Research On Language Learning Strategies, Methods, Findings, and Instructional Issues, Rebecca Oxford and David Crookall [PDF]

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Research on Language Learning Strategies: Methods, Findings, and Instructional Issues Author(s): Rebecca Oxford and David Crookall Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 73, No. 4 (Winter, 1989), pp. 404-419 Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/326876 Accessed: 12-08-2018 16:26 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms



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Research on Language Learning Strategies: Methods, Findings,



and Instructional Issues REBECCA OXFORD and DAVID CROOKALL



University of Alabama University of Alabama



LEARNING STRATEGIES ARE STEPS TAKEN BY



* Cognitive Strategies - skills that involve manipu-



the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, lation orand transformation of the language in someare direct retrieval of information (108). Strategies re-way, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, note ferred to as learning techniques, behaviors, or taking, functional practice in actions; or learning-to-learn, problem-solving, naturalistic settings, formal practice with structures and sounds, etc. or study skills. No matter what they are called, strategies can make learning more efficient and * Memory Strategies - techniques specifically taieffective. lored to help the learner store new informaThe purpose of this paper is to survey tion in memory reand retrieve it later. search on language learning strategies* (LLSs), the Strategies -behaviors used to Compensation compensate for missing knowledge of some behaviors used by learners to move toward prokind, e.g., inferencing (guessing) while listenficiency or competence in a second or foreign lanor reading, or using synonyms or circumguage. LLSs are useful in both formal,ing academic locution while speaking or writing. settings and informal, nonacademic environ* Communication Strategies - typically taken to ments- that is, for both learning and acquisimean only those compensation strategies used tion. (For details on this distinction see Bibliogspeaking; however, communication raphy, 54. See 83 and 87 for exampleswhile of LLSs occursof in the the three other language skill areas in both types of settings.) However, most research to date has been concerned with the (reading, listening, and writing) as well as in classroom. speaking, so the popular term communication Before examining LLS research, we discuss strategies is a misnomer. * Metacognitive Strategies - behaviors used for research terminology and methodology. Next we look in detail at LLS research itself, using centering, arranging, planning, and evaluatresearch methods as the organizing principle ing one's learning. These "beyond-the-cognifor the discussion. Finally, we summarize in- tive" strategies are used to provide "executive structional and other issues and comment on control" over the learning process. * Affective Strategies -techniques like self-reinhow LLS research might be improved.' forcement and positive self-talk which help TERMINOLOGY learners gain better control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related to



In the following discussion, the strategy language learning. names given by researchers are used, rather



than a standard and consistent set of terminol-



ogy. While it is impossible to provide a complete glossary of technical terms used in all the



studies, keys for understanding some of the terms (see also 83, 85, 86, 113) are:



The Modern Language Journal, 73, iv (1989) 0026-7902/89/0004/404 $1.50/0 01989 The Modern Language Journal



* Social Strategies - actions involving other people in the language learning process. Examples are questioning, cooperating with peers,



and developing empathy.



METHODS



LLS research has evolved from simple l of strategies to much more sophisticated tigations. The following discussion is orga according to the main methods or proced



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Research on Language Learning Strategies 405 directlyon to language learning (e.g., used to gather the data: 1) contribute lists based observation and intuition; 2) interviews and thinkguessing, deductive reasoning) and those which aloud procedures; 3) note taking; help indirectly 4) (e.g., diaries; creating 5) opportunities to surveys; and 6) studies on LLS Rubin training. The practice). and Thompson (114) gave advice to students about to become first five of these sets of procedures dohow not in- good lanvolve altering the learners'guage instructional treatlearners, suggesting a number of helpful ment or learning behaviors; the last one modistrategies, such as organize, be creative, learn to live with uncertainty, and use mnemonics. fies both. Many of the studies involve several Tarone's Communication Strategies. research procedures simultaneously, but the Although discussion below is structured according to communiSelinker (117) distinguished between what seems to be the dominant procedure. cation strategies and learning strategies, Tarone (123, 124, 125) argued the virtual impossibility of separating these two because: 1) it is diffiMAKING LISTS LLS lists are often based on observations -



cult to gauge the individual's purpose (com-



munication or learning); 2) the purpose might either "armchair observations" or more scienbe both; and 3) even if the person just wants to communicate and not learn, learning often tific ones--and intuitions or hunches. Meaningful observations of LLS use in the classroom occurs anyway. She observed the following are possible for certain kinds of observable groups of communication strategies, which can strategies (e.g., cooperating with peers, asking in many instances be used for learning: paraquestions for clarification or verification, and phrase (approximation, word coinage, circumlogesturing to convey meaning), but not for other cution); borrowing (literal translation, language techniques, such as strategies that remain priswitch, appeal for assistance, mime); avoidance vate or invisible (e.g., associating/elaborating, (topic avoidance, message abandonment). using imagery, and guessing intelligently; see Observations of Tyacke, Mendelsohn, et al. Tyacke



23, 30). These strategies cannot be observed and Mendelsohn (126) reported observational



directly, but they can be intuited by the re-studies conducted at the University of Toronto. searcher, and they can also be assessed through Amber's informal observational study of a writvarious self-report techniques. ing class found that students who showed the Stern's Lists. Based on observation and intuibest improvement were those who actively utition, Stern (119) presented an influential list lized available resources, including teachers of characteristics of successful language learnand classmates, and who also employed clariers. They exhibit, among other characteristics,fication, memorization, monitoring, and selfa personally relevant learning style, positive management strategies. Unsuccessful students refused to self-direct or reformulate earlier learning strategies, an active approach to learning, technical understanding of how to tacklewriting, and had low self-esteem. Grandage's a language, a sustained search for meaning,study noted that teachers and learners observed willingness to practice and to experiment, self-learners' listening techniques, including pracmonitoring, and development of the languagetice, group-work, guessing, and note taking. as a medium of thought. Some personalityMcDonough and McNerney found a variety of traits (e.g., tolerance and outgoingness) were vocabulary learning behaviors in two classes of also included in this list. The techniques out- learners, one advanced and the other low-interlined in the list were later expanded and sub- mediate. As the students became more adsumed under four rubrics: 1) active planning; vanced, they tended to discard less productive 2) academic (explicit) learning; 3) social learn- strategies (e.g., rote memorization) and to ing; and 4) affective strategies (120). match the strategy to the task. Rubin's Contributions. According to Rubin's



early observations and intuitions (111), the



INTERVIEWS AND THINKING ALOUD



good language learner is a willing and accurate guesser, has a strong drive to communicate, is Instead of observing or intuiting, some r often uninhibited, focuses on form as well as searchers have asked the learner to explain communication, practices, monitors his or her describe how he or she uses strategies. One own speech and that of others, and pays atten-to do this is to interview learners; another tion to meaning. In later research (112, 113), to listen to learners as they think aloud; y she made a distinction between strategies whichanother is to combine the two procedures.



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406 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall Interviews by Naiman, Frohlich, and Todesco. the strategies used to deal with teachers'Infeedspired by Stern's ideas back about characteristics of on a writing task. Students typically made a mental note of the feedback, rather than regood language learners, another group from Toronto (70; with Stern, 71) out to cording it orset using it to revise theexplore writing.



these traits further. One of the main data col-



Cohen and Hosenfeld (30) offered a useful



lection methods was interviews, consisting of model for interviewing, which can be used to two parts - a biographical interview and a dis-gather data on mentalistic or unobservable procussion of strategies that participants would usecesses. The three dimensions of this model are:



in hypothetical language learning situations.* Activities: thinking aloud, in which the subjects The researchers listed six strategies as keys to verbalize thoughts freely (a sort of stream success: 1) finding a set of learning preferences of consciousness) and self-observation, in which



and selecting language situations that allow the subjects analyze their own thoughts to



some degree. those preferences to be used; 2) becoming actively involved in the language learning pro- * Time: Different amounts of time can elapse cess; 3) developing an awareness of language between the use of a strategy and its verbaliboth as a formal system of rules and as a means zation. The smallest time lapse is with thinkof communication; 4) constantly extending and aloud data. For self-observation data, verrevising individual understanding of the target balized analysis of the strategy can be immelanguage system; 5) gradually developing the diate (introspection), or it can take place later



new language into a reference system and



(retrospection) and is then subject to some



learning to think in it; 6) addressing the affec- forgetting of detail. tive demands of language learning., * Content: i.e., the topic of the interview (often Interview Studies by Cohen et al. Cohen and influenced by the researcher). Robbins (31) used interviews to study errors Cohen (24) recently revised this model to inmade by native Mandarin speakers in their clude three categories of activity: self-report (in ESL writing. Subjects were asked if they couldwhich learners say what they usually do or locate an error in a given sentence, give a rea-think), self-observation (introspection and retroson for it, and identify its LLS-related source spection as described above), and self-revelation (e.g., the inappropriate use of transfer). The(e.g., thinking aloud while doing a task). Issues study revealed the difficulty of collecting LLSin learners' reporting of strategies are further



data long after the event occurred (delayeddiscussed elsewhere (25, 26).



retrospection), and indicated that learners' rea-



sons for errors often differed from those as-



Interviews by Papalia and Zampogna. These researchers (96) interviewed high school foreign



language students to examine their reading comprehension and vocabulary learning strateThree studies (32), combining interviews gies. The LLSs which helped comprehension with note taking, dealt with problems encountered by Israeli students in reading Eng-included reading aloud, reading for context, lish. Students took notes on problems guessing, skipping inconsequential words, exsumed by their teachers.



encountered in technical reading and discussedpecting the text to make sense, refraining from verbatim translating, looking for cognates, and looking up unfamiliar words. Successful vocababout problems. Teachers thought the students ulary-related strategies included cooperative would have trouble with technical vocabulary, learning, concrete action words, flashcards, but instead they had problems with non- meaningful conversation, games, pictures, and technical vocabulary --a finding which is repetition. Hosenfeld's Think-Aloud Interviews. In conductsupported by much work in English for special ing numerous think-aloud studies, Hosenfeld purposes (ESP). Cohen and Aphek (29) used interviews to (30) found that learners gave not only accurate verify or refute observational data on com- think-aloud data, but also frequently offered munication strategies. They found that the best less accurate retrospective thoughts (i.e., detime to interview was soon after the event, scribing how they habitually did the task in the rather than interrupting class talk to ask learn- past). Other studies by Hosenfeld involving ers what they were thinking. The study resulted young students (47) and college-age learners in a rating system of "good" and "bad" com- (48) indicated that the learners could identify munication strategies. Cohen and Cavalcanti and verbalize their strategies, but that teach(27) used student interviews (supplemented by ers' assumptions about their students' strategies a student checklist and a survey) to determine were often wrong.



these in interviews. Results indicated that teachers tended to be mistaken in their hunches



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Research on Language Learning Strategies 407 strategies (especially Reading strategies were thecognitive subject of an- repetition, note other think-aloud interview taking, study cooperation, involving and clarification) than metacognitive (49). ones. OfRethe metacognitive high school foreign language students sults showed that successful readers used stratestrategies, almost all were related to planning and attention-enhancing. Students used tradigies different from unsuccessful ones. In other tional strategies and typically applied them to studies by Hosenfeld and her colleagues (e.g., discrete-point rather than integrative tasks. Few 50, 51), think-aloud procedures were used for social and affective strategies were found, dediagnosis and as a prelude to LLS training. spite the importance techof such aspects in language Omaggio (75) suggested that think-aloud learning (14, 42, 83). As in other studies menniques like those used by Hosenfeld might help tioned above, teachersdiswere generally unaware unsuccessful learners (and their teachers) of the strategies employed by their students. A cover the source of some learning difficulties. second phase130) of thisemstudy is reported later Wenden's Contributions. Wenden (129, under training studies. the ployed a semi-structured interview to assess In Study II, Russointerand Stewner-Manzanares strategies of her ESL students. Before the O'Malley view, she gave students a list(115) of(colleagues topicsof to be and Chamot) used interviews supplemented by classroom covered in the interview. Students completed to identify LLSs used by ESL stua grid of their daily activities observations (e.g., watching (mostly in the US Army's TV, talking to friends) and thedents kind of Hispanic) stratetraining program. Frequently reported strategies they used in each one. During the interview, the learners focused on the gies included information metacognitive (self-management, selective attention, and functional planning), in the grid, using a form of retrospection. In cognitive (repetition and note taking), and one instance, Wenden interviewed a young social (cooperation and requests for clarificaSpanish economist who was learning English; tion). The soldiers used metacognitive strateas the young man talked, Wenden clustered his gies with more complex language tasks (e.g., strategies into cognitive, communication, social communication and oral presentations) global practice, and metacognitive categories and cognitive ones with simpler language tasks (128). Wenden also identified ESL writing strate(e.g., vocabulary learning). Teachers generally showed a lack of understanding of their stugies, e.g., goal setting, clarification, and avoiddents' strategies. See the training section of this ance (131), and raised important issues about discussion for an account of the second phase the role of metacognitive knowledge in strategy of this study. use (see, e.g., 130). Study III, conducted by Chamot and colInterviews by Tyacke and Mendelsohn. Done with leagues (15, 18, 20), concerned the LLSs of a homogeneous group of language learners high school students of Russian and Spanish. (four young German women), these interviews The study had three phases - descriptive, longiindicated (126) that, although they were all tudinal, and training-focused. In the descriprelatively successful language learners from a tive phase, students retrospectively reported common background, they each used significantly different strategies. Tyacke and Mendel-



sohn plan to interview teachers about their students' strategies and to compare teachers'



and learners' perceptions of strategy use. Studies by O'Malley, Chamot, et al. Chamot,



O'Malley, and their colleagues designed and



conducted detailed LLS studies, often involving



think-aloud interviews. They also produced



some of the most widely known LLS classification systems.



Study I (78, 79) reported interviews with, and observations of, high school ESL students in typical classroom activities, e.g., pronunciation exercises, oral drills, vocabulary learning,



and language use. Interviews produced much more reliable results than observations, and



twenty-six strategies were identified. Both beginning and intermediate students used more



their strategy use through group interviews, but



the longitudinal phase involved thinking aloud



while doing language tasks. In the descriptive phase, higher level students generally reported using more strategies



than beginning learners. Even unsuccessful



language learners knew about, used, and were able to discuss strategies. The major apparent



difference between successful and less able stu-



dents was that the former used a greater num-



ber of LLSs more often than did the latter.



Students at all levels reported using far more cognitive than metacognitive strategies. Among the cognitive ones, the traditional techniques of repetition and translation were consistently popular, but upper level students began to use inference. Few instances of cognitively complex



strategies were reported. The metacognitive



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408 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall strategies employed were planning skills ing, feltmostly more confident than those who got the rather than evaluative Students generaltechniques. meaning with fewer details. This probrarely reported using social affective ably reflects aor dominant emphasis and expec- stratetation in American academic culture. gies. Participants in a subsequent four-semester



longitudinal phase included ineffective and effective students who had taken part in the descriptive phase, with middling students ex-



cluded. Learners thought aloud while doing



typical language activities. Researchers found that metacognitive self-monitoring took many



subtle forms and that cognitive elaboration



co-occurred with (and was almost indistinguishable from) the LLSs of imagery, inferencing, and transfer. Again, social and affective strate-



gies were rarely noted. Strong influences on LLS selection included course objectives, motivation, task difficulty, and previous study. Effective students were purposeful, monitored



their performance globally and used background knowledge successfully. The last part



of Study III was a training phase, explained later (see training studies). Leaver's Interview Study. Leaver (58) utilized a think-aloud procedure (without interviews) to assess the strategies used by listeners. The task was to figure out the meaning of short dia-



logues on Russian cultural themes. The subjects, all native English speakers, included: 1) a class of fifteen Foreign Service Institute (FSI) adult learners of Russian; 2) two children who



had acquired languages naturally (Russian as a foreign language for the girl and English as a mother tongue for the boy). For the adults and the girl, dialogues were in Russian; for the boy they were in English, but with the same content. Adult subjects worked in small groups to understand the dialogues, and their conversations were recorded. Children were taped as they thought aloud by themselves. Focusing on the words they knew (especially concrete nouns, names, and numbers) and using analytic strategies, the adults tried to fit all details into an



NOTE TAKING



Several LLS studies have involved note tak-



ing. Sometimes note taking helps learners prepare for strategy-assessment interviews (129,



130). Allwright's note-taking scheme (not



necessarily connected with an interview) asks students to take notes on a grid, describing the strategies they employ; students then rate those strategies in terms of frequency, enjoyment, usefulness, and efficiency (1).



Cohen and Aphek (29) explored LLSs used



by English-speaking college students learning



Hebrew in Israel. Students took unstructured



notes on the LLSs used during a vocabulary learning task. Notes indicated that word lists were initially helpful for memorization but that



students eventually used words in context. Mnemonic devices sometimes slowed learning



down or limited possible meanings, but also made learning easier and helped maintain vocabulary (see also 28, 30).



DIARY STUDIES



Another form of self-disclosure, diarie



journals allow learners to record their tho feelings, achievements, problems, strate and impressions. While keeping diaries to their own language learning, students be



"participant observers" in their own e graphic research (60, 61). Diaries are u



subjective and free-form, although they guided by teacher suggestions. Some lang learning diary studies have focused on psy



logical and social themes (e.g., 4, 53, 1



Bailey and Ochsner (5) suggested ways to diary studies to make them suitable as re



documents.



apparently plausible scenario, and thereby



Rubin's Diary Use. Rubin (112) discussed two



missed the actual meaning. In contrast, focusing on the global meaning through context and verbs, the children outperformed the adults in



different kinds of diaries: 1) directed (for which



understanding the meaning. Having controlled for possible age effects, Leaver attributed the LLS and comprehension



differences to the way the subjects gained their language skills - the younger subjects in a natural way and the adults in a classroom setting.



Paradoxically, the subjects who handled dis-



crete words easily, but missed the overall mean-



learners had explicit instructions on which of their own strategies to observe and report); 2) less structured daily reports of strategy use. She suggested that most students have to be taught how to report their strategy use and that students need to take notes so they won't forget the strategies they have been using. Rivers'Diary Approach. Rivers used the diary approach to present a personalized view of the



LLSs used while learning Spanish in South



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Research on Language Learning Strategies 409



ingrecorded or speaking.aThe use of strategies app America (109). Although she wide range of conscious strategies, toshe be related also noted primarily herto the learner's at surprise at her unconscious and strategy use. not to language learning aptitude, a Bailey's Analysis of Diary Studies. supportedBailey by extensive (4) research by Ga



studied the anxiety and competitiveness ofmotivation. (42) on attitudes and adult language learners as expressed in their Reiss's Validation of Rubin's Strategy List. diaries. Her intention was (107) not studied necessarily to the strategies used by experi



discuss LLSs, but the results nevertheless showed use of both affective and social strate-



university-level students, many of whom



been identified by their instructors as succ



gies, sometimes beneficially applied, some-language learners. Using two self-report



times not.



veys based on work by Rubin (111), she f



Tyacke andMendelsohn's Diary Study. These re- subjects used guessing, had a strong that



searchers (126) investigated ten adults to from communicate, paid more attention to different ethnic backgrounds studyingthan ESL. to meaning (a revealing result, espe Learners brought their diaries every otherin week the university setting), took advant



to a discussion with one of the researchers. The



practice opportunities, and paid close atte diaries showed that learning styles and strateto the speech of others and of themselves gies varied significantly. Lower-level students' validating some of Rubin's earlier specula diaries showed much greater dependence on the They did not make great use of mnem teacher and on the linguistic code, although one and contrary to expectations (111), these more advanced learner (an Asian) also focuseddents were often inhibited. (See also 10 on these aspects. Reiss's study of unsuccessful learners.)



Hasbun's Amplification of the Reiss Study. SURVEY STUDIES



investigation of strategies used by unive



foreign language learners, Hasbun Many LLS researchers have employed adapted two surveys by Reiss (107). Good



surveys or questionnaires, which typically cover guage learners reported employing more s a range of strategies and are usuallygies, structured and used them more consistently



and objective in nature.



poor learners. However, student-repo



Bialystok's Contributions. Bialystok strategy (8) develuse did not always match the ob in a tutorial session. The selection of strateoped a four-part model of learninguse behaviors: 1) inferencing (guessing); 2) monitoring (noting gies that learners perceived as relevant to aterrors); 3) formal practicing (with taining the rules their of learning goals seemed to be more language); and 4) functional practicing (using important than the actual number of strategies. the language). The model defined strategies Survey byas Ramirez. Ramirez (105) employed "optional means for exploiting available infora survey to assess the strategies used by adomation to improve competence in a lescents secondstudying lanFrench in various settings in



New Yorktype state. The instrument was based on guage" (8, p. 71). The selection of LLS depended on the kind of knowledge required work by Politzer (97), by Naiman, Fr6hlich, by the language task: explicit linguistic knowlStern, and Todesco (71), and by Rubin (112).



assessed the effect of LLS use on readedge, implicit linguistic knowledge, Ramirez and general knowledge of the world. Bialystok hypothesized ing, communicative performance, and tested that the first strategy would be achievement. used with Eight strategies contributed most implicit linguistic knowledge and understandto the success of learners, including asking for ing of the world, while the other three would clarification or verification, guessing, and creatbe used to improve both kinds of linguistic ing practice opportunities. knowledge. Nyikos'Surveys. Nyikos (73) surveyed four sucBialystok tested her model by surveying high levels of university language cessive semester school students learning French (9).instruction She found in German and Spanish. Little evithat functional practice promoted achievement dence was found of a wide variety of LLS use, but across even levels students seemed to show deon all tasks and was an effective technique for advanced students. Appropriateness of most velopmental trends in LLS use and to be somestrategies, however, was governed the of their strategies. Only a few whatby unaware nature of the task, e.g., monitoring one's own strategies were used consistently, e.g., repetierrors was more useful in writing than in readtion (mostly silent) and searching for cognates.



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410 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall Self-testing and visualization were cited as However, they also made some use of usemore ful strategies, albeit toinductive varying degrees. strategies, e.g., guessing meaning Surveys by Politzer andfrom McGroarty. Politzer and context. Despite many opportunities for his colleagues (97-100) naturalistic investigated practice, these students the were LLSs inof students of French, ESL, German, and hibited or unmotivated regarding out-of-class



Spanish. These studies, taken together, indi- language use. cated that many variables are influential in McGroarty (67) surveyed university students strategy choice, e.g., professional interests, sex, learning elementary Spanish and Japanese. motivation, course level, teaching methods, The survey covered strategies for studying the and study goal (e.g., communication, reading target language in the classroom, in social intechnical materials, travel). Therefore, a given strategy is not intrinsically suitable for all situa-



tions, purposes, or people. Politzer (97) found links between strategy use and language achievement, but they seemed to depend on course level and methodology, suggesting some kind of a strategy/treatment in-



teraction. He also found an intriguing sex



difference in LLS use, with females showing a greater propensity than males to engage in outof-class social interactions. Although dismissed by Politzer as of minor importance, this significant sex difference might help us understand how males and females go about learning a new



teraction outside of class, and in individual



study. Language achievement was associated with classroom strategies demonstrating cognitive rehearsal, such as repeating new forms and taking notes on new words. Neither social interaction nor individual study strategies as a whole showed any relationships with achievement or proficiency growth, although selected strategies in these two categories (such as socializing with target language speakers, not being afraid to use the new language, and seeking exposure to



the new language through the media) were associated with pretest language scores. In two other studies, McGroarty (68, 69) re-



language. (Sex differences have by and large ported attitudes and strategies of adult learners been ignored in strategy research, but a few relevant studies are mentioned in 95.) One very interesting finding from Politzer and McGroarty (100) was that national origin (Hispanic vs. Asian) had a strong influence on strategy choice, with Asians exhibiting fewer of the behaviors expected of "good" language learners. Asian students, while reporting fewer "good language learning behaviors" in general,



of ESL. One compared two groups of high intermediate students taking the same course in two different settings, university and community extension classes; the other provided simi-



lar data for intermediate and advanced students



from a large adult school program and also included comparison of results for students from



the three largest native language groups involved (Chinese, Spanish, and Japanese). Re-



outperformed Hispanics in using monitoring sults indicated that certain strategies were consistently related to achievement, e.g., saying answers to oneself, using English voluntarily haviors" may be ethnocentrically based on in class, guessing meanings, and getting the gist Western cultural values. Politzer (98) found before looking up new words. However, a that Asian and Hispanic graduate students number of social interaction strategies, such as were instrumentally rather than integratively starting conversations in order to practice Engmotivated to learn another language and that lish, were negatively related to achievement instrumental motivation accounted for course measures, suggesting that both purpose of ingains. He also found little statistical evidence teraction and student skill levels figure in the for a link between strategies used and motiva- determination of effective strategies.



strategies. It was therefore suggested that current definitions of"good language learning be-



tion.



Surveys Involving Factor Analysis. A few surveys



In a different study, McGroarty (66) deter- have been factor analyzed to determine the mined strategies used by university-level ele- underlying structures and relationships. Factor mentary Spanish students in a city heavily analysis involves gathering data on a group of individuals and then discovering the main facinfluenced by Hispanic culture and language. The preferred strategies indicated that these tors that explain the greatest amount of the restudents fitted the learning (rather than the ac- ported variability among the individuals. In the first of the factor analytic studies, quiring) stereotype - they frequently monitored their language use, asked for explanations and Oxford (80) surveyed 483 adults at the Defense confirmation, and often used the dictionary. Language Institute (Monterey). The chief in-



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Research on Language Learning Strategies 411 strument used was SILL, the Strategy Invenyears spent studying the language, course status vs. required), and some interactions tory for Language Learning (elective (see 80, 81). Five among variables (e.g., motivation, self-rated primary factors emerged, each including a proficiency, years of study). Regardless of how number of strategies: 1) general study habits communicative their language classes were, the (e.g., previewing, using time well, self-evaluatstudents chose to pracconcentrate on formal, ruleing); 2) functional or authentic language based strategies, rather than on communication tice (e.g., seeking native speakers, initiating practice.3) The choice seemed to reflect a desire conversations, going to movies); searching to get(e.g., good grades by fitting in with the anafor and communicating meaning guessing the meaning, analyzing words, using body lytic, academic approach of the classroom testing and grading system. language); 4) studying or practicing the lanAnother survey, at the United guage independently (e.g., practicing rules conducted by States Foreign Service Institute, built on the oneself, using a tape recorder); and 5) memory factormakanalyses (39, 41, 90). The devices (e.g., remembering byprevious location,



sample included prospective foreign service ing associations, using rhymes). Five other subsidiary factors were also officers found: (students one conin the study), language



supervisors, and native-speaking instructors. sisting mostly of compensation techniques, a two groups reported on strategies formal rule-practicing factor,The a latter metacognitive one, a visualization factor, and another involvused in learning their most recent foreign language. of variance showed a strong ing both formal model-building (i.e.,Analysis constructinfluence general learning style, e.g., thinking one's own understanding of the of language)



and summarizing.



ing vs. feeling and judging vs. perceiving,



measured by the Type Indicator The second factor analytic study (74, 92,Myers-Briggs 93, (MBTI), onfive LLS choice. 94) involved 1,200 students learning lan-Other significant influences were career guages (French, Spanish, Italian, German, andposition (student, instructor, supervisor)in and sex. Females used a Russian) at a major midwestern university number and range of strategies than the USA. The SILL was used greater along with a background questionnaire on, men-adding e.g., motivation, more evidence for the above mentioned sexlearning difference findings. In contrast course level, and previous language



to students instructors, supervisors also experience. Five factors emerged: 1)and formal, used a widerwith range ofstustrategies and used them rule-related practice (very popular



more frequently. pracAdditional ethnographic evidents); 2) functional, authentic language tice (rarely used by the students); dence (40) 3)supports resourcemany of these quantitative tendencies.techniques, ful, independent language learning both mnemonic and metacognitive The studies(rarely (or parts of studies, in the case used); 4) general study habits; of and the 5) Chamot elicitation and O'Malley group) described of target language input fromsoother far havepeople not focused (4 on LLS training. We and 5 were both fairly popular). now turn Factors to training two studies.



and five both had social and communicative



aspects. However, factor two contained mostly TRAINING



out-of-class strategies demanding initiative,



STUDIES



while factor five strategies were easily used Researchers in have naturally taken an int



the classroom.



in LLS teachability. Some have concent Analysis of variance on individuals' factor on training just one or two strategies,



scores showed that motivation, sex, and self- others have investigated the teaching of perceptions of proficiency were the greatest instrategies at once. fluences on strategy use. In contrast to unmoti- Keyword Training Studies. One set of tr vated students, highly motivated ones made studies has focused exclusively on a single frequent use of a range of strategies. Femalesthe keyword, a memory device that l used significantly more strategies than malesvisual image to a sound. Research has s in three of the five factors. Students who felt that the keyword may be very helpful in they were good language learners used more ing target language vocabulary (22, 101, strategies than those who viewed themselves as 103, 104). This technique has worked very less successful learners. Other statistically sig- in experimental settings. nificant influences on LLS use included major, Henner-Stanchina's Listening Comprehe



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412 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall



Training. Henner-Stanchina (46) taught techown established rote stra niques for listening comprehension to universupports the ethnic differ



sity-level ESL students. In a single-group found by Politzer (97).



study, students listenedStudy to oral texts, such as II, described by R radio commercials, talk-show interviews, Manzanares (115), and involv news broadcasts - firstin for comprehenanglobal ESL program and w sion and then for specific details.study They mentione tranthe Army scribed the texts on paper and were allowed to view section. LLS trainin make corrections as they understood more listening and speaking act through repeated playbacks. Henner-Stanchina a day over a five-day peri then provided feedback on errors and existed. success- Te control group fully taught the students how to use guessing cluded selective attention, and self-correction to improve listening coming for clarification, self-e prehension. tional planning. Results Training Studies by O'Malley, Chamot al. finding Alsimilarities to et the though these researchers conducted a number LLS training study describ of important learner training we report panics studies, responded favorab only three of them below. and speaking strategy trai Study I concerned intermediate-level adoles-and sisted these strategies; cent ESL students (76, ing 77, more 78, than 79), and listening. was the second phase of the In high theschool third study study,reCham ported above in the section onLLS interviews. The school training (18). sample (different from that used in the first training phase were chosen who had been involved in phase) consisted of one-third Hispanic, onethird Asian, and one-third other ethnicities. longitudinal phases ment interview section of this article. The purpose of the training study wasThese toteachdetermine whether unique LLS ers were combinations observed as they taughtwould a variety of facilitate learning. Hypotheses were techniques that: 1) listening comprehension (e.g.,the selecfirst treatment group tive (which attention,received inferencing) and instrucspeaking techtion in combinations niques of metacognitive, cog(e.g., self-evaluation, cooperation). Not nitive, and socioaffective surprisingly, strategies) it was found that success would of LLS training depended on teacher interest, developperform better than the second treatment group ment metacognitive of appropriate instructionalstratetechniques, (which did not learn any and ability to motivate students better to try new gies); 2) the second group would perform than untrained controls. strategies. Each group had two training is and being conducted by sets of tasks involving Additional listening speaking. Chamot and O'Malleygroups using the Cognitive AcaStudents in the two treatment were in-



demic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) structed in the use of selected strategies for fifty



for limited English-proficient students learning minutes a day over eight days; time for pracESL. For discussions of built the CALLAinto model, the ticing and applying strategies was which were integrates controlled. LLS training and contentplan, and teacher effects Exbased language learning, see 19 and 83. plicit directions and cues for using the strateNyikos'Learner Training Study.days Nyikos (72) congies were "faded" on successive of ducted a controlled, university-level LLS traintreatment for each activity. ing study using clearly three treatment outdisconditions and The two treatment groups a comparison condition. She studied the use of tanced the control group in speaking tasks. memory strategies for learning GerOverall, the results forassociative listening did not distinnoun clusters. Students in the three listentreatguish between groups,man possibly because ment conditionsOther received written instructions ing tasks were too difficult. conclusions examples for using three different kinds of were that LLS training and fitted well into regular memory strategies, per condition: 1) the language programs and that LLSsone were fundacolor-only group associated certain colors with mentally the same as strategies for any other grammatical gender of each noun cluster to be learning area. One intriguing finding (17) was



learned; 2) the picture-onlyfrom group associated that Hispanic students benefitted LLS each item with apreferred drawing; and 3) the multipletraining, but Asian students their



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Research on Language Learning Strategies 413 association or color-plus-picture condition used operative strategies (both within and between a combination strategy involving color-coded ethnic groups)athan did the whole-class method, drawing. Students in the control condition rewhich encouraged competitive behaviors. For ceived no LLS instruction. Clear sex differdeveloping English communication skills, the ences emerged - men outscored women in the two cooperative methods were equally effective color-plus-picture condition, while women and didwere more effective than the whole-class better than men in both the picture-only method. and the color-only conditions. The control condi-In a cooperative LLS training study of junior tion showed no advantage over any of the treathigh school students learning French, Gunderment conditions. Nyikos explained the findings son and Johnson (43) found that cooperative in terms of cultural and social expectationsstrategies of were developed through a shared task and reward structure. Both learners and men and women and in terms of physiological differences (72, 95). teachers were pleased with the cooperative behavior exhibited by the students, and teachers' Teaching Strategies to Refugees. Sutter (121, 122) conducted LLS training of refugees learning roles changed as a result of such cooperation. Danish as a second language. He found that Simulations, games, and game-like activities



initial strategy preferences were related to encouraged social strategies among French



ethnic and personal biases, and were influenlearners of English in studies by Crookall (33, 34; see also 88, 91). Learners communicated tial in the degree of success of LLS training. If the new strategies were completely opposed and cooperated with each other more intensely to the learners' preferences, learners resisted and the for longer periods than in traditional classtraining and disaster resulted. It was somerooms. Though the use of social strategies was the most obvious result, students also used a times necessary to camouflage new strategies under the guise of familiar techniques. wide For range of other strategies, including coginstance, students' desire to make word lists nitive, affective, and compensation strategies. (their preferred strategy) was channelled into Compared with more traditional exercises, the activities also caused student talk time to inthe creation of a dictionary, which was done crease and teacher talk time to decrease in cooperatively (a camouflaged social strategy



that facilitated the preferred technique and statistically was significant ways. Learners also betherefore non-threatening). Camouflaging came of more self-sufficient and able to take strategies is very different from "completely greater responsibility for their own learning, informed training" that most LLS trainersincluding esconducting their own classes without pouse (see 83), but here it proved useful afor teacher present. some learners who were resistant to innovative



techniques. Interestingly, the longer students



spent in a particular language program, the more they tended to value its teaching prac-



tices.



Teaching Cooperative and Other Strategies. Re-



searchers have conducted studies of cooperative learning, which indirectly involved LLS train-



ISSUES



This discussion has presented examples LLS research under the categories of list



interviews, and think-aloud procedures, not taking, diaries, surveys, and training studie Each of these methods has had something im portant to contribute. A summary of instru



ing encouraged by a cooperative task and/or tional and other issues follows.



reward structure (52). Cooperative learning in language classrooms, described by Bassano and



Christison (6), is more than just a grouping



arrangement. It also involves the entire class-



What We Think We Know. The research presented here has demonstrated and/or implied the following points, each representing a piece



room environment and helps learners to de- of what we know about LLSs in instructional velop social/process behaviors such as peer settings:



tutoring, as well as metacognitive strategies like * The learner is an active and involved participant in the language learning process. goal setting, monitoring, and evaluation (83).



Sharan and his colleagues (7, 118) trained



learners of English in Israel to use two differ-



ent cooperative methods (as contrasted with traditional whole-class instruction). The two cooperative methods fostered greater use of co-



* Language learners at all levels use strategies.



* Some/most learners are relatively unaware of the strategies they use and do not take advantage of the full range



of available strategies. * More proficient learners appear to use a wider range of strategies in a greater number of situations, but the rela-



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414 Rebecca Oxford & David Crookall tionship between strategy use and is to change the proficiency shape of that zone, i.e., to complex. train learners * Many different strategiesin can be used by good learners: the use of strategies that do not initially fit their natural



techniques for organizing, for and style? How focusing do styles and strategies of evaluating students relate to those of teachers? and attitudes, for colearning, for handling emotions



operating with others in the learning process, for linking * Linguistic Issues. What effects do different writing and new information with existing schemata, and directly sound systems have on LLS use? What isfor the interaction



engaging in learning use. between the native language and a new language in terms * Students at higher course levels tend to use strategies of strategy use? What other linguistic issues affect strategy somewhat differently from use? students at lower course levels.



* There is growing evidence sex and differences * LLSof Training. Is LLS trainingethnic always appropriate? If not, in LLS use. when is it most and least valuable? What strategies should * Motivation (in both type and intensity) appears to be becovered rein training sessions, how, for whom, and how



lated to LLS use.



long? How should LLS training deal with variables like



* People with different learning styles or different personalisex, ethnicity, learning style, and motivation? How can



ties often use different kinds of strategies. LLS training be tailored to the needs of individuals and * Special demands are placed on language learners bygroups? new Should certain strategies be taught simulwriting systems, sounds, cultural values, and the need taneously and in combination? How lasting are the effects for highly "public" language performance in socialof setLLS training? Do circumstances exist in which nontings. Different language learners use different strategies integrated LLS training is clearly preferable to integrated



in response to these demands.



training? If so, what are they?



* Different kinds of strategies often work together for optimal results.3



* It is possible and generally advisable to teach learning LLS research has begun to answer some of these questions, but more research is necessary strategies through "completely informed training," in



to which learners are taught how and why to use, transfer,



verify results and provide deeper under-



standing.



and evaluate strategies.



* LLS training must take into account the nature and difficulty of the language tasks involved, as well as aspectsFUTURE LLS RESEARCH of the learner such as sex, cultural/ethnic background,



Future LLS research should take into



aptitude, and general learning style.



* With students who use highly traditional strategies and account



our past accomplishments and failure



are resistant to change, it may be necessary to camou-Researchers should, whenever possible, u flage new strategies in the guise of old ones. multiple methods (qualitative and quantitativ * LLS training typically is most effective when integratedfor gathering and validating LLS data. For e into regular class activities. ample, they can employ a survey combin



* Teachers generally do not know which strategies their stu-



with interviews or think-aloud procedure



dents are using--unless they conduct some kind of for-



More information should be obtained and pr sented about the psychometric quality of the struments used, and weak instruments shou



mal or informal research.



What We Do Not Yet Know. We have learned



be improved. If manipulation is involved,



much from existing research, but many ques- in training studies, comparison groups shoul tions still remain. For example: be chosen with care, and extraneous variable



* Ethnic and Sex Differences. Are the observed ethnic and sex should be either controlled or at least well docu-



LLS differences consistent over many studies? What are



the reasons for ethnic and sex differences - sociocultural



mented. It is important to expand LLS studies



to include all the relevant predictors and



expectations, genetic inheritance, or some combination?



mediating variables, e. g., age, sex, motivation, assumptions concerning "good learner" characteristics? attitudes, teaching and testing methods, and so



What do such ethnic and sex differences have to say about How do these assumptions affect our ways of differentially



on (see especially 82, 84, 85, and 93 for dis-



dealing with various ethnic groups and with males and females in the language classroom? And should different



cussions of these). The field would be helped considerably if re-



LLS training be provided at the risk of offending various searchers could come to some consensus on



parties? * Motivation. What are the implications of LLS differences in people with different kinds and degrees of motivation? How can motivation be enhanced in the classroom



through the use of what strategies?



definitions of various strategies. As yet there is neither agreement on an overall, hierarchically organized LLS taxonomy or typology, nor on ways to delimit or define a given strategy or cluster of strategies. Different researchers use



* General Learning Style. How does learning Style affect LLS use? To what extent can individuals successfully use different strate-



terms and concepts, although in the years a little progress has been made possible in this area (86). Greater agreement and more



few gies which are outside their current "comfort zone"last as de-



fined by their overall learning style? How far is it



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Research on Language Learning Strategies 415 standardized procedures will increase also be designed incomparsuch a way as to monitor ability across studies, allowing results to have and record certain types of strategy use (progreater generalizability and explanatory power. viding both instant feedback for the user and LLS investigations shouldeasily thoroughly examanalyzed data for the researcher). ine less formal (non-classroom) situations in anything, If the results so far have indicated which people gain skills it in a new language, is that LLS research is a double-edged sword.



e.g., travel and living abroad. To understand It has provided us with many intriguing in-



more about how language skills are sights into how developed, learners struggle with learning and to help enhance that development (worst case) or helpprocess, themselves learn (best researchers should compare the used case). But strategies it has also revealed how much still



in informal situations with those used in more



remains to be discovered. As the issues become



conventional environments. Both settings mayever more complex (as they almost inevitably have something to offer in terms of the stratedo when such diversified research builds up), gies they foster; but informal situations mightthen not only funding, but collaboration on provide especially rich information about joint research projects, becomes vital. Funding strategies that could be adapted for use within and joint research, however, do not guarantee more formal environments. the spirit in which such research should be deFinally, new computer-assisted language signed and carried out. The most constructive learning technologies (e.g., videodisc, intelliattitude resides in those researchers who really gent tutoring systems, and computerized simucare about learners, who wish to understand lation) should also be examined to determine and enhance the learning process, and who help their effects on the strategies students useto topromote learning-to-learn skills. learn a new language. Such technologies could



NOTES



collection of descriptions) with no training given in the



of text structures. Those who consistently and appropri used text structure remembered more than those who did



not use it, both immediately and a week later. 1For information on research concerning strategies 3Sometimes strategies have been combined to form "metaoutside the language learning area, see 11, 12,strategies." 13, 35, 36, For example, Dansereau (35) has used the 37, 38, 55, 56, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 127. For some of mnemonic the MURDER (set your Mood, read for Undercognitive-psychological underpinnings of many LLSs,Recall, see Digest information, Expand knowledge standing, Anderson (2; 21). through self-inquiry, and Review mistakes). Robinson (110) 2True experimental research in studies that dodeveloped not involve the SQ3R approach (Survey, Question, Read,



strategy training is an additional research method that has Bransford's (10) IDEAL system involves Recall, Review).



not been widely used for studying LLSs. Hague used these(44) steps: Identify the problem, Define the problem, Exthis method to study the reading strategy ofplore using text approaches, Act on a plan, and Look at alternative



structure to understand and retain information the in effects. a foreign The Four C's learning plan (37) includes: Clarify language. Students were randomly assigned to one of fourChoose a solution, Carry out a solution, and the problem,



passages on the same topic but in four textCheck structures results. (compare-contrast, problem-solution, cause-effect, and



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Plan now to attend!



The 1990 Northeast Conference in New York City, April 19-22



Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner



Heidi Byrnes of Georgetown University 1990 Conference Chair



Make your budget plans early. The Conference is not until next April, but you would not want to discover at the last minute that your colleagues had used all the available funds to attend other meetings during Fall and Winter. For 1990 Conference information as it becomes available, write



Northeast Conference Registration, P.O. Box 623, Middlebury, VT 05753



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