-woody, gardenia, muguet and lilac based compositions. Natural flower absolutes which exhibit a green odor-shading include hyacinth, jonquil, narcissus and reseda. Rose leaf and violet leaf absolutes are to be noted. Green herbaceous notes are found lavender, mint, rue and tansy oils; and greenish cortexal notes in the various grass oils. Many proprietary compounds and specialties with green notes are available. One of the first to be introduced was Parmantheme (Firmenich). They vary in type from cucumber to lierre (‘ivy’) and from violet leaf to nasturtium and vert delilas. Modifying and accessory odorants cover a wide range and include some of the aliphatic aldehydes and acetals; and many esters such as geranyl and myrtenyl formates, heptyl isobutyrate, octyl acetate etc. - and at least one of the newer alkoxy-alkylpyrazines. The fallowing are modifying odorants Decyl aldehyde dimethyl acetal. Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate, Methyl phenyl carbnol and its acetate, (Gardeniol II, styrallyl-acetate), alpha-Methyl p. isoPropyl hydrocinnamic aldehyde, (cyclamen aldehyde), Nonadienyl acetate, Phenoxyacetaldehyde, Phenylacetaldehyde glyceryl acetal, p. isoPropyl hydratropic aldehyde. B. Fruity Notes Pear, pineapple, banana, apple and grape may be added to the list, although most of them are not perhaps as interesting as the foregoing. Fruity notes should in general be used in perfumery with restraint. Perfumes that remind one strongly of liqueurs or create an ‘edible’ atmosphere are not likely to attract and may prove nauseating. Nevertheless, most perfumers would agree with their eminent Parisian confrere, that: ‘A finely liqueur-like note, slightly fruity, in the initial odor of a perfume is often an index to its success.’ The following are the fruity notes available to the perfumer. Peach The peach odor can be used in all natural or synthetic moss notes, in compositions of the Chypre type - of a more or less powdery character - and in the gardenia note, where the effect is sensational, as in the very special case of 77



‘nardo’, a kind of Spanish tuberose. It was once popular in violet perfumes and blends well with many synthetic musks and spicy notes. Peach odorants include, gamma-undecalactone, deltaundecalactone, amyl, benzyl and ethyl esters, citrus, cinnamon, ginger oils, vanillin. Apricot Resembling peach but less forceful, the apricot odor, suggests also almond, wine lees (ethyl oenanthate) and jasmine. It blends well with orangeblossom, neroli, syringa, honeysuckle, gardenia, broom and even lily-of-the valley. Apricot odorants include; gamma-undecalactone, phenyl ethyl acetate, benzyl acetate, ethyl oenanthate, benzaldehyde, tarns-anethole, amyl propionate. Plum The plum odor goes very well with the different natural or synthetic mosses and in all cases where moss plays a large part, as in the Chypres. Wherever iorioaes or methyl ionones are used, there is a place for the plum note. There is .no typically plum-like aromatic but most artificial plum flavors contain almond and clove (benzaldehyde and eugenol) as modifiers of varying mixture of fruity esters, sweet orange oil etc. These first three fruity notes may give rise, in association, to a number of varied combinations providing very delightful effects in mosses. chypres etc. (Firmenich’s Prunella has been suggested for use in chypres at the 1-3 per cent level. Many other fruity specialties of this and other types are commercially available! Mirabelle The odor of the mirabelle plum, with its special cachet, can be put to remarkable use in violet notes. When proportioned with discernment and judgment it contributes, with moss and humus notes, towards giving violet an absolutely unique character of veracity. Of course, in all compositions where ionone and the methyl ionones play a major part, the mirabelle plum can be tried with some chance of success, as well as in many flowery notes, aldehyde and chypre notes, etc. Strawberry The strawberry odor goes very well in rose compositions generally. It blends well into ‘green’ chypre and fougere. Wild strawberry notes have similar applications. The chief chemical component of most artificial strawberry compounds is of course ethyl methyl phenyl glycidate, which is sometimes accompanied by the socalled ‘raspberry aldehyde’ together with various esters and other modifying agents. Raspberry Raspberry aldehyde (a glycidate) and raspberry ketone (p.hydroxy phenyl butanone), as well as specialties designed to convey this particular fruity odor, 78



find, certain applications, according to their exact type, in violet, woody, fern, chypre, rose and jasmine compositions. Ernest Beaux regarded a raspberry shading in the top note of Bulgarian oil of rose as being almost a proof of fine quality. Blackcurrant Natural blackcurrant (cassis) and the corresponding artificial bases find limited application in certain jasmine, amber, boronia, violet etc. compositions. Fig The odor of figs is warm, honey-like and somewhat reminiscent of castoreum. It goes well into many rose, jasmine, fougere and leather-peau d’Espagne types. Hazel They find use in chypre, woody and powdery notes, and in lipstick perfumes. Chocolate notes, sometimes unintentional and due to the presence of vanillin and balsams, are also to be found occasionally in lipstick and other cosmetic perfumes. Bitter Almond The bitter almond note is chiefly used in spring flower perfumes, heliotrope, fern and new mown hay. In association with orange blossom one obtains an effect pleasantly recalling frangipanni. The natural oil of bitter almonds gives the finest note of this type, followed by best quality synthetic benzaldehyde. Aniseed Aniseed is fruity-spicy. Part of the aniseed note is given by estragole, which is found in oil of tarragon and in oil of basil - an aniseed note side by side with a green note. One is also reminded of caraway, carvone, limonene and isosafrole. Anise and related notes can prove very interesting, if used with discretion, in lilac, heliotrope, chypre and Parfum a la Marechale compositions. Citrus Oils The citrus oils (Orange, Mandarin, Bergamot, Lemon, Limes, and Grapefruit) are all well known for their usefulness in eau de Cologne and other citrus types, and in aldehydic perfumes and fresh ‘top notes’ generally. Certain, type of Jamaican orange oil has distinct aniseed shading. This and other types can blend extremely well with bergamot and lemon. It has been pointed out that essential oil of mandarin (and perhaps still more so, super mandarin) like orange oil, supports aldehydes very well. These essential oils ‘infuse life and warmth into the dryness of the synthetic note of the aldehydes, while retaining their power and their tenacity, if their respective dosing is well carried out’. Distilled oil of limes can give an entirely different character to a conventional type of Cologne etc. in which it is carefully used to replace other citrus oils. Interesting effects may be obtained by building round an accord consisting of oils of juniper berry and distilled lime in appropriate proportions. 79



C. Melon Notes Melon notes (e.g. 2-6-Dimethyl-2-Heptenal-7 and Methoxycitronellal) go well with cyclamen aldehyde, lauryl aldehyde etc. into cucumber lotion perfumes, ‘green’, sports. and outdoor perfumes. Angelica oils Angelica oils are musky, woody, peppery and earthy, as well as fruity. They can be used to advantage in incense-based perfumes as well as in certain fern, chypre, woody and spicy blends. D. Woody Notes Pear, pineapple, banana, apple and grape, may be added but they are not as interesting as the above. Fruity notes should in general be used in perfumery in control manner. The strong perfume may not be likely to attract but may prove nauseating. Woody notes are often blended not only with floral notes but also with odorants of balsamic, ‘animal’ and, one might add, mossy and amber, fern and chypre types. Table 3.2 contains various types of woody notes. Table 3.2 Various Types of Woody Notes Synthetic Santalol and santalyl acetate Cedrol and cedryl acetate Vetiverol and vetiveryl acetate Amyris acetate p: tert. Butyl cyclohexyl acetate Cuaiyl acetate Nopyl acetate Isobutyl and isopropyl quinolines Irones Methylionones Borneol



Natural Sandal, Cedar Gusiac, agar Cedrela Siam wood oils Vetiver Patchouli oils



Fixative Sandela vertafix Vertenex Acetyrisia Madrysia Cedris Truffe



80



E. Empyreumatic Notes Empyreumatic, meaning pertaining to or having the taste or odor of slightly burnt animal or vegetable substances, covers a wide spectrum of odorants, ranging from such relatively crude products of destructive distillation as juniper tar, birch tar and rectified cade oils to substances having tobacco, leather, dried hay, caramel, malt, coffee, and ‘cooked’ odors (like those of fried potatoes or grilled steak). The new entrants to this group are the Mallard derivatives. They are obtained from the complex reaction between reduced sugars and amino acids involving the release of carbon dioxide and the development of brown coloration: Some of the items in the following list could also be included under honey, coumarinaceous, mushroom and ‘animal’ notes, with which indeed they have something in common. Types of empyreumatic notes are shown in Table 3.3. Table 3.3 Types of Empyreumatic Notes Synthetic odorant



Natural odorant



p.methyl quinoline; tetrahydro p.methyl quinoline p.-tert. butyl metacresol p.-tert. butyl cyclohexanol and its acetate phenyl acetic acid; phenyl acetates 2-methyl pyromeconic acid (Maltol) 2-ethyl pyromeconic acid 4-tert. butyl pyridine Methyl furoate Hydroquinone dimethyl ether Faraneol (Dimethyl hydroxy dihydrofuranone)



Amber birth tar cade oil tobacco leaf immortelle absolutes broom absolute olibanum labdanum resins patchouli oil



Fixative Maillard derivative with nutty, smoky, chicory burnt woody odors



leather notes tobacco, melilot, hay, fern, mushroom



It has been shown that when loss of smell has been temporarily induced by anesthesia, the first group of odors .to become perceptible, with the recovery of the olfactive sense, is the einpyreumatic or burnt group. In this respect such odorants take precedence over the merely fragrant, musk-like fruity and spicy groups. A steadily increasing flow of additions to the currently available empyreumatic odorants can be expected, in view of the intensive research that is being carried out on the constitution of a whole range of cooked food flavors, from porridge to 81



meat extracts. F. Animal Notes Animal notes primarily of those odorants which are of animal origin: musk from the musk deer, castoreum from the beaver, civet from the civet cat, and ambergris from the sperm whale. Next come to mind the many artificial chemical substitutes, including a great number of synthetic musks. Then there are the odorants of vegetable origin, such as the musk-like ambrette seed oil and the labdanum and other resins used in artificial ambergris compositions. Finally, there are odorants that suggest the animal smell of the clean human skin. Among these being costus and cumin seed oils, tincture of chaulmoogra (fixed) oil, lauric and other fatty aldehydes, irone and the ionones, nerol, various honey odors etc. Principal Odourants of Animal Origin The principal odorants of animal origin and their less expensive, less rare substitutes are listed below Musks, Synthetic (1) The nitro-musks comprise musk ambrette, musk ketone, musk xylol, musk tibetine. The macrocyclic musks, to which group belongs muscone, the active odor principle of natural musk, are represented by Cyclopentadecanolide (Exaltolide), cyclohexadecenolide (Ambrettolide), cyclopentadecanone, oxahexadecanolides, ethylene brassylate etc. The indane group, also of considerable commercial importance, contains such musks odorants as 4-acetyl-6 tert. butyl-1, 1-dimethyl indan 5-acetyl-l, 1, 2, 3, 3, 6-hexamethyl indan. Among the tetralin type musks, note should be made of Givaudan’s Versalide and Polak’s Frutal Works’ Tonalid. Volume 2 of Arctander’s Perfume and Flavor Chemicals contains in its Table 3 a list of over 80 synthetic Musk Odorants. ‘The Musk Odor’, by J. Pickthall, F.R.I.C., is also worth consulting. (2) The classic natural musk is that obtained from the scent pouch or ‘pod’ of the small musk deer, Moschus moschiferus, which inhabits the wooded mountain slopes of Tibet and the Tibetan border. The inaccessibility of the terrain has so far saved this creature from extermination. Musk rat oil, formerly obtained from the 82



scent glands of the Louisiana musk rat (Ondatra zibethicus rivalicius), seems to have disappeared from the market. It contains cyclopentadecanone and dihydrocivettone - ketones closely related to muscone - together with dihydrocivettol and normuscol. Other oils with musky odors include ambrette seed, angelica seed and root.’costus, valerian and sumbul root oils. (3) Many proprietary and specialty musks are available. Apart from the justly celebrated Exaltolide (Firmenich), there are Moskene and Versalide (Givaudan), Phantolide (P F.W), Ambrettozone (Haarmann & Reimer), Celestolide and Galaxolide (I.F.F.), Musk R-l (Naarden) and Oxalide (Takasago). See also Arctander’s list. Civet, Synthetic (1) Civettone and related ketones. Also mixtures of phenyl acetic acid and esters, tetrahydro-p.methyl and other quinolines, skatole synthetic musks. (2) Civet is a soft fatty substance of characteristically foecal-musky odor, obtained as a glandular secretion from the civet cat, Viverra civetta, chiefly in Ethiopia. It is sold in Zebu horns, the contents of which represent the total production from one animal over a period of four years. During this time the cat ‘will have undergone 400 to 800 painful scrapings of its glands’. Teasing the caged cat is regarded as a means of increasing its output of civet. (3) In addition to civet concretes and absolutes a number of artificial civet compounds are widely offered as less expensive substitutes or part replacements for the natural product. The following formula represents one type of approach to this problem. Civet Art. (Y. W) Phenyl acetic acid isoButyl phenyl acetate Benzyl phenyl acetate Amyl phenyl acetate beta-Naphthyl ethyl her Musk ketone Tolu resinoid Amyl caproate Geranyl butyrate Geranyl valerate Styrallyl valerate (methyl phenyl carbinyl valerate) Benzyl valerate Skatole



4.0 7.0 43.5 16.0 8.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 5.0 0.5 83



Tetrahydro paramethyl quinoline Total



2.0 100.0%



Other potential constituents include indole, musk xylol, civettone, lOoxahexadecanoiide; methyl and metacresyl phenyl acetates; p.tert. butyl phenol and p.methyl quinoline; amyl and benzyl salicylates. The characteristic warmth, smoothness and diffusive properties of civet tincture are not easy to imitate. Ambergris Synthetic The furan known commercially as Fixateur 404, and discovered by the Firmenich laboratories in the course of their research into the odoriferous constituents of ambergris, is still an outstandingly important and useful product. Its dry, woody, earthy ambergris odor is more powerful and tenacious than may at first appear. It needs to be used with quantity. The Raw Materials of Perfumes (Synthetic Origin) 77 dosage at 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of a perfume concentrate, though satisfactory no doubt in some cases, might well prove three or four times too strong in others. The older type synthetic reproductions of the ambergris odor relied largely on labdanum and other resins such as, Labdanum resin, Olibanum R., Liquidambar and styrax R., Benzoin R. absolute, Tolu and Peru balsams, Oak moss absolute. Clary sage oil, Sandalwood oil, Patchouli oil, Vetiver oil. Cypress and Costus oils. Civet. Chaulmoogra Oil It is a fixed oil cold-expressed from the seeds of Taraktogenos kurzii King yields on treatment with alcohol over a long period a tincture with a smooth warm, slightly sebaceous odor, suggesting ambergris and the human skin. It has been considered capable of importing warmth and secondary sexual attraction to perfumes. Chauhnoogra oil has long been used, of course, in the treatment of leprosy, Ambrophore and Grisambrol (Firmenich) and Ambrarome (Synarome) are typical of the fine quality ambergris substitutes available to the perfumer. Castoreum Synthetic Chemical research has facilitated the development of artificial replacements or part substitutes for natural musk, civet and ambergris, but no comparable work has yet been carried out into the elucidation of the constitution of castoreum. Obtained from the preputiai follicles of the beaver. Castor fiber, this has a considerably more restricted field of application than musk, civet and amber. Among the usual constituents of artificial castoreum type compounds one finds rectified birch tar oil, creosol, p.ethyl phenol, p.cresol and methyl p.cresol, borneol and bornyl acetate, anisyl acetate, ethyl anisate, methyl benzoate and cinnarnate, 84



dihydrocarveol. Fig concrete, prepared from ripe figs, suggests the underlying fruity balsamic notes of castoreum. Recently introduced classic perfumery chemicals are amyl salicylate (trefle), methyl nonyl acetaldehyde (used with other fatty aldehydes in Pompeia etc.), the ionones, leathery notes (as in Cuir de Russie), hydroxycitronellal (still one of the most widely used of floral type odorants), nerolidol and farnesol; cyclamen, aldehyde, synthetic musks; nonadienal and nonadienol (cucumber, violet leaf notes); methyl anthranilate and its hydroxycitronellal Schiff base (orange flower); various green and woody types, rose oxide, dihydro methyl jasmonate, cis jasmone, and nootkatone. The firm of Naarden International issued to the perfumery industry a ‘fragrance palette’ for 1973, together with a Fragrance Profile Chart of 250 selected odorants, odor panel-evaluated and computer-calculated. Among the synthetic odorants of outstanding interest to perfumers are the following Hexyl Benzoate (Woody-Green-Balsamic) Ethyl pelargonate (nonanoate: for natural floral-fruity top note effects in rose, freesia, tuberose etc.). Citral and its dimethyl acetal (the latter a link between ‘green’ odors and the lemon note of the citral itself). Citronellyl Ethoxylate (Sweet, Musky, Ambrette Odor) Delta-Decalactone (creamy, coumarinaceous musky) and delta-Dodecalactone. The Salicylates Amyl salicylate has been one of the most important and distinctive ‘of synthetic odorants since centuries. The widespread applicability of the isoamyl and other salicylic esters has in fact inspired some perfumers to classify a whole group of perfumes as being of the ‘salicylate’ type. Isoamyl Salicylate Most important of the esters, despite the fact that it has not so far been found in nature, is the isoamyl, with its powerful and persistent herbaceous; woody odor which to some people suggests clover (trefle) and orchids, and is also extremely useful in fern (fougere), mossy types and new mown hay (foin coupe); floral such as genista, hyacinth, cyclamen, camellia; carnation and wallflower; chrysanthemum and mimosa; chypre, spicy, woody and certain oriental blends. Many carnation compounds, especially the less expensive ones, contain high levels of amyl salicylate. This ester can easily be used to excess, owing to its property of developing or intensifying in odor after it has been incorporated in a blend. Benzyl Salicylate Next in importance, quantitatively at least, is the benzyl ester. This has a mild sweet floral-balsamic or floral-woody odor. Henzyl salicylate finds considerable application in perfumery as a solvent and blender, particularly for synthetic musks, 85



and as a ‘fixative’ and diluent in many floral and nonfloral bouquets. A peculiarity of lenzyl and hexyl salicylates is that their odors, though distinctly apparent to some people, are not so apparent-and may even seem totally absentto others. Isobutyl Salicylate It has a characteristically flowery, clover-herbaceous odor, and is useful for modifying the amyl salicylate note. It blends well with clary sage, lavender and many herb and wood oils, musk ambrette and the other nitromusks, coumarin, resins and balsams etc. Methyl Salicylate It has typical odor of wintergreen oil, is also present in sweet birch oil and, as a minor constituent, in oils of tuberose, ylang-ylang, clove and cassie. Used sparingly, it can prove valuable in artificial imitations of cassie, tuberose, ylang, mimosa, gardenia, reseda, castoreum, and in spicy bouquets, Russian leather etc. It finds less restrained use in flavors for toothpaste, mouth washes and chewing gum. Ethyl Salicylate It has an odor very similar to that of the methyl ester but milder, suggesting meadow sweet (Spiraea or Filipendula ulmaria). It blends well with methyl benzoate, oak moss, cuminic and anisic aldehydes, methyl naphthyl ketone etc. Phenyl ethyl Salicylate It is a crystalline odorant with a mild, sweet, balsamic floral note, suitable for use in spicy rose, carnation and other floral bouquets. It can assist in rounding-off otherwise crude odors and blends well into many formulae of hyacinth, ylang, lily, lilac and even honeysuckle types. A good grade is free from phenolic notes. Other salicylates, of less importance, include the Hexyl, Linalyl, Geranyl and Methyl Phenyl Carbinyl esters. Cerbelaud perceived a relationship between the salicylate group and mimosa, cassie, violet, orris, honey and mushroom; while Arctander associates the salicylates, at a distance of course, with the odors of anise, fennel, parsley, basil, tarragon and sassafras. The salicylates certainly blend admirably with many floral and herbaceous odorants-as well as with patchouli, vetivert, sandalwood etc., as in fougere. Acetates The acetates are widely used by perfumers in essential oils. The important acetates are listed below Isoamyl Acetate It has a volatile fruity odor of pear-banana type. Traces impart piquancy and lift to 86



fruity-floral, oriental and the heavier flower types. The normal ester has also earthy shading in its top note and is therefore interesting in violet compositions. Anisyl Acetate It recalls that part of lilac which suggests hawthorn. Used in odors of these types, e.g. lilac, acacia, honeysuckle. Can also give ‘powdery’ effects. Benzyl Acetate One of the most widely employed esters, used to ‘push’ the note in both floral and fantasy types. A constituent of jasmine oil, it naturally enters into the composition of jasmine perfumes, as well as in perfumes of a rosy and lilied (muguet) character. Used also in flavors: GRAS rating with FEMA. Bornyl Acetate A synthetic much employed for its pine-fir odor. It has also a slightly ‘animal’ and camphoraceous note. The isobornyl ester has a less animal, rather more delicate odor. Ibo butyl Acetate It is used in strawberry, raspberry and other fruit flavors. (GRAS - FEMA.) Employed in traces to contribute to the lift and top note effects in tea rose, spring flowers, etc. Cedryl Acetate It is chiefly used in woody notes; also oriental, tobacco, leather (cuir) types. Cinnamyl Acetate It is found in cassia oil, has a warm balsamic-floral odor and notable fixative properties. Useful in hyacinth, rose, woody, spicy, and many flora land oriental blends. Citronellyl Acetate It imparts freshness when used in small quantities in rose, muguet, lavender; flowery and aldehydic chypre blends etc. P-Cresyl Acetate Its pungent narcissus odor and somewhat urinaceous undertone, is used with restraint in narcissus, hyacinth, lily and other floral compositions. Dimethyl Benzyl Carbinyl Acetate It gives a flowery lift. Its odor is rosaceous, greenish, and suggestive of muguet. Dimethyl Octanyl Acetate (Tetrahydrogeranyl Acetate) It is valuable in compositions with a dominant rose or lavender note. Dimethyl Phenyl Carbinyl Acetate It has a strongly rosaceous-green note that recalls the odor of bois de rose Brazil. 87



Ethyl Aceto-Acetate It has fresh, sweet, natural top note effects. Also used in flavors (GRAS rating). Ethyl Hexyl Carbinyl Acetate (3-Nonanyl Acetate) It has an interesting fruity-floral, rather waxy odor. Very versatile, it can be used to good effect in rose, carnation, lavender, fougere, chypre - and even Cologne and modern fantasy compositions of many kinds. Ethyl Linalyl Acetate A more floral odor than that of linalyl acetate, but also with a faint fruitiness. It is used to support bergamot oil and has already found numerous applications in perfumery. Eugenyl Acetate Freshens and ‘pushes’ carnation and related spicy notes. The isoeugenyl ester is a good fixative for carnation perfumes and can exert a mellowing effect on green and herbaceous compositions. Geranyl Acetate Odor rosy, woody, fruity. A constituent of lemon and petit grain oils etc., it is widely used in perfume compounding. Linalyl Acetate It varies very considerably according to its origin (ex bois de rose or shiu synthetic etc.). Blends well with lavender, bergamot, petit grain etc. in numerous compositions. Epoxy Linalyl Acetate (Linalool Oxide Acetate) It has a fresh floral odor, slightly woodier than that of linalyl acetate. Very useful in lavender and related types. Menthyl Acetate It has a rather herbaceous, sweetish odor of a floral-rosy oriental type. It blends well with citrus notes, lavender water etc., and gives ‘lift’ in toilet soap perfumes. Used also in flavors. (GRAS rating with FEMA}, Menthyl propionate is somewhat similar and also of interest. P-Methoxy Phenyl butyl Acetate Like the parent carbinol is useful in fruity-floral types: jasmine, tuberose, gardenia, and freesia -etc. Methyl Hexyl Carbinyl Acetate Like many members of the carbinol series, this ester has a somewhat geraniumlike odor and finds application in warm herbaceous complexes: lavender, chypre etc.



88



Neryl Acetate It has the qualities of nerol but its odor is rather more suggestive of citrusorangeflower and not quite so rosaceous. It is very useful in flower notes, notably rose, peony, magnolia-even neroli and jasmine. Octyl Acetate Its fatty-floral, somewhat green odour is used in a number of flower perfumes, including jasmine, neroli and orange flower, rose, chypre, fougere. Phenyl ethyl acetate It has a very sweet, rosy, honeyed-floral odor - recalling red rose and peach. Useful also in flavors (GRAS rating by FEMA). Phenylpropyl Acetate (Hydrocinnamyl Acetate) It has a fresh, balsamic, rather styrax-like odor. Useful in lilac, lily and floral bouquets. (GRAS rating by FEMA). Rhodinyl Acetate It is rosaceous, rather fruity and slightly green odor. Valuable in rose, muguet, carnation and other perfumes and used in flavors (GRAS rating). Santalyl Acetate It is useful for ‘pushing’ the top note of sandalwood. Styrallyl acetate (methyl phenyl carbinyl acetate) It has a green, hazel-nut odor, which also suggests apricot, and is characteristic of gardenia. Used also in tuberose, muguet, hyacinth and some types of jasmine. Terpinyl Acetate It recalls the odors of linalyl acetate and bergamot oil, but is more ‘ordinary’. It is useful, nevertheless, to impart zest to certain compositions, including those with a linalyl acetate note. Trichloromethyl Phenyl Carbinyl Acetate Valuable for creating a rosy, powdery base. Known also as ‘rose crystals etc. Vetiveryl Acetate It has the woody-rooty-powdery odor of vetiver oil but also the sharper edge, aptly described by Arctander as sweet-and-dry. Blends well with ionones, fatty aldehydes, resins and balsams etc. A classic perfumery material. The Fatty Alcohols, Aldehydes And Acetals The term ‘aldehydic perfumery’ has become synonymous with ‘modern perfumery,’ as higher aliphatic aldehydes were incorporated in perfumes in significant quantity. Alcohols both Individually as well as members of corresponding group and acetals are briefly considered here. The higher fatty aldehydes are chiefly valued as forceful and distinctive top note constituents, although their effect may sometimes persist throughout the entire evaporation 89



period of the perfume in which they are used. The corresponding alcohols have in general less distinctive, less violent odors of similar types. The acetals are less prone to oxidation and polymerization than the aldehydes from which they are derived, but in the process of conversion the characteristic aldehyde note is always modified and sometimes virtually lost. The important alcohols used are described below in Table: Table: Fatty alcohols, aldehydes and acetals Chemical Alcohols C8 (octyl, caprylic)



Source



Odor



Use



Sweet orange grapefruit



Rosy-waxy



Rose perfume



C9 (nonyl, Sweet orange oil rosy oak moss pelaorgonic)



orange, neroli, roseda, reseda gardenia



C10 (decyl, capric)



Sweet orange oil rose with orange note ambrette seed



rose, orange flower orris, jonquil, lilac jasmine compounds



C11 (undecylenic)



Leaves of Litsea, herbaceous, flowery, fruity, odourifera



tuberose, gardenia, green notes



C12 dodecyl)



(lauric Oil of lime



sweet, sugary tuberose, reseda, flowery than muguet exotic, Wood, fantasy aldehyde compositions.



Fatty aldehydes C7 (heptanals, Oils of Ylang-ylang Sweet top note Orange flower acidulated and hyacinth oenanthic fruity Aldehyde)



90



Citrus oil, lemongrass, rose



C8



oil,



rosaceous fruity Rose, jasmine with jasmine note and waxy background



Sharp, orris rose orange



fatty, tuberose, rose orris, jasmine, orris, heliotrope



C9



Citrus ginger



C10



rose, jasmine, Citrus oil, pine Orange-roseneedles, coriander lemon on waxy neroli cyclamen, cassie, background cassie, orris lilac



C11 (undecylenic)



citrus oil, rue, pine



C12 (lauric)



C12 (methylnonyl acetic)



rose, tuberose orris, fruity green herbaceous, fatty, tuberose violet leaves



tuberose, woody, and fantasy tuberose, reseda cassie, violet, fern, new mown hay, chypre, pine



Orange-ambermoss



tuberose, orchid honeysuckle, sweet pea



peach



fruity, chypres



Pseudoaldehydes C14 aldehyde)



(peach



C16 (ethyl methyl phenyl glycidate)



strawberry



C18



coconut



(Coconut



rose centifolia



91



gardenia, tuberose exotic, oriental, fantasy compositions



aldehyde)



woody notes based on vetiver, spicyfloral perfume



C19 (benzyl isobutyrate)



fruity-floral suggesting pineapple



C20 (ethyl p-methyl β-phenyl glycidate)



raspberry, in modem chypres association with ionones



Acetals C7 to C12 (dimethyl and diethyl acetals)



lemony green



gardenia, tuberose perfume



Though not derived from the aliphatic aldehydes certain other acetals may for convenience be mentioned here. They include the acetals of citral, the chief disadvantage of which is odor variability due to impurities. Uses: Cologne types, green perfumes, soap compounds. The dimethyl and diethyl acetals of phenyl acetaldehyde are widely used for their fresh green, hyacinthine notes. The glyceryl acetal is also of interest. Hydroxycitronellal acetals may be used in lily-of-the-valley compositions but are relatively weak odorants. Dimethyl acetal of hydratropic aldehyde (alpha-methyl phenyl acetaldehyde): Has interesting walnut-mushroom shadings and is useful in tuberose, mossy and woody notes. The diphenylethyl acetal can give interesting effects in rose, gardenia, magnolia, champak and oriental blends. Anisaldehyde dimethyl acetal recalls lilac and elderflower. Amyl cinnamic aldehyde dimethyl acetal is useful-as a component of jasmine compounds. Heliotropin acetals have been produced but have aroused little interest. The approximate amount of aldehydes and higher fatty alcohols for perfume are 92



given in Table. Table 3.5: Fatty Alcohol and Aldehyde in Flower Perfumes Perfume Cassie Cyclamen Daphne Gardenia Heliotrope Honeysuckle Jasmine



Lilac Magnolia Orange flower Peach blossom Rose



Cassie Orange flower



Chemical % aldehyde C10 (10) C12 lauric (10) C12 MNA (10) C12 (lauric) (10) C12 MNA (10) C10 (10) C11 (enic) 10 C12 (lauric) 10 C8 (10) C9(10) C12 (MNA) 10 C14 (peach) 10 C12 (lauric) 10 C12 (MNA) 10 C12 (lauric) 10 C9 (100) C10 (100) C7 (10) C10 (10) C14 (peach) 10 C16 (strawberry) 10 C10 (10) C8 (10) Alcohol C10 (10) C10 (100)



Amount in grams 2.5 10 5 20 10 12 12 16 5 5 30 30 20 10 5 5 5 15 6 15 5 5 5 3.5 10



Table 3.6: Amount of Aldehyde and Alcohol in Fantasy Perfume Perfume



Chemical % Aldehyde



Amount in gms.



Modem type



C12 MNA (10) C11 (enic) (10) C10 (10) C9 (10) C10 (10) C11 (10) C12 lauric (10) C12 lauric (10) C12 lauric (10)



20 15 10 15 12.5 10 12.5 30 15



French type-1



type-2 type-3



93



10 type-4 Woody type-1



type-2 Eaux de Cologne French type-4



C12 MNA (10) C12 (MNA (10) C11 (10) C12 (lauric) 10 C12 (MNA) (10) C8 (10) C9 (10) C10 (10) CI2 (MNA) (10) Alcohol C9 (100)



40 10 35 15 15 30 25 4 5 15



Acetophenone Though rather crude and violent, this ketone of sweet mimosa-almond odor can perform useful service when used with restraint in mimosa, lilac, new mown hay etc. Amyl Cinnamic Aldehyde Fresh and full, though somewhat fatty odor, which intensifies and becomes sharper during the evaporation period. Invaluable in jasmine and many other floral compositions. (GRAS rating for flavors.) Anisic Alcohol Powdery, rosy, lilac-vanilla. Blends well with other components of jasmine, lilac, muguet, sweet pea and gardenia. (GRAS rating for flavors.) Anisic Aldehyde Sweet floral, hawthorn type of odor. Useful in aubepine, new mown hay and lilac types etc., but principally in aldehydic compositions. Important chemical used in perfumes are listed in Table 3.7: Important Chemicals Used In Perfume Chemical



Odor



Anisettes Ethyl anisate



Sweet fruity,



Methylanisate



Anthranilates anthranilatc anthranilate



Sweet, anisic



Uses lilac, carnation, jasmine, fern, herbaceous mimosa, hawthorn, pea magnolia, new hay, time



ylang, chypre sweet mown



neroli, orange flower, acacia, Ethyl methyl Sweet, flowery, grape- flowery composition with like pungent, fruity, orangeblossom 94



honeysuckle, gardenia orange-flower rosaceous neroli, mandarin, jasmine hawthorn, honey clover, orchis, tobacco, Phenyl ethyl oriental composition, good anthranilate iso-propyl pungent treffle-orchid solvent for nitro-musks anthranilate Benzoates type balsamic Amyl benzoate amber, incense, floral type iso-butyl benzoate Cinnamyl benzoate Benzophenone Benzylidene Acetone



powdery-rosy, mild oriental and floral woody types green note Soap, low cost perfume spicy-balsamic note balsamic-rosy, metallic note pungent, sweet



Butyrates Citronellyl Butyrate Citronelly isoButyrate fruity rosy odor Geranyl Butyrate sweet rosaceous fruity Nonyl isoButyrate Phenyl ethyl Butyrate floral-fruity Phenylpropyl Butyrate fruity-rosy-plum fruity-balsamic Styrallyl Butyrate Caproates Ethyl caproate Geranyl caproate Cinnamates Benzyl Cinnamate isoButyl Cinnamate



fruity-floral



faint Sweet pea, neroli, hyacinth, lavender blend rose, muguet rose, peony, cassie, lavender lipstick, apple, peach, apricot flavors Perfumery, flavors perfumery, flavors jasmine, narcissus, hyacinth, apricot, like peach, mango flavor jasmine, gardenia modem flower Oriental composition



fruity-herbaceous rosefloral and fantasy perfumes geranium fruity face for body and talcum powder balsamic note modifier, blender, in ambered chocolate cherry, plum



95



Cinnamyl Cinnamate Ethyl Cinnamate Linalyl Cinnamate Methyl Cinnamate



sweet, mild, tenacious odor of cinnamon Chypre note, woody incense lily pungent, balsamicfruity



Phenyl ethyl Cinnamate rosy, honeyed Cinnamic Aldehyde spicy, balsamic Citral Citronellal Citroneilol Formates Anisyl formate Benzyl formate Cinnamyl formate Citronellyl formate Ethyl formate Geranyl formate Linalyl formate Phenyl ethyl formate Phenylpropyl formate Rhodinyl formate Terpinyl formate Phenylacetales Amyl phenyl acetate isobutyl phenyl acetate p-cresyl phenyl acetate Ethyl phenyl acetate Methyl phenylacetal Phenyl ethyl phenylacetate Propionates Amyl propionate Benzyl propionate



lemon-rosy-citronella Sweet, rosy-floral



fixative and blending flavors perfumes Parfum ideal, incense-woody composition floral notes such as rose, muguet, lilac Balsamic, oriental hyacinth floral type soap, perfume rose, muguet



lilac, tuberose, gardenia, sweet, beady, Ylang, vanilla flavor perfumes, flavors. hawthornblends with sandal, patchouli syringa sharp and fruity vetiver, banana perfumery jasmine flavors woody rose, orange flower, lavender, rosy-leafy Cologne green and rosy note Chypre, fougere tea rose flavors hyacinth, narcissus, chypre citrus- bergamot top note rose rosaceous green, woody, green, fern, chypre, Sweet honeyed green lavender and cologne Leafy green, rosy bergamot and terpineol Cosmetic perfume basis for orchidee lily, narcissus, hyacinth animal odor perfumes, flavors eglantine versatile odorant musky hyacinth, spring flower honey type smooth honey rosy top note, flavors fruit flavors fruity jasmine



96



Citronellyl propionate Geranyl propionate Linalyl propionate Phenyl ethyl propionate



sweet, rosy Oriental rose lily-of-the-valley coriander dried rose petal muguet



honeysuckle, syringa floral composition clary sage oil, in freesia ester



Coumarin This is one of the important crystalline fixatives which form the basis of persistent perfume notes. The others include the synthetic musks and heliotropin. It blends well with the balsams and forms with bergamot oil the basis of numerous fougere notes. It also blends well with lavender, amyl salicylate, oak moss etc. P-Cresyl Amyl Ether It has a flowery, green odor, and gives excellent service in hyacinth, narcissus, and gardenia. Dihydrocarveoi Rosy-animal note suggesting muguet but with a less pleasant acetylenic shading. Can give interesting effects in some fantasy types. Dihydromyrcenol It has a citrus-floral odor suggesting lemon and lime. It stabilized against polymerization, can be very useful, particularly in soap and detergent perfumes. Dimethyl Benzyl Carbinol It can give interesting effects in the lilac, muguet and some rose notes. Dimethyl Hydroquinone (Hydroquinone Dimethyl Ether) Sweet, penetrating cut grass odor. Useful for tobacco or herbaceous effects in perfumery, usually in small quantities. Dimethyl Phenyl Carbinol Odor: a very rosaceous linalool. Useful in rose, muguet, woody, powdery chypre types etc. Diphenyl Methane Pronounced odor of geranium leaves. To be used with due restraint. Diphenyl Oxide Rosy-geranium leaves is a valuable product for imparting to rose compositions the green note of the calyx so essential for a true reproduction of the odor of the flower. It must, however, be used with due caution and in traces only. Estragole (Methyl Chavicol, Iso-Anethole) It occurs in tarragon oil. Used in small amounts, in chypres and ‘green’ notes; also in eaux de Cologne to impart piquancy to the top note. (GRAS rating for flavors.)



97



Ethyl-Hexyl Carblnol (3-Nonanol) Herbaceous and earthy in odor. One sometimes needs earthy, humus like note of undergrowth in perfumes of the fougere, exotic woody and certain oriental types. This product is well adapted for use in such cases. Ethyl Linalool It has a softer and rather more flowery odor than that of linalool. Ethyl Vanillin (Vanillal, Bourbonal) The odor of commercial ‘ethyl vanillin’ is sweeter than that of vanillin and rather nearer to that of natural vanilla. It also has fewer tendencies to cause discoloration problems. Widely used in perfumery, and in flavors. (GRAS rating.) Eugenol The principal constituent of clove oil. Enter into the composition of many spicy, woody and eastern notes, camation etc. (GRAS rating.) isoEugenol Carnation odor but softer than that of eugenol and less clove-like. Extensively used in perfumes for its smooth, long-lasting flowery effect. (GRAS rating.) Fixateur 404 (Firmenich) It deserves special mention as one of the most interestingly persistent and adaptable of modern innovation. Geraniol The odor and performance of geraniol vary greatly according to its source (ex citroella, palmarosa or through synthesis). Geraniol of one grade or another is widely used in all kinds of composition. (GRAS rating by FEMA) Heliotropin Odor strongly suggestive of heliotrope. Heliotropin is extensively used in all kinds of perfume, from 1 per cent or even less to 10 per cent or more of the perfume concentrate. In the lower concentrations it is chiefly detectable in the fond, on dry out, but at the higher levels it can make itself felt in the top note. It is strongly indicated for lilac, for new mown hay when associated with coumarin, and for tobacco notes. Widely used in flavors. (GRAS rating.) Heptanal Glycerol Acetal Sweet earthy-fungal can give interesting effects in floral compositions requiring a hint of undergrowth odor. Has also been used in flavors requiring a mushroom note (GRAS rating.) Isohexenyl Tetrahydro Benzaldehyde It is an interesting product of pungent, clean, citrus-floral odor. Useful in many compositions, including muguet, lilac, cologne, violet, woody and other types.



98



Hexylcinnamic Aldehyde The odor rather similar to but greener and initially sharper than that of Amyl Cinnamic Aldehyde. Increasingly used in the creation of jasmine, tuberose, gardenia and other floral compositions. 1GRAS rating for flavors.) Hydroxycitronellal It has a sweet flowery odor suggestive of lily-of-the-valley and lime blossom. Finds extensive use in spring flower and many other perfumes. Employed in moderation in flavors (GRAS rating). Should be free from citronellal and potentially irritant traces of sulphite. Indole Of natural occurrence in jasmine, neroli, jonquil, pseudo-acacia, wallflower etc. Used sparingly for its floral effects. Care must be taken to avoid its proneness to cause color reactions with aldehydes. (See Arctander and others.) GRAS rating for flavors. Lonone Alpha It has a marked odor of violets. Used widely in perfumes of many types. Lonone Beta It has a softer violet odor than the alpha isomer and is more reminiscent of Parma violets. The ionones vary considerably according to the firm that manufactures them, because of the traces of auxiliary bodies and isomers present in the course of fabrication. But also because of the occurrence of alpha, beta and gamma isomers in various admixtures. The same complexity occurs with the methyl ionones. It is therefore necessary for the perfumer to make a very careful and comprehensive study of these important odorants. This must of course be done gradually and cautiously, in view of the well-known property of the ionones of causing olfactory fatigue and temporary anosmia. (GRAS rating) Isojasmone Jasmine odor which blends especially well with those of jonquil and neroli. Linalool It is a constituent of many essential oils: 1-linalool occurring in Brazil and Cayenne bois de rose (the latter being rosier in odor), while d-linalool occurs in coriander oil as coriandrol, which is still more rosaceous than the others. (GRAS rating) Menthone It exists in oil of Geranium bourbon and in rhodinols that are incompletely rectified. It has a rather minty-rosy-woody odor and is excellent for ‘pushing the rose note’. (GRAS rating) Methyl Acetophenone 99



It has a pungent odor of hawthorn, mimosa type. Widely used in spring flowers, fern, chypre, woody, mossy types; also in Cassie etc., for special effects. It has also a limited use in flavors. [GRAS rating) Methyl P-Cresol (Paracresol Methyl Ether) Pungent, rather crude hyacinthine odor. If used with restraint can give excellent service in narcissus, ylang and lilac notes etc. (GRAS rating.) Methyl Eugenol (Eugenol Methyl Ether) It has a sweet, warm, rather spicy carnation odor, blending well with rose odors, which it can effectively accentuate. (GRAS rating for flavors.) Methyl Heptyl Ketone Odor flowery, green-herbaceous. Used in lavender, Cologne etc. Methyl hexyl ketone. The normal (not the isomeric) ketone is useful for reinforcing lavender and new mown hay notes. Methyl ionones These occupy a very important place in perfume composition. According to the place of the methyl group in the ionone, nucleuses, products of very different odours are obtained: methyl ionone alpha, beta, gamma etc. Commercial products having yet other notes consist of mixtures of isomers. The odor gamut ranges from flowery-violet and slightly ambered to orris and woody. Methyl Methylanthranliate It occurs naturally in mandarin (tangerine). It has an odor of orange flower type but greener. Finds numerous applications in perfumery, e.g. in cosmetic perfumes. Used also in tangerine, orange, grape and other flavors: (GRAS rating). Methyl Naphthyl Ketone Sweet and tenacious orange blossom odor. P-Methyl Quinoline It has a powerful and penetrating odor that commends it in bases of greenish ‘animal’ type,- e.g. in association with such modern marine-like odorants as Aldehyde Mer or Absolu Marin; also in oak moss and tabac compositions. Muguet Aldehyde It is a name given to citronellyl oxyacetaldehyde and citrylidene acetaldehyde; also to isohexenyl tetrahedral benzaldehyde. Nerol It has a remarkably fine not attending towards neroli and rose. It occurs fairly widely in nature and finds widespread current use in floral odors. (GRAS rating.) Nerolidol 100



It occurs in oils of neroli, ylang, petit grain and in Peru and Tolu balsams etc. Considered alone, its odors shows up but little. It is one of those bodies, not very odorous in them, which develop unsuspected properties when actually incorporated in a composition. A curious phenomenon and one as yet unexplained. Phenyl acetic Acid It has honey-animal, notably persistent odor. Very useful for honeyed notes, artificial civet and rose perfumes. Also in traces in many other perfumes. (GRAS rating for flavors-usually in honeyed, chocolate and some fruity types.) Phenyl acetic Aldehyde A pungent, even brutal hyacinthine odor. Finds useful application in hyacinth, lilac, rose, ‘green bouquet’ and numerous other compositions. Phenyl ethyl Alcohol The principal odorous constituent of rose water. One of the most widely used of perfumery raw materials. The blender supreme. (GRAS rating for flavors.) Phenylpropyl Alcohol The odor of this alcohol is sweet and balsamic, suggesting styrax and hyacinth. Used in floral, oriental and fantasy types (e.g. cuir). Phenylpropyl Aldehyde (Hydrocinnamic Aldehyde) Useful in hyacinth and tobacco notes; also lilac, cyclamen, reseda etc. Piperonyl Acetone (Hellotropyl Acetone) It has a very sweet-floral-woody odor. Finds application in muguet, lilac, mimosa. (Also GRAS rating for flavors.) Rhodinol It is obtained from oil of geranium. Its typical rose odor varies considerably according to source and treatment. Sometimes traces of menthone are left in and these exalt the rose note. A fine commercial rhodinol has a warm red rose odor of great distinction. Safrole The main constituent of sassafras oil. It has been said to impart a special cachet to chypres, when incorporated in traces. Its odor is slightly anisic, with warm spicy-woody undertones. Santalol The main and characteristic alcohol of oil of sandalwood. Because of its fineness it is essential for many luxury perfumes; chypres, woody and oriental notes etc., to replace the oil - but with corresponding restraint in view of the difference in strength. Traces are used successfully in certain flavors. (GRAS rating.)



101



Skatole (Methyl Indole) A constituent of natural civet and of civet artificial. Terpineol The terpineols, of which the alpha, beta and gamma isomers are known to perfumers, exist in a number of natural oils. The terpineol currently marketed is the alpha isomer containing a variable proportion of beta and gamma; It is widely used in certain compositions as a freshening agent, e.g. lilac and muguet, and is a major constituent of many soap perfumes and disinfectants. Terpinolene It has a vague odor of pine, less harsh than that of pinene. It is widely used in perfumes for household products. Good grades are also used in lime flavors. (GRAS rating.) P-Tolyl Acetaldehyde (‘Syringa Aldehyde’) Milder, sweeter and easier to use than the related phenyl acetaldehyde, but less green. Trimethylcyclohexanone A petrochemical product. It has a powerful odor suggesting labdanum and honey. Blends well with phenyl acetates, ionones, patchouli etc. Cinnamyl Tiglate has a woody odor and finds use, for example, in cuir and similar perfumes. Citronellyl tignate has an agreeably rosy odor. Used in rose, tabac etc. Geranyl tiglate has a pleasant rose-geranium odor, slightly fruity. Used in ‘reconstructed’ geranium; also in lavender and oriental notes. Benzyl Valerianate (Or Valerate) A fruity, musky, almost rosaceous odor. Used in oriental notes. Citronellyl Valerianate It has a rosier odor than the benzyl Easter. Used in the perfuming of tobaccos. Geranyl Valerianate Rosy, fruity odor. Used in the perfuming of tobaccos. Linalyl Valerianate Recalls the fruity part of the lavender fragrance. some also see in it a resemblance to apricot. Goes well with lavender and pine bouquets. Vanillin The main constituent of natural vanilla. Its odor is drier than that of the vanilla pod. One of the most valuable and widely used perfumery and flavor materials, it is produced from lignin, guaiacol, eugenol, safrole etc. (GRAS rating). Some of the best-known French perfumes contain liberal proportions of vanillin.



102



It seems that there is continuous supply of synthetic perfumes, a more precise knowledge of aroma chemistry, which will lead to replacement of scarce natural oil. The more chemical with natural fragrance will create greater opportunity for perfumer to introduce novelty in his fragrance creation.



103



VII. Classification of Odors and Odorants Introduction Thousands of materials with various characteristic odor, odor intensities and different properties are used producing flavors and perfumes. It is, therefore, necessary to classify these raw materials into groups, and subgroups. McCartney expert in olfaction and odours has pointed out that, perfumers often invent systems of their own for private use pointed out that, perfumers often invent systems of their own for private use. Fourcroy pointed out classification made by private user is arbitrary, uncertain; and fragile because our sensory impression and olfactory origin are not fixed, permanent or equal in all men at one time or in one individual at all times. A perfumer’s classification is based on a perfumer’s expertise and experience. For perfumer this classification is of greater significance and practical, than the non-perfumery classification based on botanical, chemical or psychological considerations. The odor classification has been carried out by Rimmel, Piesse, Zwaardemaker, Heyninx, Henning, von Skramlik, Henerson, Matteotti and Crocker put forward their ‘semi-quantitative evaluation of odors,’ which made possible the accurate description of any odor by the simple device of four-digit number. These digits represents fragrant (sweet), acid (sour), burnt (empyreumatic) and caprylic, remarkable simplification. They consider that these four elementary odors are the ‘principal’. The maximum intensity of each of these elementary odors is arbitrarily allocated the number 8, so that Tonquin musk, whose code number is given as 8476, is top rated as 8 fragrance, with a moderate 4 for acidity, 7 for burntness, and 6 for its supposed ‘caprylic’ tonality. Similarly ‘rose’ is coded as 6423. Of much greater interest to the latter are some of the classification, both of complex odors and individual odorants, made by perfumers. These are necessarily subjective but cannot be lightly dismissed, because of this, as unsatisfactory. They not only fill an immediate need but are often extremely reliable. A clear distinction must made to classify odors, e.g. as flora] woody, balsamic and so on, and attempts to classify the actual odorants or constituents of complex odors, as for example into top note, middle note and base note constituents. Both systems are useful. It is probably more convenient to look first at some current classifications of odorants. Poucher’s classification is based on a subjective assessment of the relative duration of evaporation of some 330 perfumery chemicals, essential oils and other odorous materials. Obviously ‘this published list could be very considerably extended, as Poucher has himself suggested. The main criterion of this type of classification is relative volatility, which may be regarded as the vapor pressure at ordinary temperatures, but in practice, owing to the complex character of essential oils and flower absolutes etc., it is vastly more



104



satisfactory to use a subjective method of comparing odorants. Poucher accomplished this by examining each material, or an appropriately standardized dilution; by means of smelling slips. When carrying out tests he ‘had to decide on what should be the end point of each odor. The characteristic note of some natural products may be fleeting while the residual smell lingers on. But since each aromatic substance is employed primarily for its typical odor note. He decided to check and recheck the point at which this distinguishing feature disappeared. Moreover, he had to place a time limit on these substances of longest duration, such as patchouli and oak moss, and he gave them the figure or coefficient of 100. To those that evaporated in less than one day he gave the coefficient 1, and to the others 2 to 100’. Thus, eventually, the Poucher classification as published comprised over 300 items, each of which was distinguished by a coefficient ranging from 1 (e.g. amyl acetate) to 100 (e.g. ambergris extract, vanillin and vetivert). Poucher further subdivided his materials into those wit coefficients ranging from 1 to 14, which he called Top Notes; those with coefficients ranging from 15 to 60 (Middle Notes); and those from 61 to 100, which he termed Basic Notes or Fixers. The following are the examples of top note constituents Amyl acetate Methyl benzoate Lime oil, distilled



amyl salicylatelavender oil petit grain oil methyl octin bergamot oil carbonate



The examples of middle note are Bulgarian rose



heliotropin phenyl ethyl isobutyrate



indole dimethyl



rose demai jasmine



clary sage oil angelica seed oil



hydroquinone anisic alcohol citral



The examples of the basic notes are amyl phenyl acetate, natural cinnamic alcohol, methyl naphthyl ketone, civet absolute, hydroxycitronellal and cyclamen aldehyde to a long list of resins, balsams and crystalline materials (coumarin, vanillin, artificial musks), aldehydes (amyl cinnamic, methyl nonyl acetic, phenyl acetic), all rated at 100, together with ambergris, castoreum, patchouli, pepper, sandalwood and vetivert. These subdivisions are useful and enhance the value of the list as a source of general reference. They do not, however, supply a ready answer to the questions: ‘What is a top note? What is a fixative?’ As Poucher himself has hastened to observe, there are occasions when longer-lasting odorants are used in such a quantity as to raise them temporarily into a higher category. He in fact illustrates this point-by giving two simplified but characteristic formulae for a Lilac and a 105



Hyacinth perfume respectively. Among other features, the former contains 1 per cent of a 10 per cent dilution of phenyl acetic aldehyde while the latter contains 10 per cent of the pure, undiluted aldehyde. There is no doubt that this aldehyde acts as a top note, despite its persistent character, when it is utilized in a dominant proportion. The comparison of results of different authors finds many discrepancies which indicate difference in opinion. However, there is broad area of agreement which can be noted from Tables 4.1 and 4.2. Ellmer’s classification appears to have been the first of its kind to be published. His results match fairly closely to those subsequently obtained by other perfumers, although few will agree with his remarkably high persistence values for rosemary oil and cuminic Idehyde: nor does he appear to have given sufficient attention to the basic notes as a class. Jean Carles, on the other hand, seems to have over-emphasized the importance of the basic notes, when he writes that they ‘will serve to determine the chief characteristic of the Perfume, (for) their scent will last hours on end and will be essentially responsible for the success of the perfume, if any’. In the same way he deliberately over-simplified the structure of a perfume by considering it almost as a definite, neatly defined architectural entity instead of a dynamic, changing, imbricated composition, not merely existing in space but simultaneously evolving and fluctuating in time. Table 4.1: Odor Persistence of Perfumery Materials Top notes



Middle notes



Base notes



Methyl salicylate



Petit grain oil, Paraguay



Sty rax oil



Amyl acetate Benzyl cinnamate p-Metliyl acetophenone Dill oil Anise oil Bomeole Terpineol Linalyl acetate Bomyl acetate Anisaldehyde Lemon oil Bergamot oil Phenyl ethyl alcohol Sage oil



Geranium oil Bourbon Marjoram oil Cinnamon oil Citronellol Nerol Methyl anthranilate Aldehyde C9 Methyl heptin carbonate Angelica root oil Eugenol Citronella oil, Java Geraniol Amyl salicylate Geranyl formate Clary sage oil Cinnamic aldehyde



Lovage oil Elecampane oil Phenylacetaldehyde Sandalwood oil Santalol Vanillin Rosemary oil Cuminic aldehyde



106



Patchouli oil Cinnamic alcohol The importance of the basic note or accord or group of-accords cannot, be denied. Carles gives some extremely useful information on this point. There are few good perfumes, and certainly no characteristically modem ones, that depend chiefly for their appeal and individuality upon those constituents, which have a low volatility and high tenacity. The three fundamental parts of a perfume are: the head, the body and the base. The relative size, strength and general assembly and behavior of these essential parts depend upon a number of interrelated factors. Possibly the aptest name ever to have been given a perfume is Arpege, because an arpeggio effect, in which the notes of a chord are played successively instead of simultaneously, is so admirably descriptive of perfume behavior. According to some perfumers odors are homogenous and oscillating. Thus a world-famous floral bouquet perfume oscillates between a homogeneous accord, consisting of afresh jasmine note sustained by an aldehyde’and bergamot oil etc., on the one side and, on the other, a warmer lower chord composed of ylang-ylang blending into a residual note of vanilla and incense. Table 4.2: Classification According To Volatility (Carles) Top notes Very volatile products lacking tenacity Amy! acetate Bois de Rose Linalool Phenyl ethyl acetate Lemon Lavender Bergamot Orange Coriander Tarragon Laurel nobilis Petit grain from the lemon tree



Modifiers of base notes (i.e. products of inter-mediate volatility and tenacity Basil Terpineol Petit grain, Paraguay Galbanum Verbena Thyme Geranyl acetate Juniper Tansy Phenyl ethyl alcohol Geraniol Absolute Lavender Citronellal Neroli Rose Bulgarian Ylang Geranium Aldehydes C8, C9,



Base notes (products of law volatility and high tenacity) Methyl lonone-Ionones Absolute Orange Flower Clary sage Amyl salicylate Absolute Jasmine Benzyl salicylate Cedar wood Aldehyde C16 Aldehyde C18 Sandalwood Artificial Musks Absolute Oak moss Vetiver and derivatives Patchouli Calery



107



Cn, C12 Cloves The type of classification of odorants shown in Tables is a most useful guide. However, one must not overlook when resorting to such classifications, that the behavior of some of the materials involved is more complex than its mere position -in a relative volatility table might indicate. This brings us back to reconsider what exactly we mean when we talk about top notes. Firstly, there are the very volatile ‘true’ top notes, for example, ethyl and amyl acetates, ethyl aceto-acetate, methyl amyl ketone, phenyl-ethyl acetate, linabol, and the citrus terpenes. There are also many relatively non-volatile odorants which, in addition to their long-lasting character, have also pronounced top note effects. In this group may be cited as common examples: musk ambrette (as distinct from the ketone or xylol), the macro-cyclic musks, ethyl vanillin, methyl nonyl acetaldehyde, and gamma=undecalactone, and Fixateur 404. It will be seen that all these have penetrating odors and it is perhaps this penetrating or piercing quality rather than mere pungency which also gives the Middle Note odorant, indole, the emergent force and character of, a top note. Though complex, essential oils are also capable of being assessed on the basis of relative volatility and must therefore be included in such comparative tables. The practical value of a chart showing odorants grouped according to their relative volatilities is that it can serve as a guide to formulation. It has been observed that a perfumer beginning work on a Lilac perfume can quits simply extract from the complete chart a number of odorants (in this case as few as nine) which will give him the foundation of his perfume. There he will subdivide into the three main categories. Thus he quickly arrives at a top note section comprising benzyl acetate terpineol and phenyl ethyl alcohol; a middle note section consisting of heliotropin and anisic aldehyde; and a basic section containing cinnamic alcohol, hydroxycitronellal, and isoeugenol and phenylacetc aldehyde. He will then proceed in the usual way, comparing his perfume, from time to time, with the natural flowers that he is trying to imitate or with some other lilac perfume that he aims at copying. At this stage he will doubtless think of other odorants, in order to improve the natural character of his experimental blend, to shade the odor into Pink Lilac or some other specific type, or to convert the floral base into a more sophisticated blend rather than a simple floral composition. A reference to the chart is useful stimuli in many instances and also offers information enabling new accords to be elaborated. ‘The persistence of perfumes depends on the coefficient of useful work, i.e., the nature of the evaporation and the value of the threshold concentration. This stability increases with the coefficient of useful work and with reduction in the threshold concentration. These questions, i.e., the change in the rate of evaporation and the proper use of threshold concentration values should be carefully studied by perfumers and research institutes’.



108



Unfortunately the margin of subjective error is even wider here than in the assessment of relative volatility and persistence. At times it is so enormously wide as to represent an obstacle which is simply not negotiable. The threshold value of perception of an odorant is that at which its odor, in given conditions, is only just perceptible, so that further dilution causes it to disappear. The threshold of recognition is obviously somewhat higher in each case. Many lists have been published of odorants arranged according to their relative odor intensities which are not reliable for general acceptance. This matter of odor strength, like that of most other aspects of odorant behavior (e.g., diffusiveness), is one that the practicing perfumer is obliged to take into account and deal with in the light of his own experience. In many cases he will have to proceed on to trialand error lines. Classification Based On Physical Characteristics From classifications based on physical characteristics we run to those based on similarity of odor. The first 18-group classification is given in Table. Table 4.3: Classification Based On Odor Group Odor



Plant



Group



Odor



Plant



1



Rose



rose



10



Lemony



lemon



2 3



Jasmine Orange



11 12



Herbaceous Minty



lavender menthol



4 5



Tuberose Violet



jasmine orange flower tuberose violet



13 14



Anisic Almondy



6 7 8 9



Balsamic Spicy Caryophyllaceous Camphored



vanilla cinnamon clove camphor



15 16 17 18



aniseed bitter almond Musky musk Ambered ambergris Fruity fruit Santalaceous sandal wood



Many perfumers, using this as a model, (Table 4.3.) have devised similar classifications. Billot, in 1948 classified odors into eight main groups. Since then the classification in close association with the Society Technique des Perfumers de France, has remained unchanged except addition of one i.e., nine groups. The classification of odors is given as under : (i) Floral; (ii) Woody; (iii) Rustic (agreste); (iv) Balsamic; (v) Fruity; (vi) Animal; (vii) Empyreumatic; (viii) Repulsive; and (ix) Edible. The last two groups, repulsive and edible, have in principle little or no application in perfumery, but they have been included in an attempt to provide a classification 109



comprising all kinds of odors. The sub-division in each series into different notes given as under Group 1: Floral Series (i) Rosaceous (rose); (ii) Jasmine-like (jasmine); (iii) Hyacinthine (hyacinth); (iv) Lilac-like (lilac); (v) Orange flowery (orange blossom); (vi)Tuberose like (tuberose); (vii) Violet-like (violet); and (viii) Resedaceous (mignonette). Group 2: Woody Series (i) Spruce-fir (pepper); (ii) Santalaceous (sandalwood); (iii) Caryophyllaceous (clove). Group 3: Rustic Series (i) Menthol (peppermint); (ii) Camphoraceous (rosemary); (iii) Herbaceous (lavender); (iv) Green (violet leaves); (v) Lichenous (earthy odors, oak moss); and (vi) Leguminous (methyl heptenone). Group 4: Balsamic Series (i) Vanilla-like (vanilla); (ii) Olibanaceous (incense, balsams); (iii) Galbanaceous (galbanum); (iv) Resinous [pine resin). Group 5: Fruity Series (i) Hesperidean (bergamot); (ii) Aldehydic (fatty aldehydes); (iii) Almond like (bitter almond); (iv) Anisic (aniseed); (v) Fruity types (peach, plum, strawberry); and (vi) Chocolate, cocoa. Group 6: Animal Series (i) Musky (musk); (ii) Castoreum (castoreum, leather); (iii) Skatolish (civet); (iv) Maritime (seaweed); and (v) Ambered (ambergris). Group 7: Empyreumatic Series (i) Smoky (birch tar) and (ii) Tobacco-like (tobacco). Group 8: Repulsive Series (i) Caseinous (cheese); (ii) Alliaceous (garlic); (iii) Fishy (fish); (iv) Stagnant; (v) Butyric (rancidity); (vi) Mircinian (mud); (vii) Musty; (viii) Pyridinic; (ix) Mercaptan; and (x) Carbylamine. Group 9: Edible Series (i) Buttery note (fresh butter; diacetyl) and (ii) Broth. (1) This classification has been arrived at by taking into account the fact that formerly perfumers with five or six floral and some other notes, all natural, managed to reproduce the other entire flower or other notes, rather like using the three primary colors where, by mixing them, almost all the others can be reproduced.



110



(2) The categories of notes have been kept to a minimum and the analogy of odor has been used in its widest sense. (3) The aldehydes are included in the fruity series because they have indeed an odor similar to that of fruit; others have a very distant resemblance to fruit, but the special part they play in compositions generally relates them to the other notes of the fruity series. (4) Although the repulsive and edible series may appear useless in perfumery, it is possible that for imparting a certain nuance some items (like dimethyl and dibutyl sulphides) might be found quite interesting in a very small dosage. It is not possible to define limits of any class of odor. Even if we set up a class of flowery odors, there would not be considerable agreement on exactly where flowery stops: Vie agree - even though some odors are obviously classifiable in more than one group. Thus an essential oil with a predominantly woody odor can also be balsamic, spicy or even fatty. And a dominantly fruity odor may also be floral, spicy or even animal in quality. Nevertheless, when dealing with odorants and mixtures of odorants one is bound to think of them in relation to one another; hence the necessity to proceed by analogy and thus, for the sake of convenience and clarity, to classify them according to their degree of similarity or some other significant characteristic.



111



VIII. Packaging of Perfumes Introduction The elegant packing makes marketing easier. The essential factor in presenting perfume such as toilet water or cologne is attractive package. The technology and aesthetic attitude has reduced the problems of packing. Another important feature of packing is that, the other component parts of pack should also be attractive and have public acceptance. What will the public accept for purchasing and what will they not accept? It is difficult, for example, to get the public to accept a pack in which the bottle is presented horizontally, i.e. is lying down. why is this so? The reason is probably a fear that some of the perfume will spill and be lost, but there are other rejections and predilections for which there is no such ready explanation. One comes up against the imponderables of fashion and taste. Why is it that certain shapes of bottle simply will not sell? No obvious law regulates these’ preferences and only experience and flair can guide the designer’s choice. The major disadvantage of the packaged perfume is that the bottle can give no idea of the contents and affords no means of appreciating them until, of course, it is opened. Hence the utility of tiny sample sizes and counter-displays featuring the perfume packed in an atomizer-dispenser. To attract the customer’s attention, perfumers throughout the ages have tried to make the outward appearance of the pack as luxurious and conspicuous as the perfume deserves. Packaging in the Past In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries perfumes were contained in cut crystal bottles, which were often encased in precious metal (gold, silver gill, silver), finely enwrought. The whole attached to a wrought chain of the same metal and carried cross-wise or by a short chain on the wrist, with the purse which elegant women also carried. In the centuries that followed, the bottles were of precious metal or decorated porcelain. Private and public collections contain many objects of this kind, some of them very fine and luxurious. It was really only in the nineteenth century, however, when the large perfumeries were started, that bottles of original shape were produced for this purpose, each belonging specifically to a certain perfume. Glass or crystal bottles assumed the most varied forms, following the inspirations of fashion and the general artistic tendency of the times. These shapes were more



112



or less felicitous, although some of them may now appear to us a little tasteless and clumsy. On these bottles were glued labels showing the name of the perfume and that of the perfumery house which had created the perfume. These labels, sometimes multicolored, were apt to state the extraordinary properties of the product. Their dimensions varied. Thus for toilet waters, lotions and eaux de Cologne, they were often rather large and covered the whole surface of the bottle. For extracts, where the bottles were of smaller size, the labels were smaller, very luxurious and in most cases gilded. The coffrets or boxes in which the bottles were encased were often quite luxurious, with embroidered materials or printed silk fabrics vying with one another in luxury and sumptuousness. The Impact of Aerosols The presentation was greatly influenced due to development in bottle making. Aerosol packs raised the problems of valves, propellant reactions, and the use of metal cans or heavy and plastic-coated glass containers. An attempt was made to use neutral, odorless gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Labels then began to disappear and give way to printed decorations on the metal cans. With the coming of reduced internal pressures, glass containers with thinner walls became practicable. Concurrently the processes of printing on glass and productive of some fine, decorative effects were much improved. As regards plastic bottles, due account has to be, taken of their permeability; which is in general unbalancing and sometimes actually denatures a perfume. Even the use in perfumery works of plastic pipes and tanks is often ruled out for this reason. In case of labels whether they are still used or direct printing takes their place, the tendency has for some time been towards simplicity. This is’ partly due to fashion and the streamlining tendency in production and partly, also, to the continual increase in the cost of manpower and man-hours. Jobs that are done by hand simply have to be minimized, especially when one is trying to refute the allegation that perfumes are excessively expensive luxuries making fabulous profits for their makers. Here we should add in parentheses that the manufacturing perfumers themselves, by frequently referring to and exaggerating the costliness of their raw materials and, so forth, are largely to blame for this absurd invention. Perfume Identity The packaged perfume can be identified by the name, the bottle, the label, the carton or coffret, and the outer wrapping. 113



The Name The name establishes the identity. The names of perfumes have been divided into five groups. (1) Those refer to flowers, e.g., Rose Jacque Minot? Vera violetta. (2) Those refer to love, e.g., Amour-Amour. (3) Homage to person, a regime or fashion, e.g., Zibeline. (4) Those which have foreign names or evocative of exotic place or romantic occasions e.g. Nuit de Noel, Quadrille. (5) Which are more abstract, relating to letters and numbers, e.g., No. 5s N, S, Y. The name must appeal to the class of customer for-whom the perfume is intended. It should suggest the personality of the perfume, be relatively simple, short, original and. easy to pronounce, even by foreigners (if export is to be considered). Whoever chooses the name should appreciate the fact that the name is the perfume and is of extreme importance. Another fact that has to be faced is that in these days, in most so-called advanced countries, there exists a long list of names already registered as trade marks. The chosen name may not therefore be registrable. If not, another has to be chosen instead and then, perhaps, another and yet another. It is often wise to start with five or six alternatives, no matter how enthusiastic one may be about the name originally selected. The Bottle Bottles-are mostly of glass, fitted with metal or plastic closures and, additionally, with either plastic plugs or liners made of cork-and-metal or plastic material. Ground glass stoppers are now-a-days but rarely encountered, this being due to their involving too much hard labor and also to their suffering from the defect of ‘rattling’, i.e. not fitting perfectly. Atomizer packs must also be noted. In principle every large perfumery house has its own art department, whose function it is to be responsible to and with the management for all aspects of package design. This service involves the preparation of mockups or models of bottles, cartons, coffrets, labels etc. and it is necessarily accompanied by a technical service which pays close attention to all the practical details of presentation: screw threads of bottle necks and closures, dimensions of the boxes, quality control of all accessories, consideration of the quality of the glass. Rules and standards are laid down or devised, and these are then followed in collaboration with the purchasing department and the various suppliers. Objectionably alkaline glass must in any case be avoided. In warm and humid climates it can result in bottles losing their polish and developing matt or frosted 114



patches. The obsolete practice of packing in straw or contact with some qualities of board or even paper can similarly lead to matt or iridescent patches. Before use, bottles should be vigorously rinsed in dematerialized water and thoroughly drained and dried. Apart from the artistic merits of its line or shape, a perfumery bottle should always be steady on its base and not top heavy. The surprising fact is that this simple rule is sometimes broken. Atomizers form a separate category. The internal gas pressures which they sustain make it essential for the glass containers to by cylindrical. Fancy shapes are out. Decoration is by printing on glass, this being the only process that can conveniently be used. The stainless metal closures, which are now available in various color shades as well as in white or gilt, can be embellished with engraved or relief designs. Labels Despite the advances made in direct printing on to bottles, fine quality labels are still widely used. Their style and finish have never reached a higher standard than they reach today; and this particularly applies to very small labels meticulously designed and finished to the strictest specifications. Labels, fabrics, board and paper that are likely to be exposed to daylight in window displays or on the user’s dressing-table should be tested for their tendency to fade. This forcibly applies to many color shades, as well as to gilded and silvered finishes. Such tests can be conducted in a solarium or by using arc lamps with selected electrodes always, of course, under standard conditions. The adhesive used on metallized labels should be carefully chosen so as not to interact with the metal or varnish. Manufacturers should also beware of varnishes that can be dissolved or made tacky by spilt perfume. Cartons and Coffrets Each and every packaging material should be pre-tested and shelf-tested for faults. Some plastics, for example, show a marked disposition to warp when subjected to high humidity. Natural cork has the disadvantage of variability. Every aspect of a package should be studied as a possible source of off-odors. Nothing should be taken for granted: A rubber gasket in an aerosol container may contribute a disagreeable mercaptan note. Residual solvent odors from a label’s ink or varnish, or from its adhesive-even the smallest items must be scrutinized as potential troublemakers. A product in a clear glass bottle is subject to the influence of light, and it must be remembered that some perfumery materials, in these conditions, will oxidize, resinify or discolor. 115



External Wrapping The perfume coffret containing the precious bottle is often protected by being enclosed in an outer carton fabricated from white or grey chipboard, which in turn is enveloped in a decorated paper outer-wrap. This paper may be suitably embellished with the name of the perfume, the name of the firm, and sometimes a coded reference number. It should be identifiable at a glance, and should in fact be an attractive and recognizable advertisement for both the perfume and its makers. The instantly identifiable signs such as large letters, bands of different colors are all helpful to the heavily stocked retailer in the management and arrangement of wares. A good pack is one that inspires confidence in the product; that assures the user that the same perfume or one like it cannot be had under another label at half the price. Eccentric packs make a sensible woman think that the manufacturer takes her for a fool. There is one thing certain, and that is that a perfect pack is as rare as a really good perfume; which means that there are not very many on the market. Perfume and the World of Fashion Whoever decides upon the perfume and the pack ought, in any case, to be familiar with the: market and this particularly applies in the case of an elegant perfume. Hence, indeed came- the many, successes of the couturier and couturiere, the high-class dressmaking establishments, the trend-setters. The worlds of fashion and art have to be frequented and appreciated, and their reactions and suggestions carefully taken into account but the immediate interpreter should be the perfumer, not the marketing executive, the advertising accounts man or the industrialist promoter. The Question of Color Most fine quality perfumes are green or yellow, whether artificially tinted or not. At least one well-known perfume is blue, but the former fashion for perfumes and toilet waters in mauve, violet, pink etc. is no longer acceptable. Perfumers with little experience sometimes decide to add no coloring matter, but the fact is that a colorless perfume looks insipid, while a perfume with a natural color will tend to vary in shade from one batch to another unless it is corrected each time by small additions of a suitable dye. In this way one guards against complaints from customers who see a color change as indicative of a decline in quality.



116



The Means of Advertising Press Publicity One extraordinary feature of the selling of fine perfumes is that this has hitherto been achieved almost entirely without the aid of memorable commercial publicity. We say ‘commercial’ because writers and journalist have more than compensated for that deficiency. Books on advertising and motivation research seem to give very little space or attention to perfumery marketing. Samples and Models All forms of publicity should be considered on their merits for each particular case; the usual media, such as magazines and journals, newspapers, television and commercial radio; window displays, even perfumed cards and theatre programs. The distribution of small samples of a perfume can provide excellent -publicity, but it is costly and can be wasteful unless it is handled with discernment by the retailers. Finally there is a direct form of showing one’s wares to the public which consists of vaporizing them in theatres, cinemas or other suitable places to the public. A variation of this method is the presentation of a perfume on a female model, just as a gown is presented on a mannequin. This method is particularly suitable for the introduction of a new couturier perfume during a showing of the latest season’s fashions, so long as each day is confined merely to the showing of one perfume. This idea can be carried further by suggesting that special rooms or cubicles, or even traveling air-conditioned units, could be devised as a means of perfume advertising or collaborative perfumery, propaganda, the perfume being sprayed into the space on to selected wall or other surfaces and subsequently removed by modern air conditioning in order to prepare the space for the next perfume. In this way, a whole series of perfumes might be presented in sequence. ‘During the brief intervals required for deodorization, music could be played and time allowed for conversation. This might be an amusing as well as a novel way of encouraging the appreciation of fine perfumes.’



117



IX. Perfumery Compounds There are three types of rose oil that are produced commercially depending on the variety and the method employed. 1. Rose Concrete This material is produced by extraction of the freshly harvested flowers with a volatile solvent such as butane or purified petroleum either. Removal of the solvent by distillation leaves a dark colored waxy wase typical of a rose concrete, the concrete obtained from Rosa Centifilia linn. Has a heavy floral and slightly woody odor, whilst the concrete made from R. damascena is more spicy and honey like with an odor reminiscent of the red or pink rose. The concrete have limited applications in perfumery work and are used primarily for the production of absolutes. Rose Centifolia concrete is occasionally employed in cosmetic preparations, where its poor solubility in alcohol is of no importance. Contretes are composed of non-volatile fatty substances (ca 60% and 35% to 45% of volatile terpenoid compounds having the approximate composition-phynylethil alcohol (60%} 1-centronellol (20%), geraniol and nerol (12%) and traces of aromatic compounds. 2. Rose Absolute Extraction of rose concrete with ethyl alcohol and subsequent removal of the alcohol by distillation gives a material known as Rose absolute which finds extensive use in perfumery formulations. Rose absolute centifolia is an orange-yellow viscous liquid having a rose-like sweet and tenacious odor. It is used extensively in high-priced perfumes, and is extremely useful for blending synthetic formulations and modifying other essential oils. The absolute from Rose Damascena Mill, has a similar color and is a visorn liquid having a spicy, deep rose odor of considerable strength. It is used widely in highclass perfumes and is also employed to give interesting flow our effects in fruit flavors. Both oils are rich in phenyl ethyl alcohol, geraniol, nerol and 1-citroucllo. 3. Process of Manufacture Various methods are employed for obtaining rose water and oil, apart from distillation, extraction is also used some times. Nevertheless distillation with water or steam is most widely used method and gives satisfactory results with considerable variety of plant materials.



118



4. Water Distillation In this method rose flowers to be distilled comes in direct contact with boiling water. In the distillation unit flowers and water is filled care should be taken that the flowers be emersed in water oil. In the simplest form compact distillation unit is employed for the manufacture of oil. The distillation unit consists of a still of which mouth cover consists of condensing rod which is regularly cooled during the process. Condensate so obtained contains perfumed water and the oil. On cooling the condensate a thin layer of oil forms on the upper surface of water. This layer some times in the form of globules is separated by decantation. This distillation still is usually direct fixed type is coal wood or other fuels are burned beneath the still. This unit is so simple and compact that can be treated as portable unit. 5. Water and Steam Distillation In this process the flowers are supported on a perforated grid or screen inserted some distance above the bottom of the still. The lower part of the still is filled with water to a level somewhat below this guide. The water may be heated bath by direct fuel by burning beneath the still or by inserting steam coil into it. In this way saturated and wet steam of low pressure uses through the flowers. The typical fealines of this method are first, that the steam is always fully saturated, wet and never super heated second that the flowers is in contact with steam only and not with boiling water. 6. Steam Distillation In this process, live steam usually or a pressure higher than atmospheric is generated in a separate steam boiler and injected into the pant charge within the retort. All the three processes described above are used frequently for a the manufacture of rose oil sand perfumes however for the present project report only water distillation process is recommended as it is simplest one and costs last among the three processes. If financial resources allow, water-steam distillation and direct steam distillation may also be started. For making perfume of rose, rose oil is dissolved in alcohols or any other solvent in desired quantity and packed in small bottles.



119



X. Environmental and Health Aspects of Scents/Fragrances General Introduction Fragrance is found everywhere in nature and plays a major role in both helping animals and humans locate food and enticing them to reproduce. Throughout history, humans have drawn fragrances from the natural environment for a variety of purposes, including use in religious and burial rituals, in aphrodisiacs, and to cover foul odors. In the late 1800s, the first fragrance containing synthesized ingredients was introduced. Since then, people have used chemicals extensively to mimic scents from nature. Consumers' fascination with scent has increased with the manufacture of a multitude of scented "personal" products including cosmetics, lotions, soaps, oils, and perfumes. There are more than 1,000 body fragrances (including colognes, perfumes, and toilet waters) on the market today, according to The Fragrance Foundation, a non-profit educational arm of the fragrance industry. Furthermore, scents are now added to a slew of commercial products ranging from cleaning products to tissues, from candles to diapers. While many people enjoy wearing perfumes and using scented products, there is a growing outcry from some people who claim that exposure to certain fragrances, including perfumes and scented products, adversely impacts their health. They report symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, nausea, fatigue, shortness of breath, difficulty with concentration, and allergy-like symptoms. It has been shown that many asthmatic patients have adverse reactions to perfumes and other fragrances, and some researchers hypothesize that exposure to fragrance may actually cause asthma. People who suffer from multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), a health condition in which exposure to one chemical is thought to lead to adverse reactions to other chemicals, claim that exposure to fragrance triggers various symptoms, often to the point that sufferers are incapacitated or must forgo many of their usual activities to avoid exposure. As information continues to surface on the issue of indoor air pollution, it appears that fragrances may represent part of the problem. Some researchers believe that exposure to the types of chemicals found in many scented products may contribute to the development and exacerbation of sick building syndrome, a health condition allegedly caused by indoor air pollution. The chemicals in perfumes, colognes, and deodorants worn by employees add to the chemical mixtures in indoor air, as do fragrances in cleaning products. In addition, some building owners pump certain fragrances--believed to evoke an emotional response that results in increased work productivity--through office ventilation systems. Claudia Miller, an associate professor of environmental and occupational 120



medicine at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center in San Antonio, says that several studies indicate that 15-30% of the general population report some sensitivity to chemicals, including fragrances, and 4-6% report that chemical intolerance has a major impact on their quality of life. Of these people, more than 80% report that exposure to fragrances is bothersome. Miller, who has conducted extensive research on MCS and coauthored the book Chemical Exposures: Low Levels and High Stakes, adds that many Gulf War veterans report new chemical intolerances since the war, including sensitivity to fragrances. Gerald McEwen, vice president of science at the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association, a Washington, DC-based trade association for the personal care products industry, says that fragrance materials in most products are at very low concentrations, and that people who claim to be adversely affected by scented products may actually be reacting to other chemicals in the products or in their environments. He says that affected people are more likely to identify fragrances as the offending agents because they are readily noticeable. McEwen further suggests that reactions to fragrance could be psychological. "This could be a conditioned response just as easily as an organic response," he says. This theory has many proponents, including Sally Satel, a lecturer in psychiatry in Yale University School of Medicine's department of psychiatry. In her article, published in the May 1997 issue of Psychiatric Times, Satel refers to MCS, sick building syndrome, and other chemical sensitivity illnesses as having "elements of paranoia and hyper vigilance (directed toward the physical environment), somatization (as well as stress-induced psychosomatic symptoms), hypochondriasis, hysteria, and suggestibility." Basic Components of Fragrances The process of developing fragrances is a complex mixture of chemistry and art. Not only must the chemicals used be compatible, the combination must also be aesthetically pleasing to the nose. Synthetic ingredients are less expensive than natural ingredients, and can be created year-round, while the supply of natural ingredients depends on season and availability. Once synthetic ingredients were introduced to the marketplace, perfumes and fragrance materials became more widespread as the demand and supply increased. It is estimated that there are more than 3,000 chemicals used in the manufacture of fragrances. Synthetic organic chemicals constitute more than 80-90% (by weight and value) of the raw materials used in flavor and fragrance formulations. A single fragrance may contain as few as 10 chemicals or as many as several hundred. Like many other chemicals and chemical mixtures in widespread use today, little is known about the impact fragrances have on human health. Because of the complex and competitive nature of fragrance development, manufacturers were given the right to protect their products through state trade secret laws, which allow them to not disclose the ingredients to anyone. Due to the secrecy surrounding fragrance ingredients, claims of adverse reactions to 121



fragrances may be difficult or impossible to link to particular fragrance chemicals. Such secrecy also makes it difficult for researchers to study the health effects of fragrances. "Because of the number of chemicals and their different volatilities, polarities, and other properties, analysis is expensive and technically sophisticated," says Lance Wallace, an environmental scientist in the EPA's Office of Research and Development in Reston, Virginia. As part of efforts to identify substances that contribute to indoor air pollution, Wallace and colleagues conducted a study to identify volatile organic compounds emitted by fragranced products. These compounds can be both toxic and carcinogenic and have been associated with the symptoms of sick building syndrome. The study, published in the proceedings of the Air & Waste Management Association's 84th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, held 16-21 June 1991, examined 31 selected scented products, including perfumes, soaps, and deodorants. The brand names were not revealed because only one semi quantitative analysis was made for each sample; therefore, the results could not be said to be indicative of that sample's typical composition. The researchers identified a total of 150 unique chemicals in the 31 products. Chemicals that appeared in more than half of the products included ethanol, limonene, linalool, ßphenethyl alcohol, and ß-myrcene. The authors point out that few of these chemicals have been tested for carcinogenicity, but say that some, such as pinene, are known mutagens and others, such as camphor, have known toxic effects at high concentrations. Limonene has been tested for carcinogenicity and was observed to cause cancer in male rats, but not in mice or female rats. Wallace cautions that, while the chemicals have been identified as components of fragrances, health effects may occur at far higher doses than what may typically be found in fragrances. Mary Lamielle, executive director of the National Center for Environmental Health Strategies, a national nonprofit organization dedicated to finding creative solutions for environmental health problems, points out that, even though the chemicals may be present at low levels in perfumes and products, people generally do not experience just a single exposure. "These same chemicals are cropping up in many different products," she says. Why Fragrance Safety & Labeling is a Consumer Issue Consumers can generally look at labels and tell what is in a product. This enables them to make informed choices and avoid ingredients that may cause them adverse effects. However, the fragrance in a product is the exception to the rule. Due to trade secret laws, the ingredients in the fragrance portion of a product do not have to be disclosed. This means companies do not have to tell anyone, including the FDA and other regulatory agencies what is in the product. If you have an adverse reaction to a product, they do not have to tell you or your doctor what is in the product. 122



Many consumers wish to avoid exposure to certain substances because they have adverse health effect from them or simply do not want to be exposed to them. Present labeling of fragrance products does not give information that enables the consumer to do this. In addition, pre-market testing of the safety and health effects of a product or the ingredients in a product are not required. In the case of cosmetics which include perfumes and fragranced personal care products, there is a requirement for a warning label if the product has not been adequately tested for safety. As general rule many of the materials used in fragrances have not been safety tested. Less than 1500 of the more than 3000 - 5000 substances used in fragranced products has been safety tested by the fragrance industry. This testing by the industry is usually limited to effects on the skin. Neurological, respiratory, systemic, and long term effects are not generally tested. Most fragranced products that are considered cosmetics have no warning on the label though it is required by law if substances used in the product and the final product has not had its safety substantiated. The lack of this label is false and misleading since the lack of the label indicates the product and the ingredients in it have been adequately tested for safety. Consumers are mislead into thinking the products are safe for use via all routes of exposure. In truth there are many materials used in fragrances that can cause skin allergies and contribute to other health problems such as being a trigger for asthma and other respiratory problems. Consumers have a right to know. The Biggest Problem is Fragrance Industry is Self-Regulated Currently, the fragrance industry is essentially self-regulated in the United States. The FDA's Office of Cosmetics and Colors has jurisdiction over perfumes and fragrances used in cosmetics, but do not require an approval process or premarket clearance for perfumes or cosmetics containing fragrance, says John Bailey, Jr., director of the office. Therefore, the FDA does not technically have jurisdiction over products until they are on the market. "It is up to the manufacturer to market a safe product," Bailey says. "If there's an identifiable public health risk, then certainly the agency can step in and take action." However, he says, "People claim to be sensitive to fragrances, but in spite of efforts to try to characterize the risk, the issue has defied a concise identification of a public health risk [and has] defied a good solid scientific definition. Therefore, the agency is not in a position to propose a change in regulation." Due to the trade secret rules, the FDA does not require manufacturers to reveal fragrance ingredients to the agency, nor does it require them to list the fragrance ingredients on the products themselves. The manufacturer is simply required to list the collective term "fragrance" in the ingredients, a term that is often representative of a complex mixture of chemicals, Bailey says. But Bailey also says the industry does regulate itself through a safety review process, and that 123



the FDA has periodically monitored this process. Many manufacturers of fragrance chemicals conduct their own safety tests. In addition, the fragrance industry developed the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM, pronounced "RIFF-um") in 1996 to conduct research on fragrance ingredients in order to ensure the safety of perfumery materials. According to Glenn Roberts, a spokesperson for RIFM, fragrance ingredients undergo a multistep testing process. "We are committed to developing safe products," Roberts says. RIFM tests raw perfumery materials that are selected by an independent expert panel made up largely of academics, Roberts says. The ingredients are most commonly tested for allergenicity, phototoxicity, and general toxicity by oral and dermal routes. Some of the tests are conducted on animals while others, such as skin patch tests, are conducted on humans. To date, RIFM has tested more than 1,300 fragrance materials, and publishes test results in scientific journals such as Food and Chemical Toxicology, says Roberts. The National Toxicology Program has also conducted tests on many of these chemicals. The results of the fragrance screenings are then submitted by RIFM to the International Fragrance Association (IFRA), an international organization composed of more than 100 fragrance manufacturers from 15 countries. IFRA reviews the data and establishes guidelines for the safe use of the materials. If a fragrance material is found to have neurotoxic, carcinogenic, phototoxic, or other adverse health effects, IFRA categorizes the material as restricted, and recommends amounts of the material for use in fragrance formulas. While many companies voluntarily adhere to the IFRA safety guidelines, they are not required by law to follow any of the group's recommendations, or to limit the use of any fragrance materials. Roberts points out that, while RIFM tests only the raw materials, the manufacturers of the finished fragrance products also often conduct safety tests. Research Findings on Fragrances and the Sense of Smell Extensive research has been conducted on the allergic effects of fragrances on skin, and many fragrance materials have been shown to cause dermal allergic reactions. RIFM conducts most of its research on the dermal effects of fragrances, rarely testing the effects of inhaling fragrance chemicals. Roberts says, "It has always been the scientific opinion of the industry that the skin is the primary route of exposure [for fragrances]." However, he says the industry "continues to think about and look at" the issue of respiratory testing. Not only is it difficult for nonindustry researchers to identify and quantify the actual components of fragrances, it is also challenging to study how inhaling these chemicals impacts human health because very little is known about the olfactory system, and very little research has been conducted on the passage of fragrance molecules into the body via this system. There is a strong link between the sense of smell and emotion; many researchers believe this is due to the proximity of the 124



olfactory bulb to the limbic system, which popular media have dubbed "emotion central." The nasal passage offers a unique route of exposure for chemicals, which can proceed directly into the brain because of the proximity of these systems. "The olfactory/limbic tract is the most direct connection between our brains and the air we breathe," says Miller. "There is no blood-brain barrier." Studies have shown that in rodents, chemical molecules can move through the nose directly into the brain, passing through only one or two synapses. Miller says research indicates that molecules follow this same route in humans. Another problem in studying fragrances, according to Dennis Shusterman, an associate clinical professor in the division of occupational and environmental medicine and director of the Upper Airway Biology Lab at the University of California at San Francisco, is the assumption that the only property of a fragrance chemical is its ability to stimulate the olfactory nerve and produce the sensation of smell. "In fact, [such chemicals] can stimulate both the olfactory and the trigeminal nerve, which mediates irritation," Shusterman says. Stimulation of receptors in the trigeminal nerve results in the perception of irritancy or pungency, causing sensations such as stinging, burning, piquancy, prickling, freshness, and tingling. This process is referred to as sensory irritation and can result in a localized neurogenic inflammation. Many researchers believe that exposure to fragrance and other chemicals can indeed cause irritation, which can mimic the symptoms of allergies. James Wells, a professor of medicine at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center in Oklahoma City, recounts that in his private practice as an allergist, he has encountered many patients who complain of reactions to specific perfumes or fragrances. He has observed that in a vast majority of the cases, the reaction to the fragrances is one of irritation, not allergy. Wells says the reactions to irritants are less responsive to treatment than allergies, and that avoiding the offending chemicals appears to be the only effective solution. Wells stresses that he has not conducted research, but that in his clinical experience, he has found that these patients also react to other irritants, such as detergents, cleansers, and deodorizers that emit volatile chemicals into the air. Despite the similarity of the symptoms, though, Shusterman says existing studies indicate that the process behind chemical-induced irritation is a different phenomenon from allergies altogether. Shusterman adds that many studies have indicated that people who have preexisting nasal allergies such as hay fever either perceive or react more strongly to irritant chemicals. William Cain, a professor of surgery, Enrique Cometto-Muniz, an associate research scientist, and colleagues at the Chemosensory Perception Laboratory at the University of California at San Diego are conducting extensive research on the sense of smell and sensory irritation from chemicals in the indoor environment. Cometto-Muniz says the goal of the research is to provide further insight into the sense of smell so that it can be as well understood as the visual and aural senses. "We know very well the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eye responds and the vibrational spectrum to which the ear responds, but we don't know the 125



chemical spectrum to which the nose responds," he says. Cain says an important issue to consider in investigating the effects of fragrance on the body is differentiating between psychological irritation from unpleasant chemical odors and actual sensory irritation from chemicals. Because of the strong tie between the sense of smell and emotion, researchers say foul odors emitted by certain chemicals can provoke people to believe their health is being impacted when, in fact, the offending substance may be benign. Cain and Cometto-Muniz are working to establish the odor and irritant thresholds of chemicals--at what level a chemical first is an odorant and then becomes an irritant. Identifying such thresholds will aid in distinguishing the psychological response to odor from measurable nasal and eye irritation. The involvement of anosmics, or people who have no sense of smell, in the studies allows for the "perfect opportunity to differentiate what is a trigeminal response from an olfactory response," says Cometto-Muniz. So far, the group has successfully established the threshold levels of physiological irritation for several chemical mixtures. Their research has indicated that the higher the number of chemicals is being combined, the lower their individual levels need to be to cause sensory reactions. Areas they plan to further investigate include chemical mixtures, as well as the role of time in sensory irritation and sense of smell. Cometto-Muniz says that when a person is exposed to an odor, the sensation appears to diminish over time as the person seemingly adapts to the odor, while sensory irritation occurs in an opposite manner--as time passes, irritation increases. While there are still many questions about how long-term sensory irritation may affect health, ComettoMuniz points out that "sensory irritation is there to warn us that continued exposure could potentially be dangerous." One of the few studies that have looked at the effects of inhalation of specific fragrance chemicals and perfumes was conducted at the private Anderson Laboratory in West Hartford, Vermont, by Rosalind Anderson, founder and owner of the laboratory, and Julius Anderson, vice president. The goal of the study was to determine whether fragrance products can produce acute toxic effects in mammals. The Andersons exposed laboratory mice to five fragrance products-four colognes and one toilet water. The mice breathed the emissions of the products for 1 hour and then were tested using the ASTM-E-981 method to evaluate sensory irritation and pulmonary irritation, as well as a functional observational battery to look for changes in the nervous system function. The study, published in the March-April 1998 issue of Archives of Environmental Health, showed that the emissions of the fragrances produced various combinations of sensory irritation, pulmonary irritation, decreases in expiratory airflow velocity, and alterations of the functional observational battery indicative of neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicity was more severe after mice were repeatedly exposed to the products. The Andersons say the findings indicate that some fragrance products produce toxic effects in at least one mammalian species. In the study's conclusions, they 126



wrote, "Collectively, the experimental data and chemistry predict that some humans exposed to these fragrance products might experience some combination of eye, nose, and/or throat irritation; respiratory difficulty; possibly bronchoconstriction or asthma-like reaction; and central nervous system reactions (e.g., dizziness, incoordination, confusion, fatigue). The results of our study might help explain why some individuals report intolerance to [fragrance products] and why some [fragrance products] can exacerbate airflow limitation in some asthmatics." Miller says it's important to recognize that many people who report sensitivities to fragrances also report sensitivities to other chemicals. Because fragrances are noticeable, they may be more commonly reported as causing symptoms than other chemicals. Miller conducted a study, published in the March-April 1995 issue of Archives of Environmental Health that surveyed 112 people who reported onset of MCS following a well-documented exposure to either a pesticide exposure or remodeling of a building. Miller and colleagues hypothesize that MCS may be explained by what they call toxicant-induced loss of tolerance, a two-part process involving a single high-level chemical exposure followed by subsequent triggering of symptoms by everyday exposure to chemicals. Respondents were asked to identify possible trigger exposures via inhalation and ingestion and report symptoms. About 90% of respondents reported that perfumes triggered their symptoms, but Miller stresses that many other exposures triggered symptoms as well, including insecticides, traffic exhaust, new carpet, paint, and various foods. The most frequently reported symptoms included lethargy, memory difficulties, and feelings of depression, dizziness, "spaciness," and shortness of breath. One other issue to consider is that of the effect of fragrance exposure on children's health. Today, many children's products are scented, and there are many fragrances marketed specifically toward children. Betty Bridges, a registered nurse and founder of the Fragranced Products Information Network, Web site containing information about chemicals used in scented products and their health effects, says that children may be more susceptible to the effects of such products because of their smaller size, their higher respiratory rate, and their thinner skin. However, little research has been done on this issue. Why Specifically Women Should Be Concerned We all know that women have traditionally been the primary consumers of fragranced products and are the main purchasers of products that contain fragrance. Although men these days are also inclined to use these products, but women continue to be the ones primarily responsible for shopping and purchasing of products used in the home, for themselves and for their families. Women continue to have the greatest exposure to fragranced products through both personal care products and the things that are used in maintaining a household.



127



Much of marketing of fragranced products is targeted toward women. Such marketing contributes to the misconception that "fragrance" is required in every product that is used. Our clothes must smell fresh for days, our homes must have the odor of a field of flowers, and clean means scented. Clever marketing has made the fragrances a multi-billion dollar industry at the expense of women and their family’s health. Fragranced products contain materials that are known to cause skin allergies and are irritating to both the skin and the respiratory system. In addition synthetic musk compounds have been shown to penetrate the skin. Synthetic musk compounds are present in a wide variety of products from personal care to laundry products. These materials are found in fat tissue, blood lipids, and breast milk. Not enough information is available to determine if these materials may present health risks to women and in the case of pregnancy and breast feeding to their children. Women need to be informed so they can make decisions based on facts and not advertising hype. As things stand, it is difficult to make informed choices because the information is not readily available Companies need to be put on notice that women want and need to know how safe the products are that they use on a daily basis. The Latest Trend Would Be a Fragrance-Free Future Due to technological advancement and attention to details some patient groups claim that in the next decade, the issue of fragrance will be as controversial as today's tobacco smoke issue. They say the debate over people's right to smoke versus others' right to breathe clean air could also be applied to fragrance. McEwen calls the comparison between tobacco smoke and fragrances "absurd," saying, "Fragrances are scents that are basically taken from nature. They have been around forever. There is no process of combustion involved and they are not addictive." However, many organizations are taking the fragrance sensitivity issue seriously. For example, at an American Chemical Society meeting held in August 1998 in Boston, Massachusetts, attendees were asked not to wear fragrances due to the number of chemically sensitive people attending the meeting. Miller says that requests for people to refrain from wearing scented products are appearing with more frequency on social invitations, as well as in public meeting notices. At the University Of Minnesota School Of Social Work in Minneapolis, signs are posted at entrances to the department, stating, "Some persons employed or studying in the School of Social Work report sensitivities to various chemical-based or scented products. We ask for everyone's cooperation in our efforts to accommodate their health concerns." In recent years, perhaps in response to the abundance of fragrance encountered by people on a daily basis, the trend of scenting products has been somewhat 128



reversed. Many manufacturers are now removing fragrance from products and touting "fragrance-free" and "unscented" versions of products such as laundry detergent and fabric softeners. However, chemically sensitive patients warn that, even though a product is labeled unscented or fragrance-free, it doesn't necessarily mean that it contains no fragrance chemicals. As studies have documented, manufacturers will often add masking chemicals to cover the scent of other chemicals in the product, resulting in a product that does not produce a detectable scent. As for manufacturers that label their products as fragrance-free or unscented, Bailey says the FDA requires them to list the term "fragrance" in the ingredients when any fragrance materials are used--even masking ingredients. If the manufacturer fails to list fragrance ingredients, the FDA has the power to take regulatory action. Whether the fragrance issue can and will be regulated remains to be seen. The U.S. Postal Service passed a regulation in April 1990 stating that "a fragrance advertising sample is nonmailable unless the sample meets the following requirement: It must be sealed, wrapped, treated, or otherwise prepared in a manner reasonably designed to prevent individuals from being unknowingly or involuntarily exposed to the sample." The California state government expanded the concept of that rule in 1992 by passing a regulation stating that "Any fragrance advertising insert contained in a newspaper, magazine, mailing, or other periodically printed material shall contain only microencapsulated oils. Glue tabs or binders shall be used to prevent premature activation of the fragrance advertising insert." In addition, several magazines now offer a "scent-free" version at the subscriber's request. Lamielle and others are working to raise awareness of the issue of fragrance sensitivity. "Unfortunately, a lot of people don't realize that this is a serious issue, because it sounds so trivial," she says. "There's a huge population who do get sick from these products." In order to help solve the problem, Lamielle says that people should use less-toxic, unscented products and be considerate of those who are affected by fragrance sensitivity. The issue of the environmental health effects of fragrances is complex, controversial, and slowly garnering more public attention. While Lamielle and Bridges say the number of people claiming to be affected by fragrances seems to be growing, Roberts says the fragrance industry has not seen an increase in complaints from consumers. "Fragrance helps many people enjoy their lives, but if there is a problem, we hope that [consumers] will call the manufacturers and we'll work to resolve it. We are always open to new ideas," says Roberts. McEwen says it is important not to forget the many benefits of fragrances. They are used in the identification of different products, for instance by distinguishing a cough syrup from an emetic. They can also mask objectionable odors in certain 129



products. "Fragrance really is like beautiful colors, beautiful music--a sensory phenomenon. It makes life better," McEwen says. In the end, however, the only indisputable fact is that there is a lack of research on the issue. Says Miller, "It's worrisome, and should be explored with good, careful scientific studies."



130