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Sedimentary Basins



Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH



Gerhard Einseie



SEDIMENTARY BASINS Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget Second, completely revised and enlarged edition



With 354 Figures



,



Springer



Professor Dr. Gerhard Einseie University of Tuebingen Department of Geology and Palaeontology Sigwartstrasse 10 72076 Tuebingen Germany



ISBN 978-3-642-08544-4 ISBN 978-3-662-04029-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-04029-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Einseie, Gerhard. Sedimentary basins: evolution, facies, and sediment budget/Gerhard Einsele.-2nd , completeley rev. and enl. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sedimentary basins. 2. Sedimentation and deposition. 3. Facies (Geology) I. Title. QE571. E36 2000 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitations, broadcasting, reproduction on microfllm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its CUTrent version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.



© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992, 2000 OriginaIly published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 2000. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 2000



The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free general use. Cover Design: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg Typesetting: Camera-ready by the author SPIN: 10722997 30/3136 - 5 43 210 - Printed on acid free paper



Preface



The modem geological sciences are characterized by extraordinarily rapid progress, as well as by the development and application of numerous new and refined methods, most of them handling an enormous amount of data available from all the continents and oceans. Given this state of affairs, it searns inevitable that rnany students and professionals tend to become experts in relatively narrow fields and thereby are in danger of losing a broad view of current knowledge. The abundance of new books and symposium volumes testifies to this trend toward specialization. However, many geologie processes are complex and result from the interaction of many, seemingly unrelated, individual factors. This signifies that we still need generalists who have the broad overview and are able to evaluate the great variety of factors and proces ses controlling a geologie system, such as a sedimentary basin. In addition, this also means that cooperation with other disciplines in the natural sciences and engineering is increasingly important. Modem text books providing this broad overview of the earth sciences are rare. Some are written by several authors together to make sure that all topics are treated properly. When individual authors write a book, they run the risk of creating a text that is less balanced, because they cannot avoid indulging their own preferences for specific topics and field examples. However, this disadvantage can be compensated for by the fact that just one author can produce a more concise and uniform text and include appropriate cross references. In this one-author book I have tried to put much information into a considerable number of figures. Once the reader has acquired some basic knowledge and has read the text, he should be able to recall it easily by looking at these composite illustrations, for example the various facies models demonstrating both the depositional environment and the resulting vertical sequences. Many of these figures may be regarded as a kind of summary of the chapter in question; therefore, I did not give written summaries at the end of each chapter as found in many other textbooks. This book addresses both qualitative and quantitative aspects of basin analysis, including topics such as various flux rates, diagenesis, and fluid flow, in the context of plate tee tonics and sedimentary geology. Tectonic subsidence and uplift are prerequisites for basin formation and terrigenous sediment supply, but sedimentary processes in a basin are govemed by other factors, including water circulation and recycling of nutrients, sediment transport, deposition, and redistribution. The sedimentary facies of a basin are largely controlled by the interrelationship between subsidence, sedimentation rate, and relative sea level change. Basinal sediment budgets are a topic which has been rarely treated in textbooks. Large-scale proces ses, facies associations, and especially sedimentary sequences are stressed in the book, rather than srnall-scale sedimentary structures, texture, petrographie characteristics, or detailed descriptions of biogenie sediment components and trace fossils. The latter phenomena are sufficiently described in a number of modem books. Finally, brief sections address the application of basic knowledge to exploration for hydrocarbons, coal, minerals, and deep groundwater. This book is written for advanced students and professionals who require a comparatively straightforward, elementary treatment of sedimentary basin proces ses and evolution. The reader should already be familiar with general geology



VI



Preface



and geologic principles and have some basic knowledge of sedimentology. Quantitative aspects are described by simple equations and idealized examples. The book emphasizes broad, large-scale features of sedimentary basins and their facies associations. It provides only a limited number of case studies, which are chosen mostly from Europe and North America, but from other continents as weH. Many experts will probably find that their specific topics are not treated thoroughly enough and that important datails have been omitted. Others may criticize that not all publications relevant to their fields are cited in the reference list. J would be grateful if these colleagues were to inform me when important points are missing or not treated properly. All books bear the personal stamp of the author. In keeping with this unavoidable tradition, this book is influenced by my experience in studies of both modern marine sediments and ancient sedimentary rocks on land. Furthermore, I have done some work on mass physical properties and the mechanical behavior of soft and overconsolidated sediments, as well as in the area of groundwater behavior. This volume is based partially on courses which I have taught for many years, as well as on an intensive literature study, particularly of papers and topical volumes published during the past three to four years. Nevertheless, I am afraid and even certain that I have missed a great number of important publications, especially those written in languages I cannot read, such as Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and others. I apologize for these omissions, but then, one person is no longer able to evaluate the enormous literature which is published today, even in a limited field of geology.



Finally, I wish to express my thanks to a number of coHeagues who reviewed specific chapters of this book and provided me with invaluable comments: Thomas Aigner (Tübingen), Erwin Appel (Tübingen), Robin Bathurst (Liverpool), R. Langbein (Greifswald), Stefan Kempe (Hamburg), Hanspeter Luterbacher (Tübingen), Ulrich von Rad (Hannover), Werner Ricken (Tübingen), Rüdiger Stein (Bremerhaven), Jobst Wendt (Tübingen), Jan Veizer (Bochum), and Andreas Wetzel (Basel). Nevertheless, only I can be taken to task for any shortcomings or errors in this text. Linda Hobert and Susanne Borchert reviewed the English text and helped clarify many points. Hermann Vollmer produced most of the text's figures. Wolfgang Engel and Susanne Fink of Springer-Verlag, among others, assisted me in many ways in the production of this volume. All this help is gratefully acknowledged. Last but not least I wish to thank my wife Ruth and my family, who with great fortitude tolerated my incessant work on weekends and in the evenings and did their best to spare me from the usual house chores and many other obligations which I should have taken care of. Gerhard Einsele Tübingen, November 1991



Preface to Second Edition



This is a completely revised, updated, and enlarged version of the first edition of Sedimentary Basins ... published in 1992. The chapters related to sediment budget, especially those dealing with the flux rates of terrestrial material and basin filling (Chaps. 9 and 11) have been entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged. It was one of the major aims of this book to introduce quantitative aspects in sedimentary geology. "Denudation-sediment accumulation systems" is a topic which does not appear in comparable textbooks, although it has recently received much attention. The rapid progress in the fields of sequence stratigraphy, cyc1e and event stratigraphy of silicic1astic and carbonate rocks made it imperative to completely revise and extend Chapter 7. Most of the other chapters have been supplemented by new topics, such as cool water carbonates, paleosols, paleooceanography, global sediment cyc1ing, some new concepts and examples in basin evolution, and the impact of long-distance subsurface flow in diagenesis. These few remarks may indicate my efforts to further widen the range of the book as a text for students and a source of information on sedimentary geology and basin analysis. A general principle of this book is its actualistic approach. Processes operating in modem depositional environments are used for the interpretation of ancient sedimentary systems. Results of modem marine geology and sedimentology, inc1uding neighboring fields, are therefore introduced in some detail. To indicate a largely contrasting situation, some nonactualistic depositional scenarios are briefly described in Chapter 6. Most of the examples supplementing the general principles were taken from the younger geologie past (Mesozoic to Recent), because older depositional systems and basin settings become increasingly difficult to decipher. The examples come from all continents, but due to the great number of case studies, I may have rnissed some examples which are better suited than those I have chosen. The general organization and style of the book have been kept unchanged. However, the structure of most of the chapters has been revised and refined to improve the clarity of the text. All chapters and major seetions have been provided with brief summaries (marked by boxes). From these, a busy reader or less experienced student can gain first information (or repetition) about a certain topic of his interest. On the other hand, phenomena and examples of more specific, local or regional interest are printed in small print. The same has been done with most of the references to avoid too many names in the normal text. These modifications may prove useful for different groups of readers. Less advanced students, interested mainly in the general principles, may ornit the paragraphs in small print, whereas professionals often want to obtain more details and become acquainted with specific examples. Much information has again been put into a considerable number ofnew, mostly composite figures in order to keep the text concise. Since 1992, an enormous body of new articles has been produced in the earth sciences. Of these, mainly those published in international journals in the English language have been evaluated up to the year 1998 and early 1999. Nevertheless, only a fraction of these publications could be cited in this text. I am aware of having rnissed a great number of excellent papers which should also have been mentioned in the revised version of the book. I apologize to all those colleagues who rightly fee I that their work should have been cited. Even a specialist in his or her field is presently confronted with the problem of finding the papers most relevant to her/his study, despite modem methods of data presentation and distribution.



VIII



Preface Second Edition



Finally, I would like to thank again a number of colleagues who checked individual chapters of this second edition and/or assisted me by providing publications which were difficult to obtain: Tom Aigner, Reinhard Gaupp (Jena), Matthias Hinderer, Hanspeter Luterbacher, and Wemer Ricken (Cologne), Rüdiger Stein (Bremerhaven). Sedimentologists from many countries gave me reprints of pertinent articles which otherwise I rnight have missed. Further acknowledgments, including those to Wolfgang Engel and his team at Springer-Verlag, are expressed in the Preface of the first edition. Frauke Asprion carefully produced the final, camera-ready version of the text. Gerhard Einsele (January 2000, Tuebingen)



Contents (Overview, detailed contents are listed at the headings ofindividual chapters)



Part 1 Types of Sedimentary Basins ................................. 1 1 Basin Classification and Depositional Environments ...................... 3 1.1 Introduction.................................................... 3 1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 1.3 Tectonics and Basin Filling ....................................... 10 1.4 Basin Morphology and Depositional Environments ..................... 10



Part 11 Depositional Systems and Facies Models .................... 17 2 Continental Sediments .............................................. 2.1 Glacial Deposits of Lowlands, Lakes, and in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.2 Fluvial Sediments, Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas ....................... 2.3 Eolian Sediments ............................................... 2.4 Volcaniclastic Sediments (Tephra Deposits) .......................... 2.5 Lake Sediments .................................................



19 19 29 52 64 75



3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments (Including Carbonates) ............... 94 3.1 Beach and Shoreface Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94 3.2 Sediments ofTidal Flats and Barrier Island-Lagoon Complexes .......... 109 3.3 Sediments of Shallow Seas (Siliciclastics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125 3.4 Carbonate Buildups and Reef-Lagoon Complexes ..................... 134 3.5 Sediments ofMarine Delta Complexes ............................. 153 4 Sediments of Adjacent Seas and Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.1 Introduction.................................................. 4.2 Water Circulation and Sediments .................................. 4.3 Sedimentary History of Some Modem Adjacent Seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.4 Summary (Adjacent Seas) .......................................



166 166 166 173 181



5 Oceanic Sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.1 Introduction .................................................. 5.2 Water Circulation in the Oceans ................................... 5.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Deep-Sea Sediments ....................... 5.4 Gravity Mass Flow Deposits and Turbidites ......................... 5.5 Erosion and Redeposition ofDeep-Sea Sediments .................... 5.6 Paleoceanography ..............................................



182 183 183 188 210 235 238



6 Special Depositional Environments and Sediments ...................... 6.1 Green Marine Clays ............................................ 6.2 Oolitic Ironstones .............................................. 6.3 Red Beds ..................................................... 6.4 Marine Evaporites ............................................. 6.5 Nonactualistic (Precambrian) Depositional ..........................



249 249 252 254 258 283



x



Contents



7 Sequences, Minor Cycles, and Event Stratigraphy ....................... 291 7.1 General Characteristics of Cyclic Sediments ......................... 292 7.2 Sequence Stratigraphy: Basic Concepts ............................. 297 7.3 Sequence Stratigraphy of Coastal and Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems ............................................ 313 7.4 Marine Deltas, Deep-Sea Fans, and Oceanic Sediments ................. 325 7.5 Sequence Stratigraphy ofMarine Carbonate Systems ................... 328 7.6 Sequence Stratigraphy ofTransitional Systems ....................... 337 7.7 Continental Sequence Stratigraphy ................................. 345 7.8 Hierarchy of Sedimentary Cycles, Their Superposition and Causes ........ 354 7.9 Cyclo- and Event Stratigraphy ..................................... 359 7.10 General Discussion (Sequence and Event Stratigraphy) ................ 381



Part III Subsidence, Flux Rates, and Sediment Budget ............. 385 8 Subsidence ........................................................ 8.1 General Mechanisms Controlling Subsidence ......................... 8.2 Methods for Determining Subsidence of Sedimentary Basins ............ 8.3 Subsidence ofModel Basins and Observed Subsidence History .......... 8.4 Subsidence Related to Tectonic Loading, Subduction, and Strike-Slip Motion ..............................................



387 387 393 400 411



9 Denudation: Solute Transport and Flux Rates of Terrigenous Sediment .... 414 9.1 Weathering, Soils, and Formation ofTerrigenous Sediments ............. 414 9.2 Chemical Denudation (Quantitative Aspects) ......................... 424 9.3 Mechanical Denudation .......................................... 434 9.4 Modem Chemical vs. Mechanical Denudation Rates ................... 442 9.5 Long-Term Denudation Rates from Landform Reconstruction ............ 443 9.6 Steady State and Dynamic Denudation Systems ....................... 447 9.7 Denudation Rates, Summary ...................................... 454 10 Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter in Various Depositional Environments ........................................................ 455 10.1 General Aspects ................................................ 455 10.2 Sedimentation Rates in Various Depositional Environment. ............. 459 10.3 Production of Organic Matter in Various Environments ................. 463 10.4 Organic Matter in the Oceans ..................................... 466 10.5 Organic Matter Preservation in Marine Sediments ..................... 469 11 The Interplay Between Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill ....... 480 11.1 Introduction ................................................... 480 11.2 Denudation-Sediment Accumulation (DA) Systems .................... 482 11.3 Dynamic Denudation-Accumulation (DA) Systems .................... 494 11.4 Chemical Sediments (Evaporites) in Basin Filling ..................... 512 11.5 Distribution of Clastic Sediments in Water-Filled Basins ................ 517 11.6 Consequences for Stratigraphic Sequences and Facies Associations (Overview) .................................................... 533 11.7 Preservation and Recycling of Older Sediments ....................... 536



Part IV Basin Evolution ........................................... 541 12 Basin Evolution and Sediments . ...................................... 12.1 Rift Basins ..................................................... 12.2 Continental Margin and Slope Basins ............................... 12.3 Mega-Rifting and Mesozoic Sediments in Europe (Overview) ............ 12.4 Intracontinental Sag Basins .......................................



543 543 561 571 574



Contents 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9



XI Deep-Sea Trenches, Forearc, Backal'c and Retroarc Basins .............. Remnant and Foreland Basins .................................... Collision-Related Basins ........................................ Pu li-Apart Basins .............................................. Basin-Type Transitions (Polyphase Basins) ..........................



579 606 622 630 637



Part V Diagenesis and Fluid Flow



645



13 Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis ................................. 13.1 General Aspects ofMechanical and Chemical Diagenesis .............. 13.2 Compaction, Compaction Flow, and Other Flow Mechanisms ........... 13.3 General Processes in Chemical Diagenesis .......................... 13.4 Early Diagenesis ofMajor Sediment Types .......................... 13.5 Late, Deep-Burial Diagenesis ..................................... 13.6 The Transition from Diagenesis to Metamorphism ................... 13.7 Thermal History ofBasin Fills .................................... 13.8 Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis ........................ 13.9 Summary (Chemical Diagenesis) ..................................



647 647 653 668 685 689 697 697 700 705



14 Hydrocarbons and Coal ............................................ 14.1 Source Rocks, Kerogen Types, and Hydrocarbon Potential .............. 14.2 Generation and Migration ofHydrocarbons .......................... 14.3 Examples ofHydrocarbon Habitats ................................ 14.4 Evolution of Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..



706 706 709 713 723



References .......................................................... 729 Subject Index . ....................................................... 781



Part I Types of Sedimentary Basins



1 Basin Classification and Depositional Environments (Overview)



1.1 Introduction



1.2 Tectonic Basin Classification 1.3 Tectonics and Basin Filling 1.4 Basin Morphology and Depositional Environments 1.4.1 General Aspects 1.4.2 Different Methods in the Study ofModem and Ancient Sediments 1.4.3 Depositional Environments (Overview) 1.4.4 Elementary Principles for Basin Filling 1.4.5 Some General Trends for Sediment Accumulation and Facies 1.4.6 Facies Architecture 1.4.7 Summary (Basin Classification)



1.1



Introduction



Sedimentary basins are, in a very broad sense, all those areas in which sediments can accumulate to considerable thickness and be preserved for long geologie al time periods. In addition, there also exist areas of longpersisting denudation, as well as regions where erosional and depositional processes more or less neutralize each other (creating what is known as non-deposition or omission). In plan view sedimentary basins can have numerous different shapes; they may be approximately circular or, more frequently, elongate depressions, troughs, or embayments, but often they have quite irregular boundaries. As will be shown later, even areas without any topographie depression, such as alluvial plains, may act as sediment traps. The size of sedimentary basins is highly variable, though they are usually at least 100 km long and tens of km wide. We can distinguish between (1) active sedimentary basins still accumulating sediments, (2) inactive, but little deformed sedimentary basins showing more or less their original shape and sedimentary fill, and (3) strongly deformed and incomplete former sedimentary basins, where the original fill has been partly lost to erosion, for example in a mountain belt. As many workers have pointed out, the regional deposition of sediments, non-deposition, or denudation of. older rocks are controlled mainly by tectonic movements. Hence, most of the recent attempts to c1assify sedimentary basins have been based on concepts of



global and regional tectonics which will be briefly discussed below. In spite of obvious advantages, however, this approach has some serious shortcomings if it is not supplemented by additional criteria. One ought always bear in mind that the characteristics of sediments filling a basin of a certain tectonic type are pre-dominantly controlled by other factors and can be extremely variable. With few exceptions (also discussed later), there is hardly such a phenomenon as a "tectonic sedimentary facies". For example, the broad concept of "geosync1inal sediments", often postulated in the past, was more misleading than helpful. In addition to tectonic movements in the basinal area itself, sedimentary processes and facies are controlled by the paleogeography of the regions around the basin (peri-basin morphology and c1imate, rock types and tectonic activity in the source area) , the depositional environment, the evolution of sediment-producing organisms, etc. Many sedimentologists therefore prefer a c1assification scheme based mainly on criteria which can be recognized in the field, i.e., the facies concept and the definition of the depositional environment (fluvial sediments, shelf deposits etc.). A further approach is the subdivision of sediments into important lithologic groups, such as silicic1astic sediments of various granulometries and composition, carbonate rocks, evaporites, etc. Having established the facies, succession, and geometries of such lithologic groups, one can proceed to defme the tectonic nature of the basin investigated. In this book an attempt is made to combine some principal points of these different c1assification systems and to show the interaction between tectonic and environmental characteristics of depositional areas.



1.2



Tectonic Basin Classification



Basin-generating tectonics is the most irnportant prerequisite for the accumulation of sediments. Therefore, a tectonic basin c1assification system is briefly introduced at the beginning of this chapter. Such a c1assification must be in accordance with the modem concept of global plate tectonics and hence will differ from older c1assifications and terminology.



Chapter 1



4



Basin Classification



interior sag basins, however, major fault systems fonning the boundaries of the depositional area or a central rift zone rnay be absent. Subsidenee occurs predominandy in response to moderate crustal thinning or to a slightly higher density of the underlying erust in comparison to neighboring areas. In addition, slow thermal decay after a heating event and sedimentary loading can promote and maintain further subsidenee for a long time (Sect. 8.1). Altematively, it was recently suggested that long-tenn subsidenee of intracratonie basins may The different types of sedimentary basins can be be related to a decrease ofthe mantle heat flow (abnorgrouped into seven categories, which in turn may be mal cooling) above a "cold spot" (Ziegler 1989). In subdivided into two to four special basin types (Table general, rates of subsidence are low in this geodynarnie 1.1 and Figs. 1.1 through 104): setting (cf. Sect. 12.3).



In reeent years, several authors have summarized our eurrent knowledge on the interaction of plate tectonics and sedimentation (e.g., Diekinson in Diekinson and Yarborough 1976; Kingston et al. 1983; MiaU 1984; MiteheU and Reading 1986; Foster and Beaurnont 1987; Klein 1987; Perrodon 1988) and proposed basin classifieation systems. Although basieaUy identieal, these systems differ somewhat and do not use exaetly the same terms. In this text we essentiaUy use the system deseribed by MiteheU and Reading, but add some minor modifieatiollS.



Intracratonic or interior sag basins (Fig. l.la). Basins on continental crust are mainly generated by divergent plate motions and resulting extensional structures and thermal effects (cf. Sect. 8.1). In the case of large



Continental graben structures and rift zones fonn narrow elongate basins bounded by large faults (Fig. l.1b and c). Their cross seetions rnay be symmetrie or asymmetrie (e.g., halfgrabens, see Sects. 11.4 and



Table 1.1 Tectonic basin classification. (After Kingston et al. 1983; Mitchell and Reading 1986) Basin eategory



Special basin type or synonymes)



Underlying erust



Style