Makalah Grammar [PDF]

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ADVANCED GRAMMAR Modals



Lecturer: Dr. Oom Rohmah S.



Created by: Yenny Setiawati Dini Ika Lestari Heni Wahyu Arini Risma Liyana Ulfa



Faculty of Language and Art English Education Program University of Indraprasta PGRI 2018



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Every language has its own syntactical patterns to create written or spoken language. Though, it could be changed depends on the context which is applicable in English. In fact, many people might be distracted of those patterns and also theirs meaning. It is the reason why knowledge of English grammar is a necessity for a learner to be mastered. It has a proven impact of our language competence; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. So, grammar is bound up with the meaning and effect of what we write and say. Possessing grammatical competence will make learner has benefits especially to express necessity, advise, permission, and probability to convey what speaker wants to convince the listener or reader. It stated in this chapter which discusses about modals. Modals are generally express speakers’ attitudes. For example, modals can express that a speaker feels something is necessary, advisable, permissible, possible, or probable; and, in addition, they can convey the strength of those attitudes (Azar, 2009).



A. Basic Introduction Modal Auxiliaries Modal Auxiliaries generally express speaker’s attitudes. Modals can express that a speaker feels something is necessary, advisable, permissible, possible or probable and in addition, they can convey the strength of those attitudes (Azar, 2009). Modal auxiliaries are verbs which are used to add meaning to another verb. They follow different grammar rules to regular verbs and can often be used in many different ways. The basic modal auxiliaries in English are can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should and must. There are other verbs which behave like modal verbs, although they do not have all the features of 'full' modal auxiliaries. Examples include ought to, need and have to. Modal auxiliaries are different from 'normal' verbs in several ways. Modal verbs can only be used together with another verb in the infinitive form, without 'to'. Each modal has more than one meaning or use: 1. Modals do not take final –s even the subject is he, she, it or a third person singular number. Incorrect



Correct



He can drives a car.



He can drive a car.



She can sees it.



She can see it.



Katty must goes to her office right now.



Katty must go to her office right now.



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2. Modals are immediately followed by the simple form of a verb. Incorrect



Correct



He can to do it.s



He can do it.



The cheetah can ran fast.



The cheetah can run fast.



I must to go now.



I must go now.



The only exception is ought to, which is followed by an infinitive (to + the simple form of a verb. Incorrect



Correct



The student ought to arrives before the



The student ought to arrive before the



exam.



exam.



Ryan ought to did the homework.



Ryan ought to do the homework.



She ought to went to the meeting.



She ought to go to the meeting.



3. If we use modal in past tense, the bare infinitive should be used Incorrect



Correct



They could sang at the karaoke until



They could sing at the karaoke until



midnight.



midnight.



You might left early.



You might leave early.



We would found our way.



We would find our way.



4. These examples show ‘can’ to begin the interrogative sentences. a. Can your father speak English well? b. Could you contact him last night? c. May I borrow your car, please? d. Will we find our way? e. Would you hand me that book? B. Polite Request with “I” as the Subject May I and Could I are used to request permission. They are equally polite, but May I sounds more formal. In polite request, could have a present or future meaning, not a past meaning.



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Might I is also possible. It is quite formal and polite. It is used much less frequently than May I or Could I (Azar, 2009). e.g: 1. May I (please) come in, sir? 2. May I (please) borrow your pen? 3. May I speak to the chief of police please? 4. Could I take your pen (please)? 5. Could I see your passport please, sir? Can I is also used to request permission, especially if the speaker is talking to someone she/he knows fairly well. It is considered less formal. (Azar, 2009) e.g.: 1. Can I borrow your ruler? 2. Can I go out tonight? 3. Can I have a sweet? 4. Can I use your cell phone? 5. Can I offer you something to drink? 6. Can I come round to your house later? C. Polite Request with “ YOU” as the subject The meaning of would you and will you in a polite request is the same. But, would you is more common and is often considered more polite. 1. Would you lend me your pen please? 2. Will you pass the salt please? 3. Will you come for a walk this afternoon? 4. Will you past the mustard, please? 5. Will you let me have a look at the letter?



Could you and would you have the same meaning and are equally polite. The difference is: Would you = do you want to do this please? Could you = do you want to do this please and is it possible for you to do this? 1. Could you lend me your pen please? 2. Could you repeat please? 4



3. Could you explain this please? 4. Could you tell me where the nearest bank is, please? 5. Would you like a drink? 6. Would you like to have dinner with me tonight? 7. Would you please take off your coat? Can you is often used informally. It usually sounds less polite than would you and could you. 1. Can you close the door? 2. Can you buy some bread? 3. Can you help me? 4. Can you pick up me later? D. Polite Request with “WOULD YOU MIND” Would you mind if used to ask permission, it is followed by the simple past. (Thompson, 1986) 1. Would you mind if I switched on the TV? 2. Would you mind if I closed the window? 3. Would you mind if I used the phone? 4. Would you mind moving your car please? Would you mind is used to ask someone to do something. It is followed by the –ing form of the verb. 1. Would you mind switching on the TV? 2. Would you mind closing the window? 3. Would you mind moving your car please?



E. Expressing Necessity: Must, Have to, Have Got to When we talk about necessity in the present or the near future, we can use either must or have (got) to. But there is difference in meaning. We normally use must when the speaker feels the necessity and have to because the rule is not his and the necessity results from the situation. (Eastwood, 1994)



e.g.: 5



1. You must buy your ticket before starting your journey. 2. I have to buy the ticket before I get on the rain. You must… is a way of ordering someone to do something. You have to … is a way of telling them what is necessary in the situation. e.g. 1. You must fill in a form. (I am telling you) 2. You have to fill a form. (That is the rule) 3. I must go on diet. I am getting overweight. 4. I have to go on a diet. The doctor has told me to. We sometimes use must for things we think are necessary because they are so enjoyable. 1. You really must watch thus new Canadian soap opera. 2. We must have lunch together. Must have no past tense, no perfect or continuous form and no infinitive or -ing form. We use have to instead. 1. We have had to make a few changes. 2. I am having to spend a lot of time travelling. 3. You will have to pay the full standard single fare. Both have to and have got to express the same meaning, necessity which is outside the speaker. 1. I have to take an exam in June. 2. I have got to take an exam in June. Have to is common in both formal and informal English but have got to is informal. We use got only in simple tenses but have to has all the forms of an ordinary verb. 1. Father was so ill we were having to sit up with him night after night. 2. I don’t want to have to punish you. We cannot use got there. In the past simple had to is more usual than had got to. 6



I couldn’t go to the dance. I had to finish my project.



With have to, we use do in negatives and questions. 1. We don’t have to pay. 2. Does the winner have to make a speech?



With have got to, we use have as an auxiliary. 1. We haven’t got to pay. 2. Has the winner got to make a speech? In past simple negatives and questions, we almost always use did… have to, not had… got to.



F. Should, Ought to, and Had Better In learning English grammar, we know that should and ought to is a modal. They give special meaning to a verb and they are always followed by simple form of a verb. Should and ought to both are modal verbs which used to express advisability. Their meaning ranges in strength from a suggestion (Azhar, 2009). We often use should when we say something that is a good or right to do in a particular situation. In other words, we can use should when we ask for and give an opinion about something. Besides, should can also be used when we want to suggest something and implying that something would take place.In short, the the functions of should and ought to are explaining the duty that someone have to do, giving advices or suggestions, and telling probabilities. In contrast, ought to shows stronger meaning than should. It usually used to tell a certain policy or regulation which can’t be avoided (Murphy: 1989). Both should and ought to can be expressed in past meaning, where we can use should have followed by past participle form. Below are the examples: -



The government should do something about the economy. (duty)



-



He should talk to the manager about his new proposal. (advice)



-



By this time next year, I should have my license to practice conseling. (probability)



-



You ought to wear the grey-white uniform on Monday because that is the school regulation. (policy) 7



-



According to the sign, we ought to stop here. (regulation)



-



You were supposed to be here t 10.00 p.m., but you didn’t come until midnight. We were worried about you. You should have called us. (past form of should) Another kind of modal is had better. The modal had better had close meaning to



should and ought to, but had better is usually stronger. Often had better implies a warning or a threat of possible bad consequences. If we used had better, it must in a present or future meaning. The modal had better is more common in speaking than writing. The examples as follow: -



The gas tank is almost empty. We had better stop at the next gas station.



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You had better take care that cut on your hand soon, or it will get infected.



G. Be Supposed to To be supposed to means an obligation. It is something that another person expected us to do. We can used be supposed to when saying what is the best thing to do; the correct way of doing things in a situation whether in the present or the future. Furhtermore, we can use be supposed to to suggest that something that people talk about or believe in may not in fact, happen, or be as it is described. The modal be supposed to can only be used with the present and past tense form of the verb. To be is, am, are can indicates the use of be supposed to in the present, while was and were are used to indicates past situation. In short, the modal be supposed to refers to some occations as the examples as follow: -



The new James Bond movie is supposed to be excellent. (means it is believed)



-



I am supposed to pay my rent on the first of the the month. (expected)



-



She is supposed to be getting on a plane to Canada at this time. (it doesn’t actually happened)



-



We are not supposed to use the Internet for personal reason at work. (prohibition)



H. Be Going to According to (Azhar: 2009) be supposed to is used to talk about intensions for future activities. Besides, it also talks about past intensions such as the activities that someone



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intended to do but did not do. Some of verbs to indicated unfulfilled intensions are: plan, hope, intend, and think about in the past progressive or past perfect. Examples: -



I am going to go to the concert tomorrow. I am realy looking forward to it. (future activities)



-



Jack was going to go to the movie last night, but he changed his mind. (unfulfilled intention)



-



I was thinking about going but I didn’t. (unfulfilld intention in past progressive)



-



I had hoped to go, but it couln’t because it was raining heavily. (unfulfilld intention in past perfect)



I. Could Could is an auxiliary verb. Modals could can be used to talk about past possibility or ability. Besides, it is functioned to make request and also suggestions. If we want to ask somebody to do something politely, the modal could can be an alternative. The main verb is always the simple verb after the modal could. Use could especially with these verbs: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, remember, and understand. Look at these examples: - She spoke in a low voice, but I could understand what she was saying -



My grandmother could speak seven languages. (past possibility)



-



I could swim when I was 5 years old. (past ability)



-



We could write a letter to the director. (suggestion)



-



Could you open the window, please? (request)



J. Degrees of Certainty : Present Time Degree of Certainty refers to how sure we are – what we think the chances are – that something is true. If we are sure something is true in the present, we don’t need to use a modal. For examples: a) If I say, “John is sick,” I am sure; I am stating a fact that I am sure is true. My degree of certainty is 100%. b) Why isn’t John in class?  He is sick : 100% sure  He must be sick : 95% sure  He may/might/could be sick : less than 50% sure 9



c) Why isn’t John in class?  He must be sick. (Usually he is in class every day, but when I saw him last night, he wasn’t feeling good. So my best guess is that he is sick today. I can’t think of another possibility.) 



Must expresses a strong degree of certainty about a present situation, but the degree of certainty is still less than 100%.







In ©: the speaker is saying, “Probably John is sick. I have evidence to make me believe that he is sick. That is my logical conclusion, but I do not know for the certain.”



d) Why isn’t John in class?  He may/might/could be sick. (I don’t really know. He may be at home watching TV. He might be at the library. He could be out of town.) 



May, might, and could express a weak degree of certainty and have the same meaning.







In (d): the speaker is saying,”Perhaps, maybe,* possibly John is sick. I am only making a guess. I can think of other possibilities.”



K. Degrees of Certainty : Present Time Negative For examples: 



Sam isn’t hungry. : 100% sure







Sam couldn’t/can’t be hungry : 99% sure







Sam must not be hungry : 95% sure







Sam may/might not be hungry : less than 50% sure a) Sam doesn’t want anything to eat. He isn’t hungry. He told me his stomach is full. I heard him say that he isn’t hungry. I believe him. 



The speaker is sure that Sam is not hungry.



b) Sam couldn’t/can’t be hungry! That’s impossible! I just saw him eat a huge meal. He has already eaten enough to fill two grown men. Did he really say he’d like something to eat? I don’t believe it. 



In (b): the speaker believes that there is no possibility that Sam is hungry (but the speaker is not 100% sure). When used in the negative to show degree of certainty, couldn’t and can’t forcefully express the idea that the speaker believes something is impossible. 10



c) Sam isn’t eating his food. He must not be hungry. That’s the only reason I can think of. 



In ©: the speaker is expressing a logical conclusion, a “best guess.”



d) I don’t know why Sam isn’t eating his food. He may not/might not be hungry right now. Or maybe he doesn’t feel well. Or perhaps he ate just before he got here. Who knows? 



In (d): the speaker uses may not/might not to mention a possibility.



L. Degrees of Certainty : Past Time a) Past Time : Affirmative 



Why wasn’t Mary in class?  She was sick : 100% The speaker is sure.  She must have been sick : 95% The speaker is making a logical conclusion, e.g., “I saw Mary yesterday ad found out that she was sick. I assume that is the reason why she was absent. I can’t think of any other good reason.”  She may/might/could have been sick : less than 50% The speaker is mentioning one possibility.



b) Past Time : Negative  Why didn’t Sam eat?  Sam wasn’t hungry : 100% The speaker is sure.  Sam couldn’t/can’t have been hungry : 99% The speaker believes that it is impossible for Sam to have been hungry.  Sam mustn’t have been hungry : 95% The speaker is making a logical conclusion.  Sam may/might not have been hungry : less than 50% The speaker is mentioning one possibility.



M. Degrees of Certainty : Future Time  Kay will do well on the test. : 100% sure 11



The speaker feels sure.  Kay should/ought to do well on the test : 90% sure The speaker is almost sure.  She may/might/could do well on the test: less than 50% sure.



a)



Kay has been studying hard. She should do / ought to do well on the test tomorrow. Should /ought to do can be used to express expectations about future events. In (a): the speaker is saying, “Kay will probably do well on the test. I expect her to do well. That is what I think will happen.”



b) I wonder why Sue hasn’t written us. We should have heard/ ought to have heard from her last week. The past form of should/ ought to is used to mean that the speaker expected something that did not occur.



N. Progressive Forms of Modals a) Progressive form, present time : modal + be + - ing (Meaning : in progress right now)  Let’s just knock on the door lightly. Tom may be sleeping. (right now).  All of the lights in Ann’s room are turned off. She must be sleeping. (right now) b) Progressive form, past time : modal + have been + - ing ( Meaning : in progress at a time in the past  Sue wasn’t at home last night when we went to visit her. She might have been studying at the library.  Joe wasn’t at home last night. He has a lot of exams coming up soon, and he is also working on a term paper. He must have been studying at the library.



O. Ability : Can and Could a) Can is used to express physical ability. Can is frequently used with verbs of the five senses: see, hear, feel, smell, taste. e.g : Tom is strong. He can lift that heavy box. b) Can is used to express an acquired skill. 12



e.g : Maria can play the piano. She’s been taking lesson for many years. (can play : knows how to play.) c) Can is used to express possibility e.g : you can buy a hammer at the hardware store. d) Can is used to give permission in informal. e.g :  I am not quite ready to go, but you can leave if you’re in a hurry. I’ll meet you.  later. When you finish the test, you may leave. e) Negative form: cannot or can’t. e.g : Dog can bark, but they cannot/can’t talk. f) The past form of can meaning “ability” is could. e.g : Tom could lift the box, but I couldn’t.



References



Alexander, LG. 1990. Longman English Grammar Practice. New York: Addison Wiley Longman.



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Azar, Betty Schrampfer. 2002. Understanding and Using English Grammar (Third Edition). New York: Longman. Eastwood, John. 2002. Oxford Guide to English Grammar. New York: Oxford University Press. Jespersen, Otto. 1993. Essentials of English Grammar. London: Routledge. Murphy, Raymond. 1989. English Grammar in Use. United Kingdom: Cambridge University. Thomson, A.J. 1986. A Practical English Grammar. New York: Oxford University Press.



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