Introduction To Geographic Information Systems [PDF]

Citation preview

Eighth Edition



Introduction



to



Geographic



Information Systems



Kang-tsung Chang University of



Mc Graw Hill Education



Idaho



Contents



Preface



xiv



1.5 Organization of This Book 1.6



1



CHAPTER



Review



Task 2 Introduction to



1.1.2 A Brief



of GIS



3



1.1.3 GIS Software Products



4



Box 1.1 A List



GIS



1.2 Elements of GIS



Geospatial



References



Data



1.2.3 Attribute Data



CHAPTER



Display



Exploration of GIS



Box 1.2 A List



8



2.1



8



Geographic



8



2.1.2 Datum



8



Farming



Coordinate



10



2.2



11



Map Projections Earth's 2.2.1



and Mobile



12



Mapping



22



23 25



2.2.2



Types of Map Projections Map Projection



12



Geographic



Information



1.4.4



of Web and Mobile



2.3.3 Albers 2.3.4



26



Parameters



27



29



Map Projections 29



2.3.2 Lambert Conformal Conic 13



Equal-Area



Equidistant Conic



2.3.5 Web Mercator



on



25



2.3.1 Transverse Mercator



1.4.3 Volunteered



13



21



Shift in Australia and



Surface



2.3 Commonly Used



Implications



System



Box 2.2 How to Measure Distances



12



Mapping



20



23



New Zealand



Networking 11 Integration of Desktop GIS, Web GIS,



1.4.2 Collaborative Web



iv



2



Box 2.1 Datum



10



Box 1.4 Location-Based Services and Social



Applications



ArcMap



2.1.1 Approximation of the Earth



of GIS Applications



Box 1.3 Precision



1.4.1 Web



17



18



Coordinate Systems



8



Management



1.2.5 Data



Technology



16



ArcCatalog



19



Producers and



5



5



1.2.4 Data



1.2.6 Data Analysis



1.4



Task



16



5



Acquisition



Applications



3



of GIS Software



Their Main Products



1.3



Challenge



a



History



75



15



Task 1 Introduction to



2



1.2.2 Data



Questions



14



14



Applications: Introduction



1



1.1.1 Components of



1.2.1



Practice



Key Concepts and Terms



Introduction 1.1 GIS



Concepts and



31



Conic



30



30 30



Contents



2.4



Coordinate



Projected



Box 2.3



31



Systems



Map Scale



31



32



System



3.5 Grid



Stereographic



2.4.4 The Public Land



33



34



Survey System



2.5 Options for Coordinate Systems in GIS File



Projection



On-the-Fly Projection



and



Review Questions



Task 3



Systems



40



Task 5 View



to a



Challenge 41



System



References



a



Coordinate System



65 65



66



and Routes



66



67



42



Raster Data Model



3



Representation



Simple



Topology



Topology



48



49



Coverage



Coverage



3.3.3



Nontopological



72



73



4.2.3



and



GeoEye



(SPOT 5) 4.2.5 SAR



51



and



4.3.1 53



53 54 and ArcGIS



of High Resolution



Very High Resolution (IKONOS) 74



74



Optical



Box 4.2 An



Model 4.3.2 InSAR 55



4.3.3 LiDAR



73



73



4.3 Digital Elevation Models



52



Relationships



Globe



Digital



4.2.4 Terra Satellite



49



50



Vector Data



ArcObjects



Landsat



70



71



Satellite Images



3.4 Object-Based Data Model



3.4.3 The Geodatabase



70



Images



4.2.2 SPOT



50



Data Structure



3.4.1 Classes and Class



70



Depth



Box 4.1 Data Volumes



Topology or No Topology



3.3.2



Box 3.4



47



and Incidence



Adjacency



3.4.2 Interface



Satellite 4.2.1



of



70



4.1.5 Spatial Reference 4.2



46



3.3 Georelational Data Model



3.3.1 The



46



69



70



4.1.4 Raster Bands



46



Importance



Box 3.3



45



Specifications of Spatial Features by



3.2.1 TIGER



Box 3.2



4.1.3 Cell



Features



Google and OpenStreetMap



Cell Value



4.1.2 Cell Size



44



Vector Data Model of



68



4.1 Elements of the Raster Data Model 4.1.1



Box 3.1



4



CHAPTER



42



43



CHAPTER



3.2.2



Personal



a



66



Task



41



System



Reproject



References



3.2



Regions



Task 6 View TIN



Projected



40



Coordinate



Challenge Task



3.1



Dataset,



Project Using a Predefined



Coordinate



Task 4



a



Shapefile to



a



Feature



64



Geodatabase Feature Class



Geographic



a



System



Task 2 Import



Geodatabase,



Task 4 Examine Polylines with Measures



Task 1 Project from Coordinate



Task 3 Convert



37



39



Coordinate



Applications:



63



63



Shapefile



and Feature Class



37



Systems



and Terms



61



62



Questions



Task 2 Create File



36



Box 2.5 GIS Tools for Working With Coordinate



59



Task 1 Examine the Data File Structure of Coverage



36



Example



57



Features



58



Regions



Key Concepts and Terms



35



Systems



Box 2.4 A Projection File



Key Concepts



Composite



57



3.5.3 Routes



Review



56



57



Applications: Vector Data Model



35



2.5.2 Predefined Coordinate



2.5.3



35



55



of the Geodatabase



of



Representation 3.5.2



2.4.3 The State Plane Coordinate System



2.5.1



Advantages



3.5.1 TINs



33



System



Topology Rules



3.4.5



Box 3.5 NHDinGEO



2.4.1 The Universal Transverse Mercator Grid



2.4.2 The Universal Polar



3.4.4



v



Sensors



74



74



Example of a Digital 75 75



75



Elevation



vi



Contents



4.4 Other A.A.I



Types of Raster Data



4.4.2 Land Cover Data



76



76



5.3.1 Direct Translation 76



AAA



Digital



77



4.4.5



Graphic



4.4.6 GIS



Graphics



Files



78



4.5.2



Run-Length Encoding



79



4.7.1



A.7.3



Example



Digital



Example:



Integration



The Haar



Key Concepts



83



Earth



Applications: 84



Task 2



Task 2 View



a



Satellite



Task 3 View



a



Land Cover Image



Image



Google



87



On-Screen



Earth



Challenge 87



References



Task 4 Convert Vector Data to Raster Data



110



112



Task



112



6



Geometric Transformation



5



5.1 Existing GIS Data and



6.1.1



91



Map-to-Map



Transformation



92



and



Image-to-Map



115



6.1.2 Transformation Methods 6.1.3 Affine Transformation



Geoportal



6.1.4 Control Points



Box 5.1 An DEM



92 92



Coefficients



94



5.1.3 U.S. Census Bureau



of Transformation



118



Box 6.2 Output from



Box 5.2 Data Formats for USGS Products



95



95



5.1.5



Examples of Statewide, Metropolitan, County-Level Data 96



5.1.6 GIS Data from Other Sources



Transformation 6.2 Root Mean



5.1.4 Natural Resources Conservation Service



96



and



Transformation 6.3



Interpretation



Maps



121



an



Affine



119



Square (RMS)



Box 6.3 RMSfrom



95



115 116



117



Box 6.1 Estimation



Application Example ofLiDAR



114



115



Spatial Data Infrastructure, Clearinghouse, Geological Survey



it in



88



CHAPTER



GIS Data Acquisition



5.1.2 U.S.



Display



112



6.1 Geometric Transformation



5.1.1



110



113



88



89



CHAPTER



110



Acquisition



Task 4 Download KML File and 86



107



108



Task 3 Add XY Data 86



103



109



GIS Data



Digitize



103 Table



107



Digitizing



Task 1 Download USGS DEM



85



Raster Data Model



Digitizing



a



and Terms



Review Questions 84



Task 1 View and Import DEM Data



References



102



104



5.4.7 Importance of Source Maps



86



Challenge Task



Digitizing Using



5.4.5 Scanning



83



83



Key Concepts and Terms Review Questions



101



y-Coordinates



GPS-Enabled Mobile Phones 5.4.4



of Raster and Vector Data



Integration



Applications:



81



81



5 A.6 On-Screen



A.1.2 Vectorization



100



101



Box 5.5 GPS and OpenStreetMap



82



Rasterization



Box 4.5



Example of GPS Data



Box 5.6 Positional Accuracy of GPS Units and



Wavelet



4.7 Data Conversion and



98



99



Box 5.4 GPS Tracker



80



Simple



98



5.4.3 Text Files with x-,



Compression



Wavelet



5.4.2 Field Data



79



Box 4.3 A Header File



Box 4.4 A



77



Box 5.3 An



Cell-by-Cell Encoding



A.6 Raster Data



Data



78



4.5.1



4.5.4 Header File



97



5.4.1 Remotely Sensed Data



Software-Specific Raster



4.5.3 Quadtree



5.3.2 Neutral Format



97



97



5.4 Creation of New Data



77



4.5 Raster Data Structure



96



5.3 Conversion of Existing Data



4.4.3 Bi-Level Scanned Files Raster



5.2 Metadata



76



Digital Orthophotos



an



Error



119



Affine



120



of RMS Errors



on



Digitized



Contents



6.4 Resampling of Pixel Values 6.4.1



Methods



Resampling



Box 6.4



Task 1 Edit a



Computation for Bilinear



Interpolation Box 6.5



in



and Terms



Key Concepts



Errors Between Two 123



Resampling



Pyramiding



124



124



Geometric Transformation



Rectify



a



Task 2 Vectorize Raster Lines



125



References



References



Task



127



129



129



7



7.1 Location Errors



131



7.1.1 Location Errors



7.2



Spatial



Errors



131



Using Primary



8.2.3



Spatial Data



8.3.3



Errors with



Spatial Features



7.3.2



Topological Errors between Layers



Snapping



8.5.1 137



8.5.3



137



Review



Editing Existing



7.5.2



Creating Features from Existing Features



7.6.1



Edgematching



7.6.2 Line



Key Concepts Review



Features



and Terms



Questions



142



138



139



and



141



161



Computation of Attribute



139



and Terms



Questions



Applications:



161



140



Data



Management



Entering



164 165



Task 3 Relate Tables



165



Task 4 Create New Attribute Classification



162 162



162



Attribute Data



Task 2 Join Tables



Smoothing



162



162



163



Task 1 Use Validation Rule for Data



139



Simplification



161



Adding and Deleting Fields



Key Concepts



7.5.1



Editing Operations



160



161



8.5.2 Classification of Attribute Data 137



138



Nontopological Editing



Classes



Entry



8.5 Manipulation of Fields and Attribute Data



136



Editing Using Topology Rules



7.6 Other



8.4 Attribute Data



8.4.3 Attribute Data Verification



Using Map Topology



160



160



Relationship



8.4.2 Methods of Data Entry



136



Box 7.3 Cluster Tolerance



7.4.3



157



Relationship Classes



8.4.1 Field Definition



135



136



Topology



7.4.1 Cluster Tolerance and



7.4.2 Editing



134



155



Relationships



160



8.3.2 Relates



133



Topological



Topological Editing



of



8.3.1 Joins



7.3.1



Box 7.2 Radius



Types



8.3 Joins, Relates, and



133



Accuracy Statistic



7.5



132



Accuracy Standards



Box 7.1 National Standardfor



Tolerance



153



153



155



Example



8.2.2 Normalization



Data



132



Data



152



152



8.2.1 SSURGO: A Relational Database



7.3 Topological Errors



7.4



8.2 The Relational Model



Using Secondary Data



Digitizing



7.1.3 Location Errors Sources



Types



of Numeric Data Type



of Attribute Data



Box 8.3 What Is BLOB ?



131



7.1.2 Causes of



152



Box 8.2 Selection 8.1.3



151



151



Spatial Database Management



System



and



149



150



8.1.2 Database Management



130



Sources



8



Types of Attribute Tables



Box 8.1



Quality



147



Attribute Data Management



8.1.1



Spatial Data Accuracy



Polygon



147



8.1 Attribute Data in GIS



CHAPTER



145



Dangles



Rule to Ensure Two



148



CHAPTER



126



Task 3 Perform Image-to-Map Transformation Task



to Fix



Digitizing



Scanned



125



Challenge



Topology



Layers Covering Each Other Challenge



Task 1 Georeference and



Map



Task 4 Use



143



Quality



144



Shapefiles



Task 3 Use Topology Rule



Image Processing



124



Review Questions



and



143



Shapefile



Task 2 Use Cluster Tolerance to Fix



123



6.4.2 Other Uses of



Applications:



Applications: Spatial Data Accuracy



722 122



vii



166



by Data



164 Attribute



viii



Contents



Task 5 Use Advanced Method for Attribute Data Classification



10



CHAPTER



166



Task 6 Create New Attribute by Data 167



Computation



Data Exploration



Task



Challenge References



10.1 Data Exploration



168



168



Data Display



10.1.2



Cartography



and



Features and



9.1.2 Use of Color



170



174



Locating Dots



176



on a



178



Dot Map



9.5 Animated



Type



Variations



180



Map Body



181



184



with



Soft-Copy Maps



189



Making



Applications:



Task 1 Make



a



Display



Cartography



Choropleth Map



Task 2 Use Graduated



Highway



Shield



Symbols



195



192



192



Symbols, Line Symbols,



Symbols,



and Text



199



198



Spatial Data



Expressions of Spatial



Spatial



216



Join



Query by



Data



216



216



Cell Value



217



Task 2 Make Task 3



218



218



219



Exploration



Task 1 Select Features



Dynamic



Query Attribute



by



220



Location



Chart



Data from



a



Joint Table a



Relational



222



Task 5 Combine



Queries



220



221



Task 4 Query Attribute Data from Database



Task 3 Label Streams



199



Attribute and



10.5 Raster Data Query



Applications: and



214



215



Review Questions



190



192



Challenge Task



Combining



10.5.2 Query by Select Features



Color



214



215



Relationship



Key Concepts and Terms



and Terms



Data



214



by Spatial



10.5.1



189



213



214



by Graphic



10.4.5



210



213



Query Operations



10.4.3 Feature Selection



Relationships



188



Working



Review Questions



of



10.4.2 Feature Selection



Box 10.5



190



Key Concepts



Examples



210



Query



211



Query Expressions



Spatial Data Query



10.4.4



185



Hierarchy



Maps



SQL (Structured Query Language)



Queries



Box 9.7 A Web Tool for



References



181



184



9.6 Map Production



210



Query



10.4.1 Feature Selection by Cursor



184



Maps



Box 9.6



208



209



10.3.3 Type of Operation



10.4



Options for Dynamic Labeling



Layout



Map Comparison



10.3.4



179



Box 9.5 Better Mapping Campaign



9.4.2 Visual



10.2.3



10.3.5 Relational Database Query



9.3.3 Placement of Text in the



9.4.1



Spatial Aggregation



10.3.2



179



9.4 Map Design



207



Box 10.4 SQL for Attribute Data



178



Type Variations



Box 9.4



207



Manipulation



208



Analytics



10.3.1



Box 9.3 Mapping Derived and Absolute



9.3.2 Selection of



207



10.2.2



175



9.2 Types of Quantitative Maps



9.3.1



Map-Based



Data



10.3 Attribute Data



9.1.4 Generalization



9.3 Typography



203



203



Graphs



Box 10.3 Geovisualization and Geovisual



173



Values



202



202



10.2.1 Data Classification



172



173



9.1.3 Data Classification



Box 9.2



10.2



172



Map Symbols



Box 9.1 Choice of Map Symbols in Google My



Maps



Statistics



10.1.3 Dynamic Graphics



Cartographic Representation



Spatial



Descriptive



Box 10.2 Descriptive Statistics



9



CHAPTER



9.1.1



202



Box 10.1 Data Visualization 10.1.1



9.1



201



167



Task 7 Create Relationship Class



Spatial



and Attribute Data



223



Task 6 Perform Spatial Join



223



221



Contents



Task 7



Query Raster Data



Challenge References



Task



224



225



Raster Data Analysis



11



CHAPTER



12.1 Data



Vector Data Analysis 11.1



226



12.2.2 Reclassification



Box 11.2



Buffer



Deserts Box 11.3



Zones for



Type



Overlay



and



Difference



Spatial Join 11.2.4 Slivers



11.2.5 Error



231



between



Overlay



12.4 Zonal



and



12.4.2 in



11.3 Distance Measurement 11.4 Pattern Analysis



Overlay



12.5



235



Assessing



Measuring High/Low



12.8.1



of Physical Distance



Operations



265



265



Management



266 266



267



267



Overlay



12.8.2



Buffering 268 Key Concepts and Terms



246



Analysis



267



Overlay



Box 12.6 A Case for Raster-Based



244



Review



246



248



248



250



249



269



2