Briggs, Leslie J. - Instructional Design - Principles and Applications-Educational Technology Publ. (1992) PDF [PDF]

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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A Primer



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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A Primer Bruce R. Ledford



Associate Professor of Instructional Technology Educational Foundations, Leadership, and Technology Auburn University



Phillip J. Sleeman Professor Emeritus Department of Educational Psychology University of Connecticut



411 West Putnam Avenue P.O. Box 4967 Greenwich, Connecticut 06831



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Copyright © 2000 Information Age Publishing Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.



Printed in the United States of America



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CONTENTS Acknowledgment



vii



List of Figures



ix



Preface



xi



1. Overview



1



2. Systems Theory



19



3. Writing Goals



33



4. Task Analysis



59



5. Writing Operational Objectives



63



6. Learner Activities



77



7. Media Selection, Design, Production, and Integration



83



8. Media Design in Instructional Design



105



9. Message/Medium Design



131



10. Validation



145



Afterword



159



Bibliography



165



Associations and Organizations for Instructional Technology



169



Index



173



v



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ACKNOWLEDGMENT This book, the result of many years of experience in the field, could not have been written without the motivation and enlivening of the many hundreds of students to whom I have taught the instructional design process at Auburn University, the University of Arizona, and Texas A&M University— Commerce over the years. Most of all, I would like to acknowledge the role and support of my wife, Amelia. An award-winning master-teacher of English and French at Mountain Heritage High School, Amelia not only read and corrected drafts of the manuscript but also served as a professional advisor to this effort. I am fortunate to have had her input, and I am deeply indebted to her. Dr. Bruce R. Ledford Auburn University Summer 2000



vii



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LIST OF FIGURES Chapter 1 General Paradigm of Communcation Figure 1.1. Instructional Design Paradigm Instructional Design Paradigm



8 13 15



Chapter 2 Figure 2.1. Figure 2.2. Figure 2.3. Figure 2.4. Figure 2.5. Figure 2.6.



The ID Model of Interactive Teaching Ther Gerlach and Ely paradigm Banathy’s Design of Instructional Systems The General Paradigm of Instruction Searle’s System of Instruction Instructional Design Paradigm



24 25 27 28 30 31



Chapter 3 Figure 3.1. Figure 3.2. Figure 3.3. Figure 3.4.



The Tyler Model for Setting Goals Learner Analysis Relevance Display Format for Instructional Design



38 44 52 57



Chapter 4 Figure 4.1. Display Format for Instructional Design



62



Chapter 5 Figure 5.1. Figure 5.2. Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4. Figure 5.5. Figure 5.6. Figure 5.7. Figure 5.8



64 65 67 70 71 72 73 77



Display Format for Instructional Design Instructional Design Paradigm Objective Checks Levels of Cognitive Thinking Levels of Affective Activitiy Levels of Psychomotor Activity Internalization: Externalization



ix



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x LIST OF FIGURES



Chapter 6 Figure 6.1.



83



Chapter 7 Figure 7.1. Figure 7.2. Figure 7.3. Figure 7.4. Figure 7.5. Figure 7.6. Figure 7.7. Figure 7.8. Figure 7.9. Figure 7.10. Figure 7.11. Figure 7.12. Figure 7.13. Figure 7.14.



Instructional Design Paradigm Triad Media Classifications Overview of Media Selection Process Step One in Media Selection Media Selection Media Selection-Information Medial Selection-Information Storyboard Card Dimensions Storyboard Card Upper-Left Quadrant Storyboard Card Upper-Right Quadrant Storyboard Card Bottom Storyboard Script Format



Chapter 8 Figure 8.1. Figure 8.2. Figure 8.3. Figure 8.4. Figure 8.5. Figure 8.6. Figure 8.7. Figure 8.8. Figure 8.9. Figure 8.10. Figure 8.11. Figure 8.12.



Dale’s Cone of Learning Visibility Standards Screen Visibility Lettering Hints Visibility Standards More Lettering Hints Eye Movement Control Balance Rule of Thirds Size Balance Line Indicators Simple:Complex Continuum



108 111 113 114 115 116 118 120 122 125 126 127



Chapter 9 Figure 9.1. Figure 9.2. Figure 9.3. Figure 9.4. Figure 9.5. Figure 9.6. Figure 9.7. Figure 9.8.



Storyboard Card Dimensions Storyboard Cards Verbal Response Affective Behavior Psychomotor Behavior Criterion Checks Lower Part of Storyboard Card Separator Card



135 136 137 138 138 139 141 144



Chapter 10 Figure 10.1. The Curve Figure 10.2. Accountability



84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 94 94 95 95 96 97



149 156



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PREFACE At the time of this writing the authors of Instructional Design: A Primer have a combined experience of more than seventy-five years in the field of instructional technology in its various guises, including educational media, instructional media, educational media and technology, instructional media and technology, instructional communication, and audiovisual. This experience includes service in the military as instructors and as consultants; work in public education as classroom teachers, consultants, and conductors of workshops and seminars; and work in business and industry as corporate trainers and trainers of trainers. The greatest part of their careers has been in higher education as professors and administrators in major research universities doing the lecturing, research, writing, and outreach that academicians are expected to do. During this time, as in so many other disciplines, they have seen the field change so drastically that they could not have recognized it thirty-five years ago unless they had had the powers of a prophet. The proverbial quantum leaps have occurred in communication (satellite communications), computers (especially the PC), and software development. Research findings in education coupled with these developments, with the World Wide Web, with developments in cognitive psychology, and with pedagogical techniques like constructivism, are changing how we go about teaching and learning. However, some things have remained the same and have in fact taken on added importance. Without the rigor of instructional design, these developments are inert. By themselves they are incapable of facilitating teaching and learning except as spurious applications and by serendipity. During the 1960s and 1970s our schools and those accountable for training rushed to invest in television. School boards and school administrators, somewhat under pressure from all the concerned publics of education, built studios and elaborate delivery systems. It appeared that television was the panacea to solve all the problems associated with learning. However, without the application of instructional design principles and the integraxi



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xii PREFACE



tion of the medium into the curriculum, it was doomed to failure, as were all other techniques so implemented. Sadly, few organizations made this investment. We stand to make the same mistake with the newest media— especially the World Wide Web. Too many school systems are rushing to wire buildings for the Web and to buy equipment without considering integration into the curriculum, and without ensuring that teachers and administrators have the knowledge and skills of instructional design to ensure proper use. As a result of the urgent need to avoid the mistakes of the past, we are witnessing an increasing value placed upon the process of instructional design, properly applied; and persons with the skills of the instructional designer are highly sought by school, the military, health and allied fields, and business and industry. This book will serve as a source for a who want to apply a coherent system of instructional design, thereby ensuring accountability.



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Chapter 1



OVERVIEW



PURPOSES The purpose of this book is to provide a superstructure within which one can design effective and efficient instruction, a system in which predictable and validatable learning will occur, a system in which one will be able to direct the learner’s activities toward a mutual goal in an environment of positive relationships. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the field of instructional technology, with specific focus on instructional design. The overview is eclectic; it presents views commonly held by instructional designers that have been synthesized from the research and literature. This book differs from most books on instructional design in that it describes a process that is internally consistent; that is, it embraces a specific approach which makes it possible and easier for the designer to achieve closure on a process. Most books on instructional design describe several processes without adequately providing an opportunity for closure. As a result, many designers go away confused, owning bits and pieces of a process that it is impossible, or at least difficult, to implement in a coherent fashion. INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY The concept that all teachers should be instructional technologists confuses many outside the field of educational media and technology. For 1



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2 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



those who may not have a comprehension of the purposes, intent, and operational functions of the instructional technologist, or whose concepts of them are confused, a job role description will be useful: An instructional technologist is a support professional who uses a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the process of learning and teaching.



All teachers are instructional technologists if they establish instructional goals and objectives, even though goals vary in the level of sophistication at which they are established, and teachers may sometimes be unaware that they have established them. In many cases, the goals and objectives established are not based upon a rigorous process. In many cases, no primary sources of goals and objectives are consistently used, nor are the goals and objectives consistently derived. Often, goals and objectives are intuitively derived and are not communicated to learners, nor are rationales established or communicated to learners. Often, the need for a rationale, or the rationale itself, is not consciously perceived even by the teacher. One would say, then, that instructional technologists of this type (and the use of the term is charitable) are effective only by chance-their success is not predictable, but the lack of it is. All teachers ought to provide learning activities appropriate to the stated (or implied) goals and objectives, and appropriate to the needs and interests of the learner. More than a few teachers could be replaced by a tape-recorder. Needless to say, when instructional technology is not rigorously applied, learning activities are usually omitted, inappropriate, or lacking in proper depth and focus. When the opportunity to practice prerequisite tasks is not provided, when analogous and equivalent practices of the skills, concepts, and attitudes are not purposefully designed, learning is likely to be inefficient.



THE ROLE OF MEDIA Since the process of communication is an integral component of teaching and learning, all teachers utilize forms of media in the teaching/learning process. The media they use range in sophistication analogous to the levels of sophistication in their use of goals and objectives. The media can be as simple as hand gesticulations or as complex as multi-image/multi-media. Since no medium of instruction is effective in all situations, teachers may use one medium of instruction when another would be better. Usually, the media have not been validated (i.e., their fitness and their reliability in future applications have not been established), and often the usage of media is not consistent with the stated goals and objectives.



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OVERVIEW 3



THE ROLE OF EVALUATION Criterion-Referenced Evaluation Some testers and educators argue that tests should not depend on norm groups but on whether students have mastered specific instructional goals. They reason that telling a student’s position in such a group does not reveal whether the student can in fact follow written instructions, say, or subtract two-digit numbers. They believe that for decision-making by teachers and others, testing should be not “norm-referenced” but “criterion-referenced.” In the 1960s and 1970s, this view became fashionable and was the rationale of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Many observers feel that neither norm-referenced nor criterion-referenced testing techniques were purely applied, and that efforts were contaminated, thereby making it difficult, or impossible, to validate. The NAEP was founded by Congress in 1964 to determine what Americans at ages 9, 13, 17, and 26–35 know and can do. It was designed to measure the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of young Americans at key points in their education and to measure changes in their education attainments. Then learning areas were selected for assessment: art, career and occupational development, citizenship, literature, mathematics, music, reading, science, social studies, and writing. The assessment of each area is based on the goals established for it by scholars, educators, and concerned lay-people. Funded by the U.S. Department of Education and administered by the Educational Testing Service, NAEP annually assesses 9-, 13-, and 17-year-old students in one or more learning areas. Young adults are surveyed periodically. Assessment results are used for a variety of purposes, such as the development of curriculum and funding policies. The support for criterion-referenced measurement originated in large part from the emphasis on behavioral objectives, the sequencing and individualization of instruction, the development of programmed materials, the learning theory that suggests that almost anybody can learn almost anything if given enough time, the increased interested in certification, and the belief that norm-referencing promotes unhealthy competition and damages the self-concepts of low-scoring students. The principal uses of criterion-referenced measurement have been in mastery tests within the classroom, minimum competency tests (e.g., for high school graduation), and licensure tests. A mastery test is a particular type of criterion-referenced test. Mastery, as the word is typically used, connotes an either/or situation. The person has either achieved the objective(s) satisfactorily or has not. Criterion-referenced testing, in general, could also measure degrees of performance. Mastery tests are used in programs of individualized instruction, such as the Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) program or the mastery learn-



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4 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



ing model. These programs are composed of units or modules, usually considered hierarchical, each based on one or more instructional objective. Each individual is required to work on the unit until he or she has achieved a specific minimum level of achievement. Then the individual is considered to have mastered the unit. In such programs, instructional decisions about students are not dependent on how their performance compares to others. If a student has performed adequately on the objectives, the decision is to move on to the next unit of study. If not, then the student is required to restudy the material covered by the test until he or she performs adequately, thus masters the material. If instructional procedures were organized so that time were the dimension that varied and degree of mastery were held constant, then mastery tests would be used more frequently than they are now. Mastery testing requires the tester to set a cut-off score. There should be a careful rationale and procedure for choosing that point. No very useful information can be obtained regarding degree of proficiency above or below the cut-off score. A related use of criterion-referenced testing is minimum competency testing. Minimum competency testing is one area where cutting scores are set, and degrees of performance above the cut-off are not considered in making promotion, graduation, or certification decisions. Licensure tests for teachers are criterion-referenced. The purpose of a licensure test is to ensure that the public health, safety, and welfare will be protected. Since licensure tests are used to help determine whether individuals have minimal competence to practice their profession, a cutting score must be established. Employing the individually prescribed instruction or mastery model of learning, minimum competency testing and licensure are not the only uses for criterion-referenced measures; such measures may also be used to evaluate instructional programs. In order to determine whether specific instructional treatments or procedures have been successful, it is necessary to have data about the outcomes on the specific objectives the program was designed to teach. A measure comparing students to one another may not present data as effectively as a measure comparing each student’s performance to the objective. Criterion-referenced measurements also offer certain benefits for instructional decision-making within the classroom. The diagnosis of specific difficulties accompanied by a prescription of certain instructional treatments is necessary in instruction whether or not the teacher uses a mastery approach to learning. Because criterion-referenced tests are often narrower in scope, there may be enough items on a given objective to make inferences about an individual’s general performance on that objective. This assessment cannot typically be done on a traditional norm-referenced test because there are too few items on any specific objective.



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OVERVIEW 5



Research indicates that commercially published criterion-referenced tests are (1) objective-referenced rather than domain-referenced, meaning that the performance on any objective cannot be generalized to all the other items in that domain; (2) lacking in content validity because conventional item statistics are used to select test items, invariably eliminating the very easy and very hard items; (3) lacking with respect to acceptable reliability, since in many instances the standard error of measurement is not reported; and (4) of such poor psychometric quality that care should be taken in their use and interpretation. Normative-Referenced Evaluation Not many learners look forward to taking tests. Whether pop-tests, unit quizzes, or final exams, most students feel they could do without them as typically implemented. Even for good students, there can always be a question they didn’t study for or didn’t understand in class. But once a year, a test rolls around for which one can’t prepare the night before. It is a test on which a class placement or future aspiration could depend. It is the normative-referenced evaluation comparing the student’s abilities and intelligence to a national average. Norm-referenced tests are designed to make fine distinctions between students’ performances and clearly pinpoint where each student stands in relation to a large group. These tests are usually developed by commercial test companies, and typically, many schools use the same test. The companies survey existing curricula in order to write test items that reflect the information taught in most schools. After gathering this information, the developers prepare detailed test specifications that outline the objectives that will be tested and the number of questions that will be used to evaluate each objective. To ensure that the final test contains an adequate number of high-quality items in each subject area, developers usually pilot the test items on a random group of students. If the test is to be used nationally, this random group is chosen to closely match the U.S. student population in terms of parent income, nationality, community size, and geographic region. Based on the results of the pilot test, test developers keep only the items that meet certain standards. For one, the questions must generate consistent responses. Second, no question can be biased against any ethnic or gender group. And third, the test item must measure the desired learning objectives. The requirements encapsulate many of the criticisms of normative-referenced evaluation because of the difficulty in controlling these variables. Common criticisms include statements like “Your standing is not based upon what you know, but what your peers do not know,” and “It would be



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6 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



to the subject’s advantage to hire someone to take the test to deliberately make a low score so as to increase the subject’s standing.” There also is the criticism that the body of knowledge being tested is sliding a continuum based on the norm and can give a false sense either of security or of concern. This criticism addresses the issue of variability of the test scores. Test developers strive to compose items that encourage variability. In other words, they try to create questions that are not too easy or too hard. The results from the test questions should accurately rank students from highest to lowest ability. Test questions that are too easy or too hard will not contribute to the variability of the scores, and thus are usually eliminated. Consider the following example: Suppose it is possible to capture everything there is to know on a specific topic in 1,000 test items to be placed on a single test. Suppose further that no one in the population missed the first 800 items. These items would be eliminated because they do not produce variance. Suppose that the last 100 items are so difficult that no one can answer them. They too are eliminated because they produce no significant variance. The entire test is based upon items 800 to 900. Finally, suppose that was a “good” year. Next year the significant variance lies between 700 and 800. The norm scores will be the same, but the entire scale will have fallen significantly. This shows that one must be cautious in interpreting normative test scores. More discussion on this topic is included in Chapter 10 of this book. After developers select the appropriate questions for a test, they create test norms and normative test scores, such as percentiles and grade-equivalent scores. These norms describe the typical performance of U.S. students on these items at the time the norms were created. In context, these norms provide a means for the classroom teacher or the school district to compare the performance of one student or group of students with the performance of a reference group. The most popular and well-known norm-referenced tests are the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), the California Achievement Test (CAT), and the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT). Most states use one or more norm-referenced tests a year to measure their students’ abilities in relation to one or more large groups of students who have taken the same test. School districts use this test information in guiding and counseling students, determining the eligibility of students for alternative educational programs, monitoring trends in student performance, and evaluating the school and district educational program. The results of the district’s rankings usually appear in the local newspapers for the community to see how well their schools are doing, and parents are made aware of how their children measure up to the national standards. But the question has to be raised: How accurate and believable are the results of this test, and how much meaning should really be placed on these scores?



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OVERVIEW 7



One problem with the normative-referenced evaluation is the comparison or reference group on which the scores are based. No school or school district is completely like the normative group. In many cases, the differences are minor and inconsequential, but in other cases, schools can be so different from the reference group that the national norms provided by the publisher do not accurately reflect school performance. The more a school is unlike the standardized sample, the less meaningful the test becomes to the school’s program. Another area of concern is the time of year students take the test. If students take the test at a different time of year than the normative group was tested, the interpretation of the results will be unclear. Norm-referenced tests also have strict time limits and specific directions for administering and scoring, which can affect students’ scores. Plus, the test assesses a relatively narrow range of desired educational outcomes and provides a limited number of items to measure each objective. Other limitations are also evident. Tests are inappropriate in following an individual student’s progress in a specific skill and insufficient in diagnosing a student’s strengths and weaknesses in a particular subject area. Some tests may be unsuitable for a particular district because they do not represent specific features of the curriculum or of the student population. Should norm-referenced tests be thrown out completely? Should they be cast away, as have so many other trends and programs in education ? Even with all their limitations and shortcomings, there are some advantages to using a norm-referenced test in evaluating students. For one, the test allows analysis of the general progress of large groups of students, which can be beneficial to a school district. Second, the test can give you a basis for examining an individual’s general performance at certain points in the school year. Performing below average on a standardized test can be a warning signal to teachers and parents that a student needs more help in a given area. Given these benefits, a norm-referenced test should be included in a student’s portfolio of work each year of school. Normative-referenced testing should never be used as the sole indicator of a student’s intelligence or ability, but if used as one tool among many to chart progress, it can be highly effective. While no one looks forward to taking or using normative-referenced tests, such tests, if used in the correct way, can be beneficial in evaluating a student’s progress and improving the student’s education. All teachers claim to use some form of evaluation. Many evaluate things that were not taught. Almost always, learners are not evaluated according to the intent of the objectives of the event. For too many teachers, the purpose of evaluation is to determine how much the learner has learned when compared to others. This is normative reference, not an evaluation of the success of the instruction.



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8 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



THE RIGOR OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN The better instructional technologist is one who imposes a logical rigor supported by decades of reliable research in the process of instructional design and conduct. Logical rigor means that goals and objectives are established according to specific sources utilizing concrete data to filter them through screens of instructional philosophy and educational psychology. Objectives are designed to provide a logical distribution throughout selected areas of a rational taxonomy. The achievement of each of the objectives is a step toward achievement of the goal. The sum of achievement of all objectives should constitute achievement of the goal. Objectives consist of terminal learner behaviors, conditions within which the behavior is to occur, and standards of performance to be used by students to determine progress, and to be used by teachers to evaluate degrees of success of the instruction. Goals and objectives should be communicated to learners along with a rationale that is inductive, deductive, exhortative, or intrinsic in nature. Prerequisite tasks should be isolated and instruction designed for them. Analogous and equivalent practices should be planned and implemented whenever direct purposeful activities are impractical. Media should be selected and integrated into the learning event on the basis of their relevance to the characteristics of the learner and of the environment.



General Paradigm of Communcation



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OVERVIEW 9



Curricular restraints should be identified and neutralized when possible, and acquiesced to where necessary, but curricular restraints are seldom really constraining. Criterion checks should be performed at determined intervals to evaluate the progression of successful instruction. All of these elements are a part of design of learning events, or instructional design. To be effective, each element of the pattern ought to be internally consistent with all the other elements. Each is a part of the whole process; each is no more nor less important than any other part. SYNERGY Many professionals have the misconception that instructional technology is limited to machines, or hardware, and they think of programmed instruction and computer-assisted instruction as synonyms for instructional technology. While hardware is part of the instructional technology process, it can be a part of other processes as well. Instructional technology is a system that goes beyond any particular medium or device. As with all systems, it is more than the sum of its parts; there is an essence or force inherent in instructional technology that brings about more effective instruction when appropriately applied. The essence or force is simply the logic of knowing what is intended, knowing for whom it is intended, being able to structure a means of getting “for whom” to practice, error-free, what is intended, evaluating by criteria the progress of learning, arranging events to include application of what is intended, and calling whatever it was “learned” when the intended standard is overtly obtained. Instructional technology employs a combination of human and non-human resources. Many professionals still function, positively or negatively, with the concept of audiovisual aids. Until recently, this concept was in common usage. It is not entirely unused to date. A systematic process of designing and implementing instruction has not been a part of teacher education. As a result, components exist in isolation. Media are considered aids, or supplemental to the process. In 1947, Robert E. McConnell noted that teacher-training institutions had ignored the importance of audiovisual materials as learning aids. The concept of learning aids was essentially invalid because it failed to imply that media must be an integral component of a systematic approach to the design of instruction that cannot be ignored. “Audiovisual materials” merely referred to phenomena that could be heard or seen. No specific direction for effective instruction was implicit. Even the word “materials” is used without precision. In other situations, “material” is raw stock out of which other things are made. “Material” becomes “media” only when the material carries a message, but then it is no longer material. For example, when parts are assembled to function, they become components. When components are assembled to function, they become an automobile.



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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



“Teaching is telling” seems to be the attitude of McConnell, and learning is equated, in his frame of reason, with listening to the teacher, then memorizing and feeding back those facts categorized as important. CONSTRUCTIVISM Learners learn what learners do. Learners do not learn, necessarily, what teachers do. When learners spend most of their time listening, apparently, while the teacher speaks or performs, it is improbable that anyone can do more than guess what they are, in fact, learning. Webster’s dictionary defines the word construct as: “To build; to frame with contrivance; to devise.” Present-day education involves a view of constructivism which includes a focus on effort instead of ability. Constructivism places the learner in an active position of learning which involves formulating various concepts in order to resolve a problem. This process enables the teacher to lead or coach while the student experiments in order to learn. Child psychologist Jean Piaget is well known for his theory of cognitive development. This development is explained by means of how and why mental abilities alter as time passes. To understand this theory, one must see that children are active organisms. Piaget revealed that children manipulate and actively interact with their surroundings in order to develop. Thus the development of cognition occurs as children build and understand that which surrounds them. The experiences and interactions learners have with the information, both old and new, with which they come in contact, and their individual concepts of reality, affect their cognition. Visual literalists contend that the sum of one’s experiences and the abilities of the learner to have and integrate sensory experiences affect cognition. Educational psychology acknowledges the principle that students cannot just be given knowledge by an instructor. Knowledge must be constructed, or devised, by each student. The teacher merely acts as a facilitator of information by providing a conducive atmosphere which gives the material relevance and significance in the eyes of the learner. Educational psychology provides the constructivist theories of learning. These theories establish that learners, on an individual basis, use past and present bits of information in order to reveal and transform data as they are introduced to them. This is a continual process, which proposes that students become much more involved in the learning process, thus being called student - centered instruction. Once again, as mentioned earlier, the instructor guides or leads the student, but the student is encouraged to discover and unleash an individual meaning and understanding.



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OVERVIEW 11



The History of Constructivism Constructivism is not a concept that just recently hit the Internet. Its history dates back not only to the work of Piaget, but also to educational psychologist Lev Semionovich Vygotsky. Actually, Vygotsky’s theories seem to gain more attention from modern constructivists. His theories place emphasis on discovery and cooperative learning. His studies proved that in many cases, a child learns by interacting with peers who have established higher capabilities and with adults. Vygotsky also recognized that children can learn to resolve a problem by thinking their way through it. This method of learning is referred to as social learning. Another part of the foundation of constructivism lies in the concept of the zone of proximal development. Children are working in this zone when they are assisted by adults or peers. Vygotsky’s theories also presented the idea of cognitive apprenticeship. This process refers to a situation in which the learner obtains competence from interaction either with an advanced student or with an adult who has proficient knowledge. An example of this would be a new worker training by means of an apprenticeship. Mediated learning, also known as scaffolding, is another theory of learning that Vygotsky stresses. Scaffolding implicates the instructor in assigning complex, yet practical task work to the student and providing adequate leadership so that the end-result will be achievement. The concept of audiovisual aids is no longer something that a knowledgeable professional would attempt to maintain or defend. It is a flaccid implication of a concept which lies at the heart, the root, the mainstream of learning theory, communication theory, and pedagogy. Consider the following: Learning is a behavioral change that is stable over a period of application. When undesired side-effects are a part of the learning experience, further learning is needed to eliminate them. The phrase “behavioral change” does not refer to the learner’s deportment, or social behavior. In a psychological sense it implies that a change has occurred in the individual’s behavior patterns. Whenever such changes occur, regardless of how, it is as a result of learning. Behavioral changes occur in the psychomotor, cognitive, or affective domains. In the past, learning was often limited to “knowing” or “understanding.” In the present, it has been clarified that to know or understand when one knows or understands is diffusive, uncertain, and subjective—even biased. In the current definition, learning includes recall, comprehending, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating in the cognitive domain in addition to elements in the psychomotor and affective domains. Learning is not limited to simple memorization of facts. Behavioral Changes Behavioral changes can be undesirable, or other than what was intended. For example, one may intend that a learner incorporate a given attitude,



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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



such as respect for legal authority, into a value complex. One may find that through inappropriate design and/or implementation, the learner has, in fact, established a disrespect for legal authority as a direct result of one’s efforts; one might suppose, under passive events, that the learners are really learning that they can’t see very well, or hear well, or that they do not even know what to look or listen for. They may be learning that they would rather be someplace else. They may be learning that they are too hot, or too cold, or that the seats are uncomfortable. They may be learning that the teacher talks faster than they can take notes. They may be learning that they are not learning! These things, of course, are not desired behavioral changes. They may be behavioral changes that have occurred as a result of the omissions, the inexactitudes, the failures of the instruction. Long-Term/Short-Term Learning For economy of effort, long-term learning is obviously preferable to short-term learning. Short-term learning may lead to long-term learning, as, for example, in the case of a prerequisite skill, concept, or attitude necessary to complete a more complex learning task. One must make a judgment about the rationality of a system that generates instability of learning. Since the purpose of public education is to produce a rational citizenry, an irrational system of instruction ought to receive everything it deserves.



Side-Effects Learning should be free of undesirable side-effects. One may establish unrealistic goals and objectives, or provide learning experiences through inappropriate media. As a result, while the learners may learn what is asked of them, other undesired behaviors manifest. A learner might be taught how to produce transparencies for overhead projectors, for example, but if, in the process of doing so, the learner decides never to apply the skills, there is a fault in the instruction. COMMUNICATION IN LEARNING Learning involves communication. For learning to occur, a system of communication must be present. At least four subsystems are present within the system. There must be (1) a learner—i.e., a receiver, (2) something for the learner to learn—a message, (3) a source of the message—a sender, and (4) a medium to transmit the message—a channel. A simple model of communication/learning is shown in Figure 1.1.



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OVERVIEW 13



Figure 1.1.



Instructional Design Paradigm



As with all systems, removal of one or more of the subsystems will cause the entire system to break down, or die. An analogy is the human body. The human body is a collection of systems and subsystems (e.g., the circulatory, nervous, and respiratory systems) which interact to achieve a goal (living). When one or more of these systems fail, the human body dies, or its activity is curtailed significantly. Learning cannot occur if there is no message. A more sophisticated model of learning, or communication would include encoding of messages, decoding of messages, response channels, and feedback. A medium is anything that transmits a message. Media can be the spoken word (lecture), books, films, videotapes, records, body language, odors, tastes, or anything that transmits a message. By definition, media are apparently inert. They are incapable of doing anything by themselves. It is only by careful selection compatible with the messages, the learner, and the source that they become effective. Instructional technology and educational media are not audiovisual aids to instruction; rather, they instruct and are inseparable from instruction. Media must be present for learning to occur. They can be anything— audio, visual, tactile, savory, olfactory—anything that transmits the message. ARCHETYPES, PARADIGMS, AND MODELS The general viewpoint or perspective used by someone engaged in an act of inquiry is technically referred to as an archetype or a root metaphor. It acts as a loose theoretical framework or prototype, a primordial image or pattern, that constantly recurs in professional thinking. Archetypes are usually internally consistent enough to be considered as universal principles or heuristics for thought and action. The term “archetype” was first used in English around the year 1605. It has become part of the vocabulary of historians, anthropologists, and psychologists. Jung used the term in the context of a “primordial image,” or “psychic residue,” that constantly repeats itself throughout human experience. Archetypes serve to bind together loose classes of assumptions into the nucleus of a theory. The term has been used to trace elemental pat-



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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



terns of myth and ritual. It has been used in the context of literary criticism to identify narrative designs and character types. The term “archetype” is also meaningful in the context of instructional design. Archetypes hold together recognizable professional groups as well as informal “clusters” of instructional designers. They offer a basic set of assumptions, a language of belief, and a set of valued activities. Usually, they are captured by slogans such as “Help stamp out audiovisual aids.” Paradigm Archetypes give rise to paradigms. The paradigm can be presented in varying degrees of detail or complexity. A paradigm is a more concrete conceptualization of an underlying idea, or theory. It involves definitions, statements, and interrelationships. Paradigms are usually qualitative in nature. They may be expressed in words, in numbers, or in visual display. In instructional design, a diagram illustrating important relationships by means of boxes and arrows is often used. The paradigm is sufficiently open-ended to allow adherents to pursue all sorts of problems in a manner that allows them to refine and define the details of the basic paradigm for themselves. It can safely be assumed that when a small group of designers work together, their shared values and concerns indicate a shared paradigm. The paradigm that you will be sharing in this course is now presented:



Instructional Design Paradigm



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OVERVIEW 15



Each element of the instructional design paradigm will be presented in detail along with the class activities to be completed. The elements can be randomly accessed, or you can follow the class schedule in a more or less linear fashion. Model At first glance instructional design appears to be especially rich in models. However, in the context of the preceding paragraphs, many of them are technically paradigms. A model usually is presented in a quantitative dimension, whereas a paradigm is presented in a qualitative dimension. A model is much more specific and detailed in its representation of reality. For example, automobile designers will develop a model (not a real car) from which an exact replica (which is a real car) will be developed. The model serves as a blueprint for the real thing. So, you can see that an instructional design model rarely exists; most that claim to be one are in actuality paradigms SUMMARY Consider the following example: There exists within the human condition a need for mobility. We need to travel from point A to point B for a variety of reasons—food, protection, work, social interaction, and so forth. This need and the fact that we humans rely upon means other than our arms and legs for mobility are part of the root metaphor, or idea, governing travel. This set of underlying principles we call an archetype. When we translate this archetype into a paradigm, we show a more concrete example of a mode of transportation outside ourselves. It is here that the role of the wheel and its relationship to the other elements of a transportation mode are considered as part of a paradigm—along with a power source (engine), energy source (e.g., fossil fuels or solar energy), and a navigation system (steering wheel, turning wheels, etc). All of these elements, among many others, present a paradigm—a generalized but more concrete conceptualization than the archetype. Still, this paradigm does not bear a quantitative relationship to an automobile. It is only when the detail is presented which bears a quantitative relationship to a specific automobile that it becomes a model. This analogy can be applied to the field and practice of instructional design. The archetypes, or postulates, that undergird the specific instructional design paradigm of this course include the following:



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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



1. All learners are capable of learning. Whether or not they do learn, and what they learn, is based upon the process to which they are exposed. 2. All learners have worth. No learner can be preconsigned to failure. All learners should have the benefit of sophisticated instruction. 3. All learners have dignity. They are entitled to whatever degree of success is attainable through the interaction of competent managers of learning experiences and their own motivated efforts. They should be able to depend upon a versatile battery of approaches to success when achievement is not immediate. 4. Learners are unique. Some experiences in learning may be effective for only a few learners. Under serendipitous conditions, some learning experiences may be effective for all learners. Success is achieved when the design of the learning experience is specific to whatever the learner requires. 5. Anything that is respectably worth learning can be taught in a designable form. 6. Perception is the foundation of learning. The better the stimulus is perceived, the better it can be learned. Correct initial perceptions facilitate learning; misperceptions impede it. 7. The learner must become involved. Learners must know what they are expected to do and must accept the logic and rationale for doing so. To be successful, learners must interact with the elements of the environment within which they explore and search. Learners learn what learners do. Learners do not necessarily learn what teachers do. 8. Learners usually participate wholeheartedly in activities they help plan. They are likely to become apathetic if excessive direction is given by the teacher. 9. Creativity is the goal of learning. We often consider the task completed when basic skills are mastered, but this may actually be the point that beneficial learning should begin. Whenever possible, a product should be generated to demonstrate learning and the effectiveness of the instruction. 10. The instructional technologist has the primary responsibility for the learner. The instructional technologist is a professional and, as such, has, or should have, the training, skills, support, inclination, and experience to use nothing less than sophisticated instructional systems in the teaching/learning process. Message design, media design, media production, and validation are specific complex skills held by competent instructional technologists. 11. Effective learning has certain characteristics. It occurs when learners— a. comprehend what they are supposed to be able to do; b. are confronted by a system and techniques that are clear to them and that they can apply with the required degrees of skill;



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OVERVIEW 17



c.



are motivated to the extent that they accept the goals of the learning event and are willing to spend time, effort, and money to achieve them; d. can envision a variety of desirable applications for the learning; e. are provided appropriate media; and f. are provided appropriate facilities and time in which to accomplish the goals. This chapter has provided a superstructure within which one can design effective and efficient instruction, a system within which predictable and validatable learning occurs, a system within which one is able to direct the learner’s activities toward a mutual goal in an environment of positive relationships.



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Chapter 2



SYSTEMS THEORY



General systems theory was proposed in the 1940s by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who had been searching for a way to unify the various disciplines of science after a period when science had been branching off into many areas and specialties. As a biologist, Bertalanffy was interested not only in the parts of the human body (cells, organs, etc.) but in how these components come together to form a whole. Many other disciplines, such as business, social sciences, mathematics, and education, have adopted Bertalanffy’s theory as a way of solving problems and bringing order to our complex world. Bertalanffy’s view of the human body as a whole distinct from its individual make-up is known as holism, or the holistic approach. In a holistic view, the whole cannot be disassembled and analyzed in its component parts without the context of the entire system. Iberall defines a system as an arrangement of entities related in such a way as to form a unity or organic whole. Bertalanffy recognized that the human body was composed of many parts which together formed something that was greater than all of the parts individually; they formed a living human system. The systems approach applies, not only to living or organic entities, but to anything that can be conceptualized as a system. Much as the human body is made up of organs and cells, an automobile is made up of various parts which are combined to produce a complex whole. But the parts of a car do not embody everything about the finished product or the opportunities and possibilities it generates. The extra element generated by the 19



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whole that is not found in the individual parts is known as “synergy,” what Krippendorff refers to as the focus on “collaboration as opposed to the individual.” In complex systems like the body, one may come to think of some components as subordinate, but a hierarchical view of this kind may be inaccurate. Krippendorff warns that such a view may lead us to overgeneralize our understanding of concepts by advancing to increasingly higher levels until we are unable to focus on the particulars of a situation. If a small area of the spinal cord or brain were disabled, the entire human body might be severely impaired. Likewise, something as small as a fan belt or an accelerator cable can leave one’s car on the side of the road. Therefore, it may be more accurate and advantageous to think of all the components of a system as being equal in importance. Other scientists and professionals have sought out this approach as a way of bringing unity to their disciplines. According to Ledford, as fields of knowledge expand, specialists in the field begin to study increasingly smaller segments of the discipline. A systems approach is needed to bring all the elements together in a unified whole. In the field of education, instructional design synthesizes elements from a number of related disciplines, such as communication, psychology, curriculum development, and computer-assisted instruction. In order to facilitate learning, these elements must be brought together in an effective, unified, instructional design. This system of learning can be conceptualized and analyzed in much the same way as Bertalanffy did with the human body and others have done with various other complex systems. If one of the components fails, it may bring down the entire system which relies on the synergy of its components to bring about learning. Before looking at the specific systems approach that relates to the instructional design presented in this book, the reader needs a general overview of systems theory. Hayman states that the systems approach is “an emerging area of scientific inquiry which has developed in response to the increasing complexity of modern life.” A word that may suggest a characteristic of the systems approach is wholeness. Another word is gestalt. Many complex elements are brought together systematically to form a “whole.” Many instructors, in many disciplines ranging from business to education, use the holistic idea in studying problems because it orients thinking in a way conducive to problem-solving. As technology applications increase in kind and number, and as knowledge expands geometrically, disciplines of modern society are becoming more and more specialized. Specialists in various fields study smaller and smaller segments of reality. As they specialize they become isolated from one another. This, in turn, inhibits communications among them. One of the reasons cited for the increasing emphasis on the systems approach is that it can be used to bring entities together to give some sort of structure



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SYSTEMS THEORY 21



to otherwise disparate elements. The “wholeness” of the systems approach may refer to entire societies, people, science, school systems, or many other things. In education, a systems approach may be applied to an entire school district, an individual school, a curriculum unit, or a single lesson. In this chapter, the examination of the systems approach will be limited to educational technology systems that are near to the learner. In other words, the main subjects will be systematic approaches to the use of instructional technology that can be used in the design of lessons or units. This includes individualized instruction as well as group instruction. When the many disciplines that must be combined to produce efficient learning are considered, the value of using a systematic approach becomes obvious. For example, psychology, communication theory, cost-effectiveness analysis, curriculum, programmed instruction, computer-assisted instruction, individually prescribed instruction, and educational media are some of the disciplines which may be brought together systematically to facilitate learning. Reinforcing this thought, Barson states: Experience suggests that media applications stand a better chance of succeeding if they are based on expert analysis of the teaching problem and the selection of tested materials. That is, major instructional innovations should be guided by an in-depth analysis of the objectives of the instruction, the nature of the course content, the strategy of teaching, and characteristics of the learner.



The instructional technologist, when designing a learning event, may benefit from the systems approach because in instructional design one must combine several components into a whole. For this reason, some principles of systems analysis in instructional design can be used to advantage. This development should also proceed in a logical and efficient sequence. Most importantly, the educational technologist must remember that the learning system is designed for one purpose—learning. Systematic instructional development had its beginnings in the teaching machines and programmed instruction of the early 1960s. The systems approach is based more on practicality than on the results of research, and although sometimes classified as behaviorist in nature, systematic instruction does not require that a person accept any specific philosophy concerning education. Systematic instruction can be related to several philosophical viewpoints because the emphasis is not on values but rather on explicitness, and whatever the value, explicitness is likely to be more effective than confusion. Finally, it is important that instructional technologists understand the advantages of systematic instruction. Banathy states: Today we talk about audiovisuals as aids to teaching and books in the library as supplements to instruction. In the systems view, on the other hand, if the



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22



INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER capability of a certain medium or library resource indicates that it is the best component to facilitate learning then it should be used—not as an aid or supplement, but as the component selected on the basis of its measured potential to bring about the desired learning.



Even though systems theory can be used on all levels and functions of educational activity, only those systems which pertain to one lesson, one unit, or the design and production of instructional media will be described. In other words, only the systems nearest the learner will be considered. This is probably the best level at which to observe the systematic integration of instructional technology. Paradigms and diagrams of existing systems of varying complexity and detail are compared with each other, and are synthesized into a new paradigm—a holistic paradigm—whose explicitness will be the foundation of the specific process of instructional design advocated in this book. Generally, most systems contain some or all of the following aspects that will be used as a basis for evaluation and comparison: 1. 2.



Insistence upon a clear definition of the purpose of the system. Insistence upon the formulation of performance expectations stated specifically enough to construct criteria to measure the degree to which expected performance has been attained. 3. Examination of the characteristics of the input. 4. Consideration of alternatives and identification of what has to be done and how, by whom or by what, when and where, so as to ensure that the predetermined performance will be attained. 5. Implementation of the system and testing of its output to measure the degree to which performance expectations are being met and assess the efficiency of systems operations. 6. Identification and implementation of any adjustments needed in order to ensure attainment of the purpose and optimize system output and system economy. SYSTEMS PARADIGMS An instructional system consists of several interacting components and sub components which are combined and presented to bring about a specified change in the behavior of a learner. The advantage of using a diagram to represent a system is that it visualizes the whole system and generates the relationship of parts for the total operation of the design.



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SYSTEMS THEORY 23



The ID Paradigm of Interactive Teaching The ID paradigm of interactive teaching is a paradigm which evolved as a result of the designer’s work with classroom teachers. Thiagarajan developed the paradigm after realizing that teachers do not have time under the present kinds of school organization to utilize many sophisticated instructional design principles. Although this paradigm is something of a compromise, it does retain some principles of instructional design and its primary use is with face-to-face interactive teaching. Important advantages of this paradigm are that it allows the user to apply instructional design techniques to a traditional classroom and that it can be used with lecture, group interaction, and with instructional media. The author and some of his students have tested the paradigm and all agree that it works. Figure 2.1 is a diagrammatic representation of the system. The most noteworthy aspect of Thiagarajan’s paradigm is that learner analysis is the first step in the system. Where and if learner analysis should be included in a system varies among the many designs and theories of learning systems. Some systems start with specification of objectives and may or may not include learner analysis. Another characteristic of this paradigm is that the system does not provide for a statement of goals. The tenth step, lesson plan revision, refers to step five. Thiagaranjan’s paradigm does not allow for criterion checks and on-going evaluation (sometimes referred to as formative evaluation). Gerlach and Ely’s Systematic Approach to Instruction The Gerlach and Ely paradigm is based upon the assumption that the defining and the planning are absolutely essential to good teaching. In their book, Teaching and Media, A Systematic Approach to Learning, Gerlach and Ely present the paradigm shown here in Figure 2.2 along with the very detailed rationale upon which it is based. Not included in the diagram is a statement of goals. This omission is because the authors consider a goal to be a long-range objective and a starting point. The paradigm concentrates on objectives, which encompass a shorter time. For example, “To converse in French” is a goal, whereas “To exchange greetings in French with the teacher at the end of the class period” is an objective. The designers present a very detailed and comprehensive discussion of the paradigm in their book. The following is a brief summary of the steps. 1. 2.



Specification of objectives. The teacher specifies behaviors in terms of what the learners should be able to do at specified points along the instructional continuum. Specification of content.



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3. Assessment of entry behaviors. 4. Determination of strategy and techniques. 5. Organization of groups. The objectives determine group size. Which objectives can be reached by the learner on his own? Which objectives can be achieved through interaction among the learners? Which objectives can be achieved through formal presentation by the teacher and through interaction between the learner and the teacher? 6. Allocation of time. The use of time varies according to subject matter, defined objectives, and other variables.



Figure 2.1.



The ID Model of Interactive Teaching



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SYSTEMS THEORY 25



Figure 2.2.



Ther Gerlach and Ely paradigm



7. 8. 9.



Allocation of space. Selection of appropriate instructional materials. Evaluation of performance. Performance is the act of teaching and the act of learning. During the performance the stimuli are presented and responses are made. Has the terminal behavior been manifested at the level specified under the conditions stated? 10. Analysis of feedback. This implies an evaluation of the product (terminal behavior) in direct relation to the original objective. The Gerlach and Ely paradigm is appropriate to study as an introduction to instructional systems, not because it is simple, but because it is clearly defined and easy to understand. Versatility is a quality of the design and, although the paradigm is simple, it can be applied to complex learning situations with almost any subject matter. A statement of objectives comes early, and three things not usually mentioned in an instructional system are included: • group organization, • allocation of time, and



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• allocation of space. Although there is no box for goals, the authors emphasize that a system must start with an educational goal. Perceived weaknesses of the paradigm include a lack of formative evaluation, the fact that the implementation of the paradigm is from the teacher’s perspective rather than the learner’s perspective, and the allusion to materials rather than media. Banathy’s Design of Instructional Systems The key to designing an instructional system, according to Banathy, is a clear understanding of the system’s purpose. Knowing what a system is and how it works are not enough. One must ask, What is it for? The answer requires a detailed, definitive statement of purpose because only if one knows the purpose can what has to be done, by what, or by whom, be specified. Banathy states: . . . the key criterion by which the effectiveness or adequacy of the performance of a system can be evaluated is how closely the output of the system satisfies the purpose for which it exists.



The diagram shown in Figure 2.3 represents Banathy’s paradigm, which is described in detail in his book, Instructional Systems. The following steps are a description of the structure in the figure: 1. 2. 3. 4.



5. 6.



Formulate objectives. The first step is to write a statement that expresses what the learners are to do, know, and feel as a result of this learning experience. Develop a criterion test. Base the test on the objectives and use it to determine whether or not they were attained. Analyze the learning task. Find out what the learners must learn in order to accomplish the objectives. Assess the entry behaviors so that the students will not have to learn what they already know. Design the system. Identify what has to be done to ensure that the learners will master the tasks (functions analysis). Determine who or what has the best potential to accomplish these functions (component analysis) and decide when and where the functions are to be carried out. Implement and test output. Test the system. The performance of the learners is to be evaluated to see if they behave as described in the objectives. Change to improve. The findings of the evaluation help determine whether or not any changes need to be made in the system.



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SYSTEMS THEORY 27



Figure 2.3.



Banathy’s Design of Instructional Systems



The notable characteristic of this system is its insistence on a clearly stated purpose as part of the first step along with the formulation of objectives. This system does not provide a specific reference to learner analysis; however, it does include entry behavior as one of the components.



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The General Paradigm of Instruction The General Paradigm of Instruction (GPI) is a procedural guide for designing and conducting instruction. As with the other paradigms in this chapter, the GPI can be applied to all educational levels, all subject matter, and any length of instruction (one hour, one week, or one semester). The paradigm is based on developmental work in experimental psychology, military training, and programmed instruction. Robert Gagne, Robert Glaser, and James Popham contributed to the design of the paradigm. Based on the use of specified objectives, the GPI serves as a guide through the major steps in designing and carrying out instruction and it provides an overall structure with which to view and study the educational process. The flow diagram of the paradigm is shown in Figure 2.4. Each step is explained briefly by the following: 1.



Instructional objectives. This is the most important step of the entire paradigm and includes selection, classification, analysis, and specification of instructional objectives. These objectives are more detailed than behavioral objectives.



Figure 2.4.



The General Paradigm of Instruction



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SYSTEMS THEORY 29



2.



3.



4.



Preassessment. Assess the students to determine what they already know, if they have the necessary behavioral capabilities for the instruction to follow, and, the instructional activities that should be prescribed for each student. Instructional procedures. The instruction is implemented. The instructional design procedures involve selection of available instructional media, preparing new instructional media when necessary, and, developing a sequential plan which appears to be the most efficient for achieving the stated objectives. Evaluation. Evaluate the students to determine whether the instruction was successful in achieving the objectives. Make sure the evaluation instrument measures the identical behavior specified in the objectives.



The significance of the GPI is that, while consisting of a very simple diagram, it provides a thorough paradigm by which instruction may be designed, implemented, and evaluated. Another important consideration is the use of behavioral objectives as prerequisites for planning and evaluating instruction. Also, in the GPI, instructional objectives are detailed and are used for planning instruction. This detail contrasts with the meaning of instructional objectives as used in the paradigm in Figure 2.4. In that paradigm, the instructional objectives are much more general. Searle’s System of Instruction Searle’s system consists of three main interrelated parts: the search image, the instructor, and the learner. • The search image is the immediate learning task in the system. Generally small, well-ordered, and learnable, it can be cognitive, affective, or psychomotor. • The instructor is the person responsible for the system, and for guiding and shaping the process until something in the way of a learning of the search image has taken place. • The learner is the mind at which instruction is aimed. In this paradigm, the teacher is the decision-maker and has certain choices and alternatives for plans of action. This system provides an orderly procedure for making these decisions in an organized, rational way. Included in the paradigm is the domain which refers to the educational objectives as classified by Bloom. The type of search image refers to the means of verification of the knowledge. Many other elements included in the system are shown in Figure 2.5.



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Figure 2.5.



Searle’s System of Instruction



A PROPOSED PARADIGM FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN The preceding reviews of systems paradigms show that there can be many variations among the designs. These summaries dealt briefly with the elements of instructional design systems and pointed out how various components are used in some systems and applied differently or not at all in others. These summaries suggest that the systematic approach to applying educational media and technology is versatile and may be adapted to many types of instructional problems. An instructional system can be designed by anyone to fit particular needs. Figure 2.6 is a proposed paradigm for this text. The paradigm is a synthesis. The following is a summary of each component of the system: 1.



Educational goals. An essential aspect of instructional systems design is knowing what the purpose of the instruction is. This should be made clear by stating the purpose in the form of an edu-



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SYSTEMS THEORY 31



Figure 2.6.



2.



3.



4.



5.



Instructional Design Paradigm



cational goal consisting of a broad, general statement of instructional intent. The goal is based upon an analysis of the learner, the subject content, and contemporary society, all filtered through a philosophy and a psychology of teaching and learning. Such words as appreciate, understand, value, realize the worth of, etc., may be used in this statement. Operational objectives. Define the form of behavior that the instruction is to produce stated in terms of what the learner is to do, under what conditions, and to what standard of achievement. Also, determine whether the objectives are cognitive, affective, or psychomotor. Criterion checks will be developed at this point. Pretest. A pretest can determine whether the learner has the entry behaviors necessary to be successful in an effort to achieve the goal/ objective. Also, the pretest can assess whether the learner already possesses the terminal behavior prescribed in the objective. Motivation. Inductive, deductive, intrinsic, and exhortative strategies boost the learner’s efforts and are part of the learning event design. Media. Media are selected and procured if they are commercially available. Their use must be consistent with the operational objectives. If media are not commercially available, they must be designed, produced, and validated.



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6.



7.



Appropriate practice. Most learning events require specific pre-requisite tasks leading to the achievement of objectives (and to analogous and equivalent practices). These are differentiated from entry behaviors in that they do not have to be present prior to instruction. Prerequisite tasks can be taught as part of the design. Other practices include analogous practices and equivalent practices. Media and appropriate practices complement each other in that itegration of media with appropriate practices results when the design is applied. Validation. Criterion checks are administered throughout the process to assess the attainment of the objectives. Remember that the success of the instruction is being evaluated, not the student. If the results do not denote success of the instruction, then revise the appropriate part of the system.



The rest of this book will be devoted to the elements of this paradigm of instructional design. Use of this paradigm will make you an expert in the sophisticated application of an instructional design that will yield predictable, accountable, effective, and efficient learning that is devoid of undesirable side-effects.



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Chapter 3



WRITING GOALS



As previously discussed, all teachers, by implication, are instructional technologists; thus, by obligation, all teachers are instructional designers. Yet they vary in their ability to design instruction, in their willingness to do so, and in their knowledge and ability about how to implement an instructional design once it has been planned. Sadly, many teachers do not possess the concept of instructional design; therefore, successes in the area of instruction and learning are likely to be at random and by chance This phenomenon does not negatively reflect upon the intent or the wishes of the teacher. The simple desire, or “want to,” or even “will try to,” no more makes one an instructional designer than a “want to” makes one a physician. Teachers often believe themselves to be good teachers because they like children. Affection for children and the desire to teach are good attributes for a teacher, but they are not enough, just as liking people and wanting to help them obtain good health does not make one a physician. Many teachers have an intuitive sense of what good teaching is. They are often creative in selecting topics and resources, and skillful in developing topics with learners. The idea that good teaching comes primarily through intuition is very popular among teachers and may be among the public. To suggest that one can learn to teach is, to many, ignoble. For continued success and for refinement of instructional programs, it is imperative that teachers (instructional designers) use a systematic process. 33



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A critical task in the process of instructional design is to write goals that meet the needs and interests of learners. Writing goals should not be taken lightly or left to intuition; they should be incorporated only after a rigorous application of procedures consistent with general systems theory. In general systems theory, a group of elements (goals, objectives, resources, etc.) are treated as a unit and the system of elements as a whole has properties not possessed by the individual elements. Since changes in one or more of the elements affect other elements and the whole, all elements are equally important. A poorly stated or conceptualized goal negatively affects all the other elements of the system, whereas a well-stated goal enhances the probability of effectiveness and efficiency of the process (see Chapter One). To the novice instructional designer, application of a closed-system strategy is perhaps easiest. However, much of the criticism leveled at the process of instructional design was directed (and rightfully so) at designers who relegated themselves to the closed-system strategy, because they did not have the skills to work effectively with other strategies or because they lacked the inclination to do so. With experience, the designer can better apply an open-system model to the design of instruction, and better still, a synthesis of the two models into an emerging-systems model. Closed-System Strategy In a closed-system strategy, elimination of uncertainty is the desired condition. A rational model is designed in which resources, both human and non-human, are considered to be automatically available. A master plan is assumed, and outside forces are predictable (through analysis) and controllable. Emphasis is upon advance planning to control the variables that affect implementation of the design While such an attitude is commendable, in practice a closed system is very difficult to implement. Identification of all the variables that affect implementation is unlikely. The effect of feedback is minimized, and the process becomes static. It is ironic that while instructional designers seek to avoid the unknown in their efforts at designing instruction, they encounter the unknown. The process does not produce the data that can relieve the unknown and generate certainty. As a result, most instructional designers in a closed-system philosophy appear to be ineffective and inefficient. They appear to lack ability to take feedback from criterion checks in order to modify the ongoing process. Open-System Strategy In contrast with the closed-system model, the open system, an indeterminate model, is seen as a unit in interaction with its environment which is evolving and unpredictable. According to Thompson,



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WRITING GOALS 35 Approached as a natural system, the complex organization is a set ofinterdependent parts which together make up a whole because each contributes something and receives something from the whole, which inturn is interdependent with some larger environment.



Instructional designers who embrace open-system strategy focus on variables not subject to complete control by the organization and hence not contained within a closed system of logic. Emerging-Systems Strategy The synthesis of the two systems results in an emerging-systems model. Complex tasks, such as instructional design and in particular goal writing, are faced with uncertainty from within and without, but at the same time these processes are subject to rationality, and hence need certainty. Feedback, in the form of criterion checks, provides the data necessary to work within the synthesis and will be discussed in a later chapter. The emerging-systems concept embraces tenets from the two previously discussed concepts and is the epitome of humanism in education. The emerging-systems concept is emphasized in this text as the superior system. Characteristics of Goals Goals, like the whole process of instructional technology, are operational on several levels. One can isolate goal statements subscribed to by state departments of education (or state educational agencies) and by school districts in their curriculum statements. Schools within districts will ordinarily have developed formal goal statements. The emphasis in this book, which subscribes to the tenet that all teachers ought to be competent instructional technologists, is pragmatic and applicable to the specific classroom or even the specific learner. Goals written on the district/state level are probably too broad to be useful to the specific classroom effort. This is not to imply that goals written by the instructional designer are to be substituted for the district or state goals (we do not generally have that privilege); rather, the district/state goals need to be modified to suit classroom needs. These goals can be considered (if necessary) in addition to the goals mandated by authority, or at least can be complementary to them. The goals of the district/state are more likely to be achieved when they are modified to serve the needs of learners at the local level. Goals are frequently unclear, but complications are the fault of the goal designer. Goals need not be complex or abstract. For genuine, realistic learning, goals should be written as overtly and concretely as possible. As seen in the systems discussion, their formulation and application are criti-



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cal to the instructional process. A goal ought to state the exact aim, purpose, or end to any course of action. The statement is a point of departure from which the more specific and complete operational objectives are developed. Goals should be written in terms of learner behavior, not teacher behavior. From the learner’s perspective, a goal is a consequence he or she expects to attain. Since goals direct an effort, the teacher’s role is to write a goal and to arrange a motivational strategy that will encourage the learner to learn. The strategy is to provide a rationale from the point of view of the learner. Goals can be described in the broadest of terms. Such terms as “to know,” “to understand,” “to appreciate,” “to grasp the significance of” are acceptable. Even though the use of broad terms is acceptable, the use of operant terms expedites the effect of the goal statement. Goals, however, are reached through the achievement of objectives. Unlike goals, objectives must be written operationally; that is, in performance terms. They must specify the intended or terminal behavior, the conditions within which the behavior will be manifested, and the standard or minimally acceptable level at which the learner will exhibit the terminal behavior. Chapter 5 is devoted to the process of writing operational objectives. Unlike goals, objectives must, to be consistent, lead to the achievement of a clearly defined goal. When the goal has been achieved, the learner will have closure; also, the achievement of the goal should logically lead to the next goal. Overview In the recent past we have experienced an incredible explosion of human knowledge. Advances in technology, science, and communications have generated an explosion that is progressing geometrically. The effects of the explosion are far-reaching, affecting professionals, students, and lay persons. Reported research in journals is sometimes out of date before the journal reaches the bookshelf; today’s facts become tomorrow’s misinformation. Learners on all levels are bombarded with more and more knowledge which they must synthesize. No one, whether practicing professional or a student at any level, can learn all there is to learn, nor should anyone be expected to do so. As a profession, educators have several options to react to the dilemmas brought about by the knowledge explosion: they can stop changing curricula; in fact, they can regress, as many seemingly want them do (an example might be to “go rural” in lifestyle in a remote Alaskan cabin, stop researching and applying innovative teaching strategies, and, in short, stop all



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attempts at incorporating everything they now know about teaching and learning and halt continuing research). They can become selective in what they do, or they can conduct the business of education as usual. An instructional designer has the option of doing nothing (business as usual), of overreacting by changing curricula for the sake of change, or of being very deliberate in tailoring instruction to the unique needs and interests of learners who have been impacted by the rapid changes in society. The last option is in concert with the philosophical essence of the futurist emerging-systems philosophy of this book. In short, increasingly difficult decisions must be made concerning what is to be taught, to whom, and to what degree, how, and (perhaps most important), why? THE LEARNER AS SOURCE In Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Ralph W. Tyler provides a model for making decisions about goals. His book was recently selected by a professional group as the single most significant writing to have influenced the curriculum during the period from 1906 to 1981. This selection was made under the direction of an educational society, Phi Delta Kappa, in conjunction with its Diamond Jubilee celebration. The rationale put forth in Dr. Tyler’s book involves identifying four fundamental questions of enduring importance: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? In answering these four questions Tyler used a blend of logic and common sense. As shown in Figure 3.1, he suggests that we consider, as sources of goals, the learners themselves, society, and subject specialists. At this stage of development, a goal developed within the direction provided by these sources should be considered as a preliminary goal statement; the goal should then be screened through a philosophy and a psychology of teaching and learning, after which it can be considered a formal goal statement. The intent of this book, and especially of this chapter on goal writing, is to provide a logical, pragmatic process of instructional design for the purpose of providing predictable and validatable learning, while attempting to avoid the esoteric and pedantic elements so ubiquitous in texts on instructional design. The Learner as Source Without data from learner analysis, appropriate design occurs only by chance. The better and more comprehensive our analyses become, the



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Figure 3.1.



The Tyler Model for Setting Goals



better our goals and the design of learning experiences are going to be. Human variability and individual differences are facts of life. By giving constructive efforts to analysis for a battery of learner characteristics, the instructional designer can improve the process predictably and observably. Learner analyses are important because most learning requires a specific entry behavior. For example, before learners can be expected to solve problems in long division, they should first be able to solve problems in multiplication. If a given learner does not possess appropriate entry behaviors, a decision ought to be made to remediate the learner or to change the goal/objective. Learner analyses should indicate whether a learner possesses or lacks the behavior solicited in the learning event. This is usually accomplished by a means of a pretest. Obviously, if the learner already possesses the behavior, another goal/objective should be chosen. Achievement levels vary enormously among learners of given ages. Add these levels to the differences within each individual from subject to subject and human characteristic to human characteristic, and instructional designers find themselves confronted with patterns as ordered as disar-



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ranged jig-saw puzzles. Yet these stubborn facts must be taken into account in writing goals. Like medication, instruction can be given when none is needed. It is also possible to prescribe ineffective modes of instruction when other modes of instruction would be more pertinent. Goals that are inappropriate to the needs and nature of the learner are wasteful, erosive, confusion-generative, and generally unproductive. They may even militate against beneficial learning when the opportunity for such learning, at last, arises. Therefore, it is as appropriate to conduct an analysis before designing instruction as it is for a physician to make a diagnosis before describing a cure. Two characteristics of learners should be analyzed: their needs, and their interests. Analyses of a learner need only suggest goals when the information about the learner is compared to some acceptable standard. The difference between the learner’s present condition and the desired condition ought to be discernible. Many interpretations of needs exist, ranging from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to Prescott’s classifications of needs. However, for the purposes of writing educational goals, specific learner needs must be considered in addition to the types of needs outlined by Maslow and Prescott. In order to establish specific needs in specific areas, the learner must be compared to an acceptable standard. Standards can be established by either of two methods: criterion-references and normative-references (see Chapter One). Criterion-Referenced Method Using a criterion-referenced method, a decision about an acceptable standard of achievement in each area of analysis is made, based upon the characteristics of the subject (content) as perceived by the subject specialists and the perceptions of the teacher, learner, parents, and community. Goals are written which conform to these analyses. The instructional designer can write a goal which leads to raising the reading-comprehension levels of learners because the community wants learners to be able to read at a given level. Or, a decision might be made that first-year keyboarding students should be able to type 45 words per minute with no more than three mistakes in a timed exercise. This decision is made regardless of how well “average” first-year keyboarding students can type at the end of the year. Normative-Referenced Method Using the normative-reference method, each learner is compared to other learners. These comparisons can be made of local learners with others from local, state, or national databases. For example, learners in a



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fifth-grade math class can be compared to fifth-grade math students across the nation using national norms, or to regional or state groups with the same intent, or to any other single group anywhere with the comparable effect. The result is that one learner is compared to other learners to evaluate performance in relation to the “average.” If a difference exists, it is discernible and a judgment can be made about establishing goals in that specific area. For example, when compared with other learners across the nation, the learners in a given school may be below average in reading comprehension. A goal might be written that, when achieved, leads to raising the reading comprehension of the learners in that school to a desired level (e.g., the national average). Progressive education philosophy favors comparing learners to a stated criterion rather than to a norm. Many feel that norm references lead to mediocrity in educational programs by creating a sense of false security and by emphasizing the curricular status quo. In 1957 Sputnik brought about curricular changes because American educators were impelled to revitalize the curriculum. They recognized the need for content changes as well as new instructional practices. The recognition was not brought about by comparing groups of learners, but by comparing our condition with the need intensified by demands from a new scientific order. Learners’ interests must also be taken into account when writing goals. If learners see no value or utility in learning a particular cognition, skill, or attitude, they are less likely to do so. Unless they see what they can do with what they learn, and accept the logic and rationale for doing so, they are likely to forget almost all they have learned as soon as they are no longer obligated to recall and use it. There are several techniques for gathering information about learners. They range in sophistication from informal teacher observations to computer analyses. Of the less formal techniques, the better sources include achievement and other normative-referenced tests and data. Such information is compiled through school district self-study for accreditation teams, and the instructional designer has only to request it from the appropriate school official. Observations by the instructional designer, oral or written interviews, school health records, and past academic performances also provide data. Comprehensive techniques of learner analysis provide data about which the analyzer might have more confidence than data from the less rigorous techniques of observation and interview. Cognitive mapping is a technique developed by Joseph E. Hill of Oakland Community College in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. The cognitive mapping technique accepts Mager’s premise that no two students seek meaning in exactly the same manner. Hill believed that 90 percent of the learners who are physiologically and psychologically sound can learn 90 percent of the material 90 percent of the time if the teaching methods and media are adjusted to their educational cognitive style. He was not alone.



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Individuals’ cognitive styles are determined by the way they take note of their total surroundings: how they seek meaning, how they become informed. The cognitive map answers the questions: Is this person a reader or a listener? Is this person concerned only with his or her own viewpoint or influenced in decision-making by family or associates? Does this person reason as a mathematician, or as a social scientist, or as an automotive mechanic? Results from a battery of tests and inventories are processed through a computer to produce a map of cognitive traits that describes the many ways each learner seeks meaning, and the information can be used to build a personalized program of instruction. A second comprehensive technique of learner analysis is now presented. When first studying this technique, many feel that it is too expensive and too time-consuming to implement. However, an argument can be made that failure to make the analysis is potentially more damaging to the educational effort. Also, analyses of these mental processes are consistent with current cognitive psychology research, and the analysis can provide a pragmatic solution to the problem of learner analysis. Superstructure of Learner Analysis To facilitate the development of appropriate goals, the following determinations about the learner should be made. Sensory-Motor 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.



The ability to hear clearly (auditory). The ability to see clearly all significant details (visual). The ability to receive and interpret appropriate aromas (olfactory). The ability to receive and interpret appropriate tastes (savory). The ability to feel and interpret appropriate tactile stimuli (tactile). The ability to detect and interpret for appropriate applications, degree of bone-joint angulations, change angulations, muscle stretches, and tendon tensions (proprioceptive). 7. The ability to perform and develop a relevant set of motor skills (kinesthetic). Symbol Manipulation 8. The ability to read with optimal speed and comprehension at pertinent levels (reading). 9. The ability to write efficiently and expressively at pertinent levels about pertinent matters (writing).



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10. The ability to use learning techniques with efficiency and effectiveness (cognitive learning skills). 11. The ability to compute relevant problems involving quantities which can be symbolized numerically (computation). Spatial Relationships 12. The ability to construct a diagram displaying the relationship of components making up three-dimensional whole objects (diagrammatic planning). 13. The ability to interpret diagrams which represent three- dimensional whole objects made up of components (diagrammatic interpretation). 14. The ability to predict the structural form(s) of three-dimensional whole objects, made up of components, on any of its aspects which are normally invisible in a two-dimensional view (structure analysis). Oral Communication Skills 15. The ability to speak efficiently and expressively at pertinent levels about pertinent matters (speaking). 16. The ability to listen skillfully (listening). Personal Identity 17. The ability to interpret one’s relationships to environment and to revise and refine either, or both, optimally (synnoetics). 18. The identification and interpretation of the influencing ethnic concepts and interactive behavior of others, as they relate to one’s own (ethnic). Cultural Determinants 19. The identification and interpretation of organization and practices of others, as they relate (family). 20. The identification and interpretation of the religious concepts and practices of others, as they relate (religion). 21. The identification and interpretation of the influencing peers of others, and the relationships of those peer members to one’s own peer group (peer influences).



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22. The identification and interpretation of functional patterns of mores, as they influence the behavior of others, and as they relate to one’s own (mores). 23. The identification and interpretation of agencies which influence the learner (social agency influences). 24. The identification and interpretation of the influencing political concepts and practices of others, as they relate to one’s own (politics). Interactional-Transactional Patterns 25. The ability to receive, interpret, and use non-verbal language intended to create effects (kinesics). 26. The ability to judge and respect, perhaps tactfully penetrate, the critical physical and social distance fields of others, and to extend one’s personal field to optimal limits (proxemics). 27. The ability to maintain an interaction of influence with a variety of others (transactionals). Affective 28. The ability to receive, interpret, and commit to a describable set of values, or moral principles, obligations, duties (ethics). 29. The ability to receive, interpret, and identify with feelings, ideas, emotions, and purposes of others (empathic). 30. The ability to receive and interpret situations, products, and ideas in terms of the beauty or pureness of their character (esthetic). 31. The ability to observe, interpret, or perform a staged behavior, or a deliberate exhibition of emotion or temperament, apparently intended to have a deliberate effect on others (histrionics). These components can be combined in a superstructure of learner analysis. As shown in Figure 3.2, the superstructure is composed of eight components of analysis. Each of the components consists of elements relevant to that specific component. When all of the components and elements are treated individually and then combined on the superstructure, the result is a profile which provides a comprehensive picture of the learner. Use of the profile makes it possible to place the learner on a continuum as possessing a cognition, skill, and/or attitude to a degree that is less than standard, standard, or greater than standard. The instructional designer uses normative-reference or criterion-reference to establish the standard. The critical point is that realistic, defensible goals must be based upon a standard



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Figure 3.2.



Learner Analysis



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before they are written. They are designed, not left to the whim of the designer. Sensory-Motor Component Normally, learners utilize the five basic senses in the process of learning. Instructional design does not take into account the specific ability of a learner to use any of these senses when the physiological senses of the learner have not been measured. For example, a learner may hear to a degree that is less than standard, standard, or better than standard. If the goal does not allow the learner to function optimally within the limits of his hearing ability, then effective and efficient learning is less likely to take place. Symbol Manipulation Component Goal achievement incorporates the process of symbol manipulation through reading, writing, cognitive learning skills, and computation. For example, learning skills include note-taking, test-taking, problem-solving, group participation, and library skills and strategies. Goals not based upon the degree of skill held by the learner will make any learning that takes place accidental, rather than by design, in nature. Spatial Relationships For the learner to convey, and sometimes receive, meanings from symbols, it is sometimes necessary to interpret diagrams; and appropriate goals need to take into account that learners vary in their skills in interpreting diagrams. The degree to which the learner possesses skills in spatial relationships should affect the design of the goal. Oral Communication Skills The process of education directly involves the process of communication, and the process of communication directly involves the acts of speaking and listening. Speaking is a process of sign reception (aural), and both convey a common meaning between and among interactors. Yet learners vary in their ability to speak and listen. Goals designed irrespective of the nature of the learner’s speaking and listening ability are ineffective. Personal Identity Component Most social scientists agree that a learner’s environment has as great an effect upon the development of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective aspects as does heredity. All learners differ in their ability to interpret their relationship to their environment, adapt to this relationship, or refine either (or both) optimally. Goals should take into account the degree to



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which the learner interprets, adapts, or refines his or her relationship to the environment. Cultural Determinants Family, religion, peers, mores, social agencies, and politics are cultural determinants which influence the learner. For example, folkways have their origin in the instinctual drives of humankind. Persons begin with acts, not thoughts. Every moment brings necessities that must be satisfied at once. Need is the first experience. Analogy makes it easy to assume that the ways of our ancestors have produced channels of habit and predisposition along which psychophysical creativities could easily run. All of us adopt the same way for the same purpose based upon others’ experiences; then the ways turn into customs and become mass phenomena. The young learn customs by tradition, imitation, and authority. Folkways are uniform, universal in the group, imperative, and invariable. As time passes, the folkways become more and more arbitrary, positive, and imperative. Folkways become coercive. All are persuaded by reinforcement or are forced to conform, and the folkways dominate societal life. Then they seem true and right, and rise into mores as the norm of welfare. As a result, faiths, ideas, doctrines, religions, and philosophies arise. Goals not taking this phenomenon into account are sheer audacity. Interactional-Transactional Patterns As previously demonstrated, the learning process is enhanced by the ability to communicate. In addition to the aforementioned skills, the ability to communicate by means of nonlinguistic functions and motions of the body, such as shrugs and gesticulations, is an integral component. Also, all learners project physical and social distances between themselves and others in the act of communicating. Learners vary in their abilities to communicate and to project physical and social distances, just as they vary in their ability to maintain a positive communicative interaction which significantly influences the goals of others involved in that interaction. This ability is especially salient when prescribing the modality of instruction for any learner. For example, a learner with greater than standard ability in transactionals likely would find modes of instruction that involve leadership as a primary task, or opportunity, to be particularly relevant. Affective To varying degrees learners are committed to a set of values, a group of principles, obligations, and/or duties. Learners often identify with another person’s feelings, ideas, or volitions, either actually or vicariously. This empathy has implications for establishing goals. Learners vary in their ability to receive and interpret situations, products, and ideas in terms of the



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beauty or purity of their character, as well as variance in ethics and empathy. But a learner may find beauty or pureness in a task performed well, in an idea, or in a form of government. Opportunity to operate optimally within this affect enhances learning. There is no single formula for writing goals from the data gathered about learners. Studying the implications, comparing the data with standards, using the subject content and community as sources, and filtering these impressions through a philosophy/psychology screen will suggest goals. In an emerging-systems model, feedback from criterion checks will enable the instructional designer to modify any part of the process. THE SUBJECT SPECIALIST AS SOURCE In order to incorporate realistically the input about goals provided by subject specialists, one first must answer the question of whether the subject content is to be used in specialized education or in general education. General education includes the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that all learners need to possess in order to live successfully in a free society, grow mentally, ethically, and aesthetically, and develop in all other desirable ways. Historically, when asked to recommend goals and objectives, subject specialists have tended to specify goals that are too technical, too specialized, or generally too inappropriate for large groups of learners. For example, historians have tended to specify goals best suited for learners training to be historians, and as a result many learners did not succeed; they either dropped out or were promoted without experiencing success. Obviously, for learners who are in specific subject areas, the subject specialists are obligated to reflect, within the goals, the rigor and specificity required to give the learner the expertise demanded. A second concern about using the subject specialist as sole source is that specialists tend to be essentialists rather than progressivists. In other words, they tend to place primary, or sole, emphasis upon the body of knowledge collected over the centuries as the source for deriving goals, and for preparing the learner “for the future.” Progressivists, on the other hand, depend primarily upon studying the learner’s needs and interests. They consider the factors that influence this learning for primary emphasis, and, like Dewey, believe that education has no end beyond itself. It is its own end; it is a process of living, not just of preparing for a living. But one must not discount the input from subject specialists; this input is critical in relation to the process. One can obtain input from a variety of subject specialist sources, but perhaps the best sources are national professional organizations like the National Council of the Teachers of English, the National Council for Social Studies, and the National Council of Teachers of Math. Selected current titles of books, pamphlets, monographs, brochures, yearbooks, and journals from the National Council of



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Teachers of English include Conducting Experiences in English (based upon the contributions of 274 teachers of English), Current English Usage, Language Arts for Today’s Children, English, Education, and the Electronics Revolution, Facts About Current English Usage, From Thoughts to Words, The Sentence and the Paragraph, The Teaching of Writing in Our Schools, Accountability and the Teachers of English, On Writing Behavioral Objectives for English, and Deciding the Future (a forecast of responsibilities of secondary school teachers of English, 1970–2000). Similar titles exist in the social studies area, the math area, and most other academic disciplines. Ongoing leadership for the instructional designer comes from American Society for Curriculum Development (ASCD) through such reports as Improving the Human Condition: A Curriculum Response to a Critical Reality and Considered Actions for Curriculum Improvement, and from the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) through its Journal for Instructional Development. Because they embrace a progressive philosophy and look to national professional organizations for leadership, subject specialists are an integral part of the process of writing goals. Their input is no less, but no more, valuable than any other source. SOCIETY AS SOURCE No single source in the Tyler Model exists to the exclusion of the other sources. The elements that have been discussed in detail above in the sections “The Learner as Source and “The Subject Specialist as Source” can also be considered as societal sources, and perhaps some of them deserve major consideration within this context. Until recently, the educational goals of schooling were quite limited. Schools had to teach a few fundamentals in order for students to learn the laws of the land and the principles of religion. Societies tended to stagnate, as evidenced by the attitude of the era toward the past, the present, and the future. As with the classic “Saber Tooth Curriculum,” leaders felt that the most sensible education for a child was to gain the skills of the past. There was a failure to recognize the need for goals oriented to the present and the future. The past would become the future; it was a simple and, for later times, a primitive outlook. The coming of the industrial revolution and the mechanical age brought a change in the demands placed upon the curriculum. Society demanded that schools precondition learners to live in a world based upon the industrial model. To precondition the learners, the schools themselves took on the mantle of the industrial age. The administrative hierarchy, the organization of knowledge into permanent disciplines, the concept of an assemblage of raw materials (students), and processing in the schools (factory) by workers (teachers) illustrate the phenomenon. Society demanded



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a worker whose life was no longer regulated by the sun, the moon, or the seasons, but by the factory whistle and the clock. To precondition people for this environment, schools required learners to practice collective discipline, marching to and from classes, sitting in assigned seats (work stations), and not carrying on conversations (so as not to interfere with production), and they regulated learning by the bell (factory whistle). Today, we are moving past industrialism into an age of superindustrialism, an age in which standardization and centralization, specialization, synchronization, maximization, and concentration no longer touch every aspect of life. The mass media are becoming “demassified” as more alternatives to network television (cable and satellite television, videotapes, videodisks, and video games) become available. Nuclear families are being replaced as the model, while “electronic expanded families” and many other types are being accepted as the norm. Renewable energy sources are sought; the home (each with its own microcomputer) is becoming the center of society for both work and leisure, as opposed to the factories and offices. Mass production is being replaced by custom (sometimes called designer) production, and once again, consumers are their own producers (prosumers). Even such mighty institutions as the corporation and the nation-state are showing signs of deterioration as the new tide rushes in. And massive changes in our technosphere and infosphere will inevitably have tremendous effects upon the sociosphere and psychosphere. According to split-brain theory, Western cultures tend to be left-brain dominated. Neurologists, psychiatrists, and learning theorists have recently discovered a conflict between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. The left hemisphere of the brain is the logical and the connecting lineal hemisphere of the brain, while the right hemisphere is creative and simultaneous (rather than lineal and logical) . Our schools (like our legal system, our government, and our business world) tend to be lineal, connected, nuts-and-bolts bureaucracies made up of hierarchies with organizational charts predominating. All of these are characteristics of left-brain dominance. With this change in orientation, we added major categories to the goals of education. Schools were expected to be the main change-agent in solving problems of poverty, in teaching morals, in taking care of crime and delinquency, and even in providing peace. These responsibilities, coupled with the knowledge explosion, made the task of establishing educational goals a seemingly impossible one. Within the recent past we have experienced an educational revolution as we move from an industrial society dominated by the left hemisphere of the brain to a super-industrial society orientated to the right hemisphere of the brain. The new dominance favors quality of life rather than line and linearity. The old left hemisphere is ordered by the quantity of jobs, the quantity of marks, and the quantity of wealth. The right hemisphere preference is for the quality of life. With the super-industrial age comes a



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demand that we revolutionize the goals of the curriculum. We need to be focused to the future. The goals we establish need not be mindless holdovers from the past. Teachers should challenge the status quo, making every effort to ensure that their goals for learners are focused at least toward the present, and better yet to the future. They must realize that their efforts may meet resistance, and must strive to make sure that folk logic and provincial community pressures interfere as little as possible. Teachers are the professionals; whether learners learn, how they learn, and what they learn is primarily their responsibility. PHILOSOPHICAL SCREEN Once a preliminary goal statement based upon the learner as a source, subject specialists as a source, and society as a source is written, the statement is filtered through a philosophical screen. As with the overall process of goal writing, this step is not to be taken lightly; the screening must be rigorous; the philosophy base must be there. This philosophical base should not be just rhetoric; rather, it should be at the level at which the instructional designer has organized a well-thought-out philosophical system. The design should be characterized by the value complex created by the system. An analogy would be a person who is “born again” in the religious sense; such persons likely can be characterized by their religious beliefs. Many educators spend a great deal of time philosophizing about life in general and about education in particular. In fact, they seem to spend more time philosophizing than they do living or educating. It is easy for instructional designers to become pedantic. In theory, instructional design may be esoteric, yet it should not be so esoteric as to preclude the application of instructional design benefits. Yet, to be effective, instructional design demands harmony, firmness, agreement of parts with one another and with the whole—in short, internal consistency. Many beginning instructional designers have not yet consciously organized a value complex (philosophy), and this omission makes it much more difficult to design a series of validatable learning events leading to the achievement of a goal. Most school districts have a stated philosophy that affects teaching and learning in many ways, but the greatest effect will stem from the individual instructional designer’s philosophy. The implications are clear. Before writing goals and subsequently designing the complete learning event, the designer should first review the official philosophy of the district and/or school. Sometimes local philosophies impose restraints that the designer must recognize. Philosophies will vary from district to district, and from school to school within a given district, but one is likely to find items of commonality, such as subscribing to



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WRITING GOALS 51



the worth and dignity of the individual learner. A second implication is that the instructional designer must have a philosophical base through which to screen the goals and subsequent elements of the learning event design. Ideally, the designer’s philosophy should not be in conflict with the philosophy of the district or the school. If there is disagreement, sometimes it is possible to implement one’s own philosophy without direct conflict, especially if the district/school philosophy is not rigorously applied. The following sections contain elements which can constitute a philosophical screen. It is the philosophical foundation for this book. A PHILOSOPHY The worth and dignity of learners, found to be aspects of most philosophies, most texts on educational psychology, most learning theories, and most statements of school philosophy, make instructional design the only valid process in writing and attaining an intensively subscribed goal. Instructional design is expensive and time-consuming, but failure to design is more expensive, and potentially more damaging to the educational effort. Instructional design can prove to be a tenable route to accountability. Each learner is seen to be unique in that each learns in different ways and at different rates. Each learner has individual wants, needs, interests, capacities, capabilities, preferred learning styles, and is under a unique set of personal influences. Conditions exist within learners as a part of their uniqueness that may preclude learning or cause distortion of message reception and response outputs. As long as learners are psychologically and physiologically sound, they are able to learn. Whether or not they do learn is a function of the general process to which the learner is exposed. The three factors within this process are relevance, motivation, and appropriate design of the learning event. Relevance A learner who sees no value or utility in learning something is less likely to learn on a long-term basis. Unless learners see what they can do with what they learn, and accept the logic and rationale for doing so, they are likely to forget almost all they have learned as soon as they are no longer obligated to its recall and commission. Economy of effort is important in the learning process. There is so much to be learned that choices must be make. Some things need to be deferred or deleted in favor of others; there is a priority of learning events. Economy of effort is also influenced by how learners learn. They learn most efficiently when strategies are designed to suit their needs. No two



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Figure 3.3.



Relevance



learners can be assumed to learn optimally under the same conditions. An analysis of the conditions within which the learner learns most, and within which the learning lasts longest, and is transferred most readily and with versatility, is highly contributive to economy of effort and the generation of long-term learning. These factors are displayed in the model of relevance in Figure 3.3. Motivation Motivation is a condition without which learning is either absent or short-term. Without adequate motivation, learning is likely to be slow and uneconomical. Aspects of motivation which have to be taken into account include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



physiological psychological sociological ego self-fulfillment



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Maslow states that in the absence of satisfaction of certain physiological needs, effective learning does not take place. There are basic physiological drives that have to be satisfied, to varying degrees, in conjunction with the relevance to what and how a learner is to learn, in order to boost motivation. Hunger, thirst, air hunger, fatigue, sex, the need for sleep, degrees of warmth or cold, pain, bowel and bladder tensions are physiological needs, among others, that have to be fulfilled. Included in psychological and social needs are the needs for rewards, the need for comfort by others, the need to investigate, the need to achieve, and the need to be accepted by others. Ego and self-fulfillment needs which have to be met include needs for contact with reality, progressive symbolization, increasing self-direction, a fair balance between success and failure, and attainment of selfhood. Meeting the hierarchy of needs makes one self-actualized. The logical conclusion, then, is to refine a philosophy of education. This philosophy should answer the questions: what should be taught, to whom, to what degree, how, and why? PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING A second screening of the preliminary goal statement occurs at this point. The preliminary goal has been written and is based upon the learner’s needs and interests, the subject specialists and the society as sources; it has been rigorously screened through a philosophy of teaching and learning held by the administrative unit, and perhaps more importantly, through one held by the instructional designer. For whatever reasons—administrative convenience, cost factors, resistance by key concerned publics (school boards, parents, etc.)—it often appears that education, unlike most other professions, is negligent in incorporating all that is known about teaching and learning. In fact, as mentioned earlier in this chapter, many teachers consider it ignoble to learn how to teach, many consider it ignoble to consider any sources of goals other than subject content, and many would not use a systematic process in teaching and learning. There are teachers who are quick to convict this process as being dehumanizing and debilitating to learners, and threatening to their integrity. Many would rather continue to be ineffective and have learning occur by chance, out of context, or in spite of their efforts. To do so is easier, they believe, and folk logic places the failure to learn almost entirely upon the learner, and rarely upon the teacher. Teachers usually defend themselves by saying that the learners should “try harder” or exhibit greater desire or “want to,” as if effort or desire alone were sufficient. It is highly unpopular among almost all concerned publics to place the primary responsibility for learning on anyone but the learner. The systematic process presented in this book is the antithesis of these perceptions.



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Many learning theories exist, some have elements in common, and the theories are applied with more or less rigor, depending upon the abilities and inclinations of the instructional designer. Bruner’s theory of logical structures, Atkinson and Shriff’s theory of human memory, Skinner’s theory of reinforcement, Werner’s vitalistic theory, and Ausubel’s advance organizers theory are but a few of the many learning theories with implications for instructional design in general, and for goal writing in particular. Perhaps the theory most relevant to the desired internal consistency in instructional design taught in this book is Gagne’s conditions of learning theory. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory Gagne described eight varieties of learning: Type 1: Signal Learning This is the classical conditioned response of Pavlov. Since the learner makes a general, diffuse response to a signal, it has been customary to represent this type of learning in the following manner: S-R. The child’s total environment is thought to condition the child to like, or dislike, the school environment. Since likes and dislikes can be acquired through signal learning, and since this learning has such fundamental importance for the future success of the learner, it cannot be ignored. Not all signal learning is obvious. Learners are bombarded by signals from their environment, and most of the signals are probably subconsciously perceived. Nevertheless, their reception conditions the learner to like, or dislike, specific school environments. There is much evidence to indicate that there are marked individual differences in the rapidity with which people acquire signal-response connections. Type 2: Stimulus-Response Learning Thorndike, Skinner, and Kimble set forth theories in regard to stimulus-response learning. According to these theories, the learner acquires a precise response to a precise stimulus. This type of learning involves making very precise movements of the skeletal muscles in response to specific stimuli. It is distinguishable from signal learning in terms of its outcome. It has been customary to represent stimulus-response as S=>R, the arrow representing a discriminating process. Since learners already possess a large repertoire of S=>R when they first enter the learning activity, it is mandatory for teachers to assess the degree to which any learner has acquired specific S=>R skills.



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Type 3: Chaining Skinner and Gilbert, among others, describe the chaining to two or more S⇒R connections. Language is filled with chains of verbal sequences. Motor chains have to be learned at various stages within the learning event; for example, operating a scientific instrument, such as a microscope, requires motor chaining. As with Type 2 learning, a diagnosis of chaining is mandatory for appropriate instructional design. Type 4: Verbal Association Verbal association is the learning of chains that are verbal as compared to motor. These chains are learned as formulas or as expressions in common language. Verbal association is the number of codes, or associations, that are available to the learner. Type 5: Discrimination Learning Since connections tend to interfere with one another’s retention, the learner needs to acquire a set of discriminations to distinguish the properties of a vast number of objects, concepts, and states of being. Type 6: Concept Learning Obviously a pervasive type of learning, concept learning is either concrete or defined. The term refers to the acquisition of classifications of objects, events, or properties. Type 7: Rule Learning A rule is a chain of two or more concepts. A rule functions to control behavior that is rule-governed. Examples include operations in which the learner deals with objects, numbers, words, and abstract concepts. Type 8: Problem-Solving Two or more rules previously acquired are combined to produce a capability that is a higher-order cognition. This higher-order process is referred to as thinking. By applying Gagne’s model of learning, the instructional designer can— 1. 2.



identify the prerequisites necessary for a particular level of learning to occur, decide, before the fact, the level of complexity of learning,



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3. 4.



give attention to each step of getting the particular level of learning that the instructional designer desires as the instructional outcome, and develop some common instructional goals for all learners.



In the final analysis, goals are the heart of the instructional process. While no simple formula exists for writing goals from data about learners, what subject specialists say should be learned, and societal expectations, and while one can rigorously screen preliminary goal statements based upon the aforementioned sources through the screens of philosophy and psychology, these elements are a necessary guide in making judgments about goals. These elements provide a more intelligent basis for applying the decision-making process. Before establishing goals, it is critical to emphasize the importance of studying the learners to find out their needs and interests and what factors influence their learning. LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Select an organization (school, church, business, etc.) for which you are going to design a module of instruction. 2. Select a target audience and a subject area within that organization. 3. Locate, and study, the stated philosophy of the organization. 4. Conduct an analysis of the learners in the target audience; include in your analysis achievement tests, interviews, and other data collected by the organization (as appropriate and available). You may use the cognitive map for “older” learners; also, for better instructional design, utilize (and modify as necessary) the superstructure of learner analysis. Regardless of the type of analysis, profile the learner(s). Use a form of your own design or choosing. 5. List possible goals suggested by the subject specialists as they relate to your chosen module of instruction. 6. List possible goals suggested by the community as they relate to your chosen module of instruction. 7. Write a preliminary goal statement(s). 8. Write your philosophy of teaching and learning. 9. Do some additional research on a learning theory (Gagne’s conditions of learning is suggested). 10. Screen your preliminary goal statement(s) through the philosophy/psychology filters. 11. Write your final goal statement for an instructional design. Like most efforts in the design and development of anything, the preliminary stage often requires more time than the later stages. Usually, the



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Figure 3.4.



Display Format for Instructional Design



quality of a project is determined by how well the planning phase is implemented. You have just completed a major step in the process of learning event design—that of establishing a relevant goal written from the perspective of the learner. As you proceed through the remainder of the process, and as you create a product that will be validated, publishable, and consequently implementable by others, you will find it desirable to organize and display the design in a convenient manner. A suggested format is shown in Figure 3.4 and introduced below. As you progress through the remainder of this learning experience leading to learning event design, the format will be explained and demonstrated in detail. Format Regular 8½-inch by 11-inch paper in a horizontal format is a convenient size. It will be to your advantage to have several copies made from a master which contains the goal statement. By having the goal statement on each learning event display will serve as a constant reminder that goal achievement is the desired end of the process. Once goals have been written, you are ready to proceed to the next step—conducting a task analysis. Once the tasks have been identified, they will be operationalized--that is, they will be rewritten as operational objectives. Once the tasks and objectives have been written, they too will be displayed on the learning event design form. Successful task accomplishment denotes goal achievement.



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Chapter 4



TASK ANALYSIS



Instructional designers using this book in the development of an internally consistent design will find it advantageous to refer frequently to the ID paradigm which serves as a superstructure for development. As the paradigm confirms, at this point the designer has completed a goal statement based upon three sources: the learner, the subject matter specialists, and the society. The goal statement has been filtered through both a philosophy and a psychology of teaching and learning. The next step, task analysis, is presented in this chapter. Many instructional designers proceed in a vacuum, attempting to write objectives without first conducting a task analysis. The first question at this point is, What is task analysis? Many texts and ID instructors use imprecise terminology and concepts in task analysis that promote confusion among experienced instructional designers and tend to befuddle novices. The following example will serve to clarify a definition and concept of task analysis. In 1961 President John F. Kennedy stated a goal of his administration. He said, “Let it be our goal that before this decade is out, we will send a man to the moon and return him safely to the Earth.” With this goal statement and the commitment to carry it out, a systematic process was set in motion that can serve as a model for instructional design. Applying the principles of general systems theory, designers begin by deciding what tasks must be done in order to achieve a certain goal. This process is called task analysis. 59



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Before continuing with the example, the concept of “closeness of fit” needs to be developed. To illustrate this concept, pretend that it is the mid–nineteenth century and you are driving a covered wagon in a wagon train heading west. Along the way, miles from civilization, a wheel comes off your wagon. With primitive tools and the crude resources that you find on the trail, you are able to fashion a wedge to hold the wheel in place until you get a proper replacement part. Now pretend that you are a helicopter pilot, and after landing in a remote area you discover that the blades are not turning properly. The pin required to hold the blades in position needs to be replaced. Not just any pin will do—it has to be of an exact design and size. The tolerance of diameter on the pin is to 1/10,000 of an inch. The closeness of fit of the repair on the helicopter is much finer and more critical than the closeness of fit on the covered wagon. What do these examples have to do with instructional design? The purpose of these illustrations is to show that it is sometimes possible for the instructional designer, like the wagon driver and the helicopter pilot, to apply the incorrect closeness of fit. Sometimes the designer is too crude in identifying tasks, and sometimes the designer is too fine in identifying them. Typically, designers tend to be too fine in the application of the principle. As a result, they often list too many tasks to be completed for goal achievement, and even for those tasks that are appropriate to the goal, they tend to be too detailed. A properly completed task analysis sequences and describes observable, measurable behaviors involved in the performance of tasks that lead to goal achievement. It involves the systematic process of identifying specific tasks and a detailed analysis of each of those tasks in terms of frequency, difficulty, and importance. Now let us return to the Kennedy goal example. In order to send a man to the moon and return him safely to the earth, millions of tasks had to be completed successfully. But these tasks were not undertaken randomly; rather, they were organized into categories of major tasks, and at this level, without a lot of detail. They included such tasks as building a rocket powerful enough to break the earth’s gravity, building communications systems, and solving environmental problems so as to keep the moon travelers alive. Also, it was necessary to demonstrate that a spacecraft could undock, move away from the mother ship, find, and redock with the host craft. Astronauts had to leave the space vehicle, accurately perform tasks in a near vacuum, and return to the vehicle. Computers had to be designed and built, software programs had to be designed and programmed, and astronauts had to be trained. The effort was organized into three main programs: Mercury Gemini, and Apollo. None of the tasks or programs described how, in what order, or to what degree the tasks were to be completed. They simply listed the major steps to be accomplished to achieve the goal. The how, when, and



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how much were specified in the objectives and activities that devolved from the tasks. The following are characteristics of tasks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



A task has a definite beginning and end. A task is performed in a relatively short period of time. A task is observable. By observing the performance, a definite determination can be made that the task has been performed. Each task is independent of other actions. Tasks are not dependent on components of a procedure. A task is performed by an individual for its own sake. A task statement should not be confused with an objective, which has conditions and standards.



Traditional instructional design leans heavily on a behaviorist approach with an emphasis on observable processes. A weakness of this approach is the possibility of absence of any allowance for cognitive processes, such as hypothesis formation, judgments, and problem-solving. One of the outcomes of the traditional approach to instructional design, then, is that the instruction itself cannot develop these abilities, and they are often what differentiate the novice from the expert. Cognitive psychology research offers an effective alternative when we seek to teach people toward expertise. To apply cognitive research places new demands on the instructional designer. No longer is a straightforward account of observed behavior sufficient to analyze a task. The designer must understand the underlying knowledge base and the ways that the experts represent that knowledge internally. This understanding requires a sophisticated task analysis incorporating the domain experts into the design process to extract not only the problem-solving sequence, but the thinking behind it. Transfer of learning through diagnosing a problem is extremely important, yet transferring this ability to others is a great instructional challenge. The most important question that an instructional designer can ask upon completion of a task analysis is, If all these tasks are accomplished, will the goal have been achieved? If the answer is no, then obviously more work needs to be done. The design should have all the tasks required for goal achievement—no more and no fewer. Other questions to ask include, Are any of the tasks superfluous? Are all the tasks required? Are any of the tasks redundant? Are the tasks written at the highest level possible (of Bloom’s taxonomy)? Do the tasks need to be sequenced? Remember that you are working within an emerging system. It probably will be necessary to modify your design as you proceed. For example, you may discover later that you need to add, delete, or resequence tasks. Or you may need to revisit the tasks upon learning more about Bloom’s taxonomy.



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Figure 4.1.



Display Format for Instructional Design



A tendency of many instructional designers, especially novices, is to confuse tasks with objectives. It is true that tasks are the foundation of objectives. Objectives devolve from tasks. At this point, do not attempt to write your tasks as objectives. The next chapter, “Writing Operational Objectives,” will provide instruction on converting learning tasks to operational objectives. In the preceding chapter, you learned how to use a format for displaying your instructional design (see Figure 4.1). Continue to use that form as you incorporate the other elements of an instructional design, building upon the previous developments. For example, on the form you should now have the goal statement and one of the tasks leading to goal achievement. You will have a separate form for each of the tasks—each containing the goal statement and a task. Accompanying your completed instructional design will be a teacher’s/ instructor’s guide written in narrative form. In it you will describe the process of goal derivation, the goal, and the tasks leading to goal achievement, as well as the other components of a completed instructional design.



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Chapter 5



WRITING OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES



You have just completed another major step in the process of learning event design—identifying tasks that, when completed, denote goal achievement. Earlier, you established a relevant goal written from the point of view of the learner. As you proceed through the remainder of the process, creating a product that is publishable and consequently implementable by others, you will find it desirable to organize and display the design in a convenient manner. Follow the suggested format that was presented in Chapters 3 and 4. FORMAT Review Regular 8½-inch by 11-inch paper in a horizontal format is a convenient size. It will be to your advantage to have several copies made from master that contains the goal statement. Having the goal statement on each learning event display will serve as a constant reminder that goal achievement is the desired end of the process. 63



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Once goals have been written and recorded, and tasks have been identified and recorded, you are ready to proceed to the next step—writing operational objectives. Once the objectives have been written, they too will be displayed on the learning event design form displayed in Figure 5.1. THE PROCESS Learner achievement of goals is the primary aim of the process of instructional design. All objectives are written, all media are selected, designed, or produced, and appropriate learner practices are planned for one main purpose—goal achievement by the learner. Achievement of the objectives is the evidence that the goals have been achieved and results in validation of the learning events (see Figure 5.2). Goals and objectives must be stated in terms of learner behavior, not in terms of teacher behavior. In other words, what behaviors the learner will exhibit as a result of the instruction; not what instructional practices and strategies the teacher will follow. It is likely that many of the readers following the process described in this textbook will have had some experience writing lesson plans. Typically, lesson plans are written from the point of view of the instructor/teacher. Put differently, a lesson plan states what the teacher is going to do, not what the learner is going to do. For example, a lesson plan might include a list of teacher activities, such as assigning an in-class activity, passing out a handout, and asking a series of questions of the learners. An instructional design does not describe teacher behavior— it describes learner behavior. As instructional designers proceed through the process, they should filter the design through the question, Does this



Figure 5.1.



Display Format for Instructional Design



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WRITING OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES 65



Figure 5.2.



Instructional Design Paradigm



describe teacher behavior or learner behavior? and then conform the design as appropriate. Unlike goals, which state the exact aim, purpose, or end to any course of action, and which can be described in broad terms, and unlike tasks, which identify learner activities that lead to goal achievement, objectives must be stated operationally; that is, in terms of learner performance. No guidance is given with tasks. The tasks have not yet specified a terminal behavior, a condition under which the behavior will manifest, or a standard denoting an acceptable level or degree of performance. The terminal behaviors specified in the objectives must be observable, or the product of observable behavior. Instructional technologists often write objectives for lesson plans that are not operational. Ambiguous terms, such as “to know,” “to understand,” “to appreciate,” and even “to really know,” constitute the behaviors called for in these types of objectives. While most would agree that these “conditions” are desirable, it is obvious that agreement of meaning among teachers and learners is almost impossible. Removing ambiguity of meaning is a primary consideration in writing objectives. Examples of acceptable terms are given later in this chapter. Learners should know what they are expected to learn. Once learners know precisely what is expected of them, the teacher’s job, as well as the



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learner’s job, is made easier. Too often, teachers themselves cannot describe what is expected of learners except in vague, non-behavioral terms which are interpreted differently each time they are considered. For the teacher alone to know the precise behaviors expected of the learners is counter to the process; the objectives are written in learner terms, not teacher terms. A common misconception held by many teachers is that learners are not supposed to know what is expected of them; such teachers regard this as “teaching to the test,” and consider it to be unethical. As a result, most learners within such a system, as well as the teachers, are confused, validation of the success of the instruction is impossible, and any learning that occurs does so by chance rather than by design. All of the objectives necessary to goal achievement are written at the same time. Remember that although in an emerging-systems concept, goals and/or objectives can be added, deleted, or modified through feedback at any point in the process, initially all objectives are written. With the traditional lesson plan technique all elements of the “learning event” are written at the same time; for example, an objective is written, then an instructional strategy is selected, media are selected, and so on. The objectives written under these conditions are usually written in terms of teacher behavior rather than learner behavior; objectives are not operational, media are regarded as aids, and no appropriate practices are designed. The lesson plan technique easily degenerates into a system of organizing materials with no implicit direction for their utilization and no evaluation process to determine the effectiveness of instruction. One can easily judge, after having written all the objectives in the module, whether achieving them will lead to goal achievement (see Figure 5.3). If they do, one is ready to proceed to the next task; if not, then the goal must be modified, or the objectives must be modified, deleted, or added until the goal(s) can be achieved. Many beginning instructional designers are overwhelmed by the seemingly infinite number of objectives that can be written. Indeed, at this point, they may feel like throwing up their hands in surrender. At one time behavioral objectives were seen as an end unto themselves. They were widely perceived as a magical panacea for the ills of education. As a result, curriculum designers and classroom teachers spent a great deal of time and effort in writing behavioral objectives. They usually found themselves concentrating upon lower-level objectives and writing great numbers of them. They failed to consider the holistic perspective that objectives are effective only in relation to the other elements of learning event design. They failed to acknowledge that there was so much to be learned that a priority of objectives was needed. Most of the objectives they had spent so much time writing and refining were just not important. They were trivial, or, when they had content merit, were written on too low a level. It would have been better to write considerably fewer objectives, at a higher level, and within the holistic perspective of the superstructure. As a result, many



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Figure 5.3.



Objective Checks



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designers had unpleasant experiences and even today resist the concept of the operational objective. Characteristics of Operational Objectives All operational objectives contain terminal behaviors, conditions and standards. The terminal behavior is the component of the objective that describes the behavior of the learner after instruction. When learning takes place, the learner is somehow different than before the instruction. Remember the definition of learning: a desired behavioral change that is relatively stable over a relatively extended period of time and is devoid of undesirable side-effects. Remember also that the terminal behavior must be observable or the product of an observable behavior, for it is only then that we can verify the success of the instruction and provide practices appropriate to the solicited behaviors. With non-performance-based terminal behaviors, agreement of interpretations between and among teachers and learners, and among these groups, is impossible. The general non-behavioral terms that are frequently used include “to know,” “to understand,” “to gain insight into,” “to become familiar with,” and so on. These descriptors demonstrate the ambiguity of objectives of this type. The use of action verbs, such as “to demonstrate,” “ to order or arrange,” “to erect,” and so on, removes ambiguity. With a little additional research the following list of examples can be greatly expanded: Ambiguous



Action



know understand determine appreciate grasp become familiar with really understand expose



adjust choose assemble adjust discriminate solve apply align list synthesize



TAXONOMY When learning occurs, learners behave differently than before the instruction. In order to specify in advance the behaviors that are desired, and in order to know when the behaviors have been learned, we need a taxon-



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omy, or orderly classification, of learning according to the natural interrelationships of its components. The taxonomy generally accepted by educators was first conceptualized by a group of college examiners attending the American Psychological Association convention in Boston in 1948. The key participant among the examiners was Benjamin Bloom, and the ensuing taxonomy bears his name: Bloom’s taxonomy. Other participants and key figures were Max Engelbart, Edward Furst, Walker Hill, and David Krathwohl, among others. Together they constructed a taxonomy of learning consisting of three major parts, or domains: psychomotor, cognitive, and affective. 1. 2. 3.



Cognitive Domain of Learning: the development of intellectual abilities and problem-solving tasks. Psychomotor Domain of Learning: the development of manipulative or motor skills. Affective Domain of Learning: the development of interests, attitudes, values, and appreciations; in general, the emotional overtone.



Cognitive Domain Each of the three domains is further divided into levels. As shown in Figure 5.4, within the cognitive domain of learning, in ascending order of sophistication, we find: 1.



2.



3.



4.



Knowledge (emphasizes the psychological processes of remembering, recall, stimulus-response). Knowledge represents the most elementary level of all the intellectual skills. This level includes skills that explain or translate, or communicate literally written ideas in oral language. Some behaviors at this level are tell, memorize, describe, recall, make a list of, repeat, reproduce. Comprehension (emphasizes the mental processes of organizing and reorganizing information for the purpose of interpretation). Comprehension represents those skills that serve to establish relationships between dates, principles, generalizations, or values. Some behaviors at this level are show the relationship of, characterize, associate, differentiate, classify, distinguish, compare, and categorize. Application (emphasizes the use of abstractions in specific situations). Application represents the skills whose functions facilitate transfer; the application of experiences already acquired to new situations or new relationships. Some behaviors at this level are apply, systematize, experiment, practice, exercise, utilize, and organize. Analysis (emphasizes breaking the abstractions into parts for purposes of clarifying the information). Analysis represents a more



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Figure 5.4.



Levels of Cognitive Thinking



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5.



6.



complex level of judging or valuing a point of view. Some behaviors at this level are analyze, investigate, discover, determine, observe, and examine. Synthesis (emphasizes the putting together of results of analyses in a way that forms a new whole). Synthesis represents the ability to create new and personal forms of expression and reasoning. Originality and creativity are a part of synthesis. Some of the behaviors at this level are synthesize, imagine, conceive, ideate, conclude, summarize, create, invent, construct, and theorize. Evaluation (emphasizes judgment of the value of information against agreed-upon criteria). Evaluation represents the highest level of skill in the hierarchy. The learner utilizes methods, materials, ideas, values, and techniques for learning how to learn, then draws conclusions based on his or her ability to utilize all of these skills. Some behaviors at this level are calculate, estimate, consult, judge, criticize, measure, decide, accept/reject, discuss, and value.



Affective Domain Within the affective domain, in ascending order, are the following levels (see Figure 5.5): 1.



Receiving level (notes the learner’s awareness of, willingness to receive, and submission of controlled attention to a learning stimulus). In other words, the learner must be aware of the learning task, be willing to receive the study, and, in fact, be willing to submit controlled attention to the task (overt action). 2. Responding level (notes the learner’s acquiescence, willingness, and satisfaction in responding to a learning task). 3. Valuing level (notes the learner’s acceptance of a value, preference for a value, and a commitment to a value). 4. Organization level (notes the learner’s ability to conceptualize a value and to organize a value system by bringing together a complex of values). 5. Value complex level (notes the level of internalization of the learner’s beliefs, ideas, and attitudes into a total philosophy within which the learner’s behavior is characterized). Psychomotor Domain Within the psychomotor domain, in ascending order of sophistication, are the following levels (see Figure 5.6):



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72 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



Figure 5.5.



Levels of Affective Activitiy



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Levels of Psychomotor Activity



WRITING OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES



Figure 5.6.



73



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1.



2.



3. 4. 5. 6. 7.



Perception (the first step in performing a motor act). Perception is the process of becoming aware of sensory stimuli and is basic in the situation/interpretation/action for motor activity. It is divided into three sublevels: sensory stimulation, cue selection, and translation (determining meanings of cues). Set (notes readiness for action). Three aspects of readiness have been identified: mental set (discrimination/judgment in making distinctions), physical set (readiness to make anatomical adjustments for motor activity), and emotional set (readiness in terms of attitudes favorable to the desired motor act). Guided response (an early step in the development of skill). Two major subcategories exist here: imitation and trial and error. Mechanism (indicates a level of confidence and a high degree of proficiency). Complex overt response (the act can be carried out smoothly and efficiently). The act is performed without hesitancy and is considered automatic in nature. An example would be playing the violin. Adaptation (altering motor activities to meet the demands of new situations requiring motor response). Origination (creating new motor acts out of skills developed in the psychomotor area). An example would be an innovative routine on the parallel bars used by a gymnast.



Using Bloom’s taxonomy, we are now able to write operational objectives to a predetermined level, and to classify previously written objectives. Because there is so much to learn that we have to be selective in what we ask learners to learn (economy of effort), it generally is to our advantage to write fewer objectives, and to write them on a higher level of sophistication. The past experience of many instructional technologists includes frustration about writing many, many lower-level objectives, and becoming bogged down to the point that the intent of the goal is lost. Such experiences were often so negative that today these designers have an aversion to writing objectives. However, if the instructional designer writes fewer objectives, keeps them on a higher level, and relates them more directly to the goal by operationalizing tasks, the experience will be more rewarding. PERSPECTIVE Learning, by definition, demands an overt response (behavior) from the learner. One demands this in the design by saying that the terminal behavior is observable or is the product of an observable behavior, such as a painting, short story, or research paper. Before one can exhibit an observable behavior or its product, it is first necessary to internalize a set of cognitions, attitudes, and psychomotor skills in order to then externalize (from



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these cognitions, attitudes, and psychomotor skills) an observable behavior or its product. The externalization is the proof that the desired behavior has been learned. Often, ineffective teaching and learning allow for and encourage only internalization. Only through externalization is there evidence of learning. The model in Figure 5.7 provides an example of the internalization/externalization mode. Examples of internalization include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.



reading observing listening tasting smelling touching watching memorizing imagining thinking



Examples of externalization include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.



Writing, editing, outlining, taking notes creating, constructing painting, drawing, lettering graphing, charting, mapping photographing, recording experimenting, researching collecting, exchanging traveling displaying, exhibiting



Figure 5.7.



Internalization: Externalization



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10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.



demonstrating, showing dramatizing playing games, simulations dancing, choreographing, singing organizing, summarizing composing computing judging, evaluating working



A higher-level objective which allows externalization is built upon internalization. Internalization tasks usually are best considered prerequisites to be learned before the learner practices the terminal behavior. These practices will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Objectives which allow the learner to function on a higher level require mastery of the lower levels of the taxonomy. For example, to synthesize a higher-level function, it is usually necessary for a learner to acquire “knowledge” of facts, comprehend their meanings, and make appropriate analyses and applications of the knowledge and comprehension before generating a synthesis. More specifically, knowledge and comprehension of several events in American history related to civil disobedience can lead one to synthesize that “massacres” are inherent with civil disobedience (Boston Massacre, Kent State Massacre, etc). Too often, the objective is written on the lower level, not only disallowing but discouraging the higher cognitive function. A more sophisticated design will allow these lower levels to be acquired through appropriate practices (and prerequisite tasks) and needs to be alluded to here. The lower-level objectives which we have written in the past are best utilized as prerequisite tasks that will be covered in the chapter on appropriate practices. Operational objectives contain— 1. 2. 3.



a terminal behavior describing the behavior of the learner after instruction, conditions which describe the situation in which the learner will be required to demonstrate the terminal behavior, and standards which describe the minimal level of performance that will be accepted as evidence that the learner has achieved the objective.



Types of conditions include: 1. Tools. Calculators, books, models, realia, etc. 2. Restrictions. On time, on senses (e.g., blindfolded), etc. 3. Presentational mode. In writing, orally, demonstrating psychomotor skills, creative endeavors (e.g., slide/tape presentations, transparencies, scripts, songs).



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Figure 5.8



77



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Types of standards include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.



Occurrence (e.g., The driver will use hand signals before all turns). Accuracy (e.g., The answer must be correct to the nearest whole number). Errors (e.g., With a maximum of one error). Time/speed (e.g., Within five seconds). Known reference (e.g., Perform the sequence of steps in the same order as the training manual states). Consequences (e.g., Block the defensive tackle long enough so the quarterback has at least three seconds to throw the pass).



Following are examples of objectives containing all of the elements of an operational objective: 1.



2. 3.



Using filmstrip production equipment and materials (condition), the learner will produce a filmstrip (terminal behavior) that illustrates the use of metaphor, simile, personification, and symbolism (standard). While working in small groups (condition), the learner will choose, plan, and record a supernatural poem (terminal behavior) using suitable music and sound effects as a background (standard). Using discarded magazines, newspapers, and realia (condition), the learner will examine his or her own ideas by collecting pictures, words, and statements representative of his or her life and personality (terminal behavior) and making a collage (with his or her picture in the center) (standard).



Figure 5.8 displays the learning event design form with a sample objective. In addition to leading to goal achievement, of operational objectives make it possible to (1) develop experiences for the learner to practice the terminal behavior called for in the objective, (2) select, procure, and plan/ produce appropriate media, and (3) design criterion checks to validate the success of the instruction.



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Chapter 6



LEARNER ACTIVITIES



The critical path in the instructional design model used in this text follows this line: GOALS TASK ANALYSIS OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES MEDIA



LEARNER ACTIVITIES VALIDATION



Goals are stated after a rigorous process of studying the sources of student, society, and subject, and after screening preliminary goals written from these sources through a philosophy of teaching/learning and a psychology of teaching/learning. Goals are analyzed and a list of tasks necessary to goal achievement is developed. These tasks are carefully studied in relation to the goal to ensure that all tasks necessary to goal achievement are included, and that no tasks are redundant or superfluous. Since this instructional design is within an emerging system philosophy, modifications can be made at any time, on any part of the design, so long as they are appropriate, without jeopardizing the integrity of the design. Once the this scrutiny is completed, the tasks are operationalized; that is, they are converted to objectives by specifying a terminal behavior, the conditions under which these behaviors are to manifest, and a standard, or accept79



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able, level of performance. This goal, the tasks, the operational objectives (including terminal behaviors, conditions, and standards) should not be dictated by either the instructor or the student, but should be negotiated. In doing so, the design takes on a characteristic of any system—decentralization. Achievement of objectives is evidence that the goal has been achieved: Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3 I -Goal Achievement Both goals and objectives are written from the perspective of the learner; that is, learner behavior is indicated, not teacher behavior. This is a major distinction between an instructional design and a lesson plan. Anyone who has been through a teacher education program on the undergraduate level has had instruction and practice in writing lesson plans. A lesson plan typically contains strategy for the teacher, from the teacher’s point of view, about the instructional process. In an instructional design, the plan is written from the learner’s point of view; that is, what the learner is going to do, not what the teacher is going to do. Objectives have three components: 1.



2. 3.



A terminal behavior which states explicitly what the learner is to learn as a result of the instruction. Ambiguity is removed in that an overt verb describing the behavior is used to describe the learning, or a product is generated which provides evidence that the goal has been achieved. The conditions under which the behavior or product will manifest. A standard which states, at the least, a minimally acceptable level of performance, and more desirably, a level of excellence.



It may be good to remember at this point that the difference between mediocrity and excellence is attention to detail. A learner who is encouraged through the design to pay attention to detail will move toward excellence. To determine whether learners have achieved a given objective, they must be expected to perform the terminal behavior under the conditions and to the standards stated within the objective. It is critical that the learner be provided appropriate media, that the environment be arranged, and that the learner be allowed to practice the behaviors, under the conditions, and to the standards, before being accountable for exhibiting the



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behaviors. It is not uncommon for teachers to test things that were not taught. A teacher once said, “I teach my students how to do stated mathematical problems, but to really test their knowledge, I test them with written problems.” Bloom’s taxonomy, an orderly classification of learning that gives instructional designers a superstructure within which to ply their trade, contains six levels in the cognitive domain, five levels in the affective domain, and seven levels in the psychomotor domain. The cognitive domain is generally divided by designers into a lower level and a higher level. The lower cognitive levels are generally considered to be knowledge, compression, and application, whereas the higher levels are considered to be analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In an earlier chapter, we noted that teachers/trainers and some instructional designers tend to write objectives on the lower levels of the cognitive domain. Consider this example from an American history class: Learners read a passage in a text, and then answer a series of questions about what they have read; the “learning event” concludes at this point, when in most instances this is the level at which learning should begin. In fact, this type of practice can be considered prerequisite to learning that is to occur later through an objective stated on a higher level. While the described activity in the example can be appropriate in some instances, it usually is inappropriate and its occurrence is far too common. In fact, teachers too often write objectives only on the lower levels, especially at the knowledge level of the cognitive domain. The learning event should begin at this point—not end. A reminder that by operationalizing the tasks leading to goal achievement, an instructional designer will, of necessity, write fewer objectives (the design will have the same number of objectives as it has tasks) and the objectives will be at a higher level than they otherwise would be. These higher-level objectives will require the knowledge, skills, and attitudes contained within the lower levels. For example, if an objective is written at the synthesis level, its achievement will require knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis before it can be achieved. These learner activities must conform to the appropriate level. For example, before learners can achieve an objective at the synthesis level, they must : 1.



Assimilate a body of knowledge. Learners can gain knowledge by a variety of activities. They can read from teacher-selected and learner-selected printed materials. They can view filmstrips, slides, films, and videos. They can listen to records and tapes. They can surf the World Wide Web. The media and activities available for accumulating knowledge are almost limitless. Delivery systems make information available at a speed and degree that most earlier teacher/trainers did not envision. Sadly, too many critics of education consider this level the end of the process rather than the begin-



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2.



3. 4. 5. 6.



ning. Before any of the higher levels can be achieved at a level of excellence, the learner must proceed though the hierarchy, in order. Once a requisite knowledge level has been attained, the learning activities should include opportunities to comprehend the knowledge. It is not necessary to relate the knowledge to other ideas or materials at this point, or to see its fullest meaning. These functions come at higher levels. Application requires the learner to use ideas, principles, and theories in new situations. Application requires comprehension. In the higher cognitive levels, analysis activities require the learners to break knowledge into parts in order to make it clear. Analysis requires knowledge, comprehension, and application. Synthesis requires the learner to put together the elements of analysis into a new whole. Evaluation requires the learner to judge the values, procedures, and methods contained within the synthesis.



Consider the following example for a high school American history class in which an objective is written at a higher level and learner activities complement the objective: GOAL: The learner will develop a personal overview on the American form of government. TASK ANALYSIS: Tasks leading to goal achievement should be listed here. Closure will not be made in that only an example of a single task will be presented. In actuality, several tasks would be required for goal achievement. An example of a task in this instance would be to compare and contrast philosophies of government. OBJECTIVE: During a one-week period, the learner will prepare a report that compares and contrasts Jacksonian democracy and Jeffersonian democracy. The report can be written or oral or any other medium approved by the instructor (e.g., a transparency, a video, an audiotape, a Web page) and must incorporate at least fifteen comparisons and/or contrasts (synthesis level, cognitive domain).



The event will be displayed on the learning event design form. A completed instructional design form is shown in Figure 6.1. LEARNING ACTIVITIES: Activities leading to the achievement of this objective could include (1) reading text material, (2) reading supplemental material, (3) attending to class lectures, (4) taking notes, (5) viewing a filmstrip/ tape presentation on the subject, or (6) listening to a record. (knowledge tasks); restating the content in another form as in a summary (comprehension tasks); discussing in small/large groups about how these philosophies



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LEARNER ACTIVITIES



Figure 6.1.



83



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84



INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER are found in the governments of other nations (application tasks); compiling a list of similarities and differences of the two philosophies (analysis tasks); and finally, producing a product a product under the same conditions and standards for minimal acceptance and for excellence (synthesis tasks).



It is important to note the perspective found in Chapter 5 (“Writing Operational Objectives”) concerning internalization and externalization. All the activities below the synthesis level in this example require internalization. The synthesis level in the example requires externalization. That all the activities below the synthesis level require internalization is consistent with the notion that in order to evaluate, a terminal behavior or a product (externalization) is necessary. In the author’s opinion, every learning event should generate a product. While most “products” (externalizations), in practice, tend to be pencil-and-paper tests, do not limit your design—consider other means of externalization. Place the learner activities on the learning event design form. The goal, tasks, objectives, and learner activities complement each other and will lead to closure. Since you are working in an emerging system it will be necessary to continually modify each of these components. For example, a stated objective will require specific learner activities; these activities will require specific media that will be presented in the next chapter. Upon doing a search for media, an instructional designer may find the required media for a specific practice unavailable commercially and impractical to produce. A slight modification in the objective—for example, in a condition or standard—may not significantly affect the overall objective. With the modification of the objective, the media can be selected, and upon satisfactory completion of the learning event, the objective will have been achieved. Too, it may be necessary to modify media requisitions and adjust learner activities as they relate to the other elements in the triad.



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Chapter 7



MEDIA SELECTION, DESIGN, PRODUCTION, AND INTEGRATION



INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter is to provide a framework within which to select, design, produce, and integrate media into the instructional process. Media can be anything that transmits a message from a source (sender) to a learner (receiver). Media can be books, pamphlets, brochures, and handouts; they can be slides, filmstrips, and motion pictures; they can be television, calculators, and computers; and they can be hand gesticulations, body movements, or even a sparkle in the eye. Regardless of their form, certainties exist that affect the selection, design, production, and use of media For example, media are inert; they are incapable, through simple existence, of facilitating learning. You can have the newest, biggest, shiniest, prettiest, costliest, and finest collection of media in one place and still have a pile of bricks for instructional purposes. Media are only effective when they are used for the purpose for which they were intended, for whom they were intended, and under the conditions for which they were intended. Regardless, media must be present and used appropriately for learning to occur. 85



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Learning can be defined as a desired behavioral change that is relatively stable over a relatively stable period of time and is devoid of undesirable side-effects. Learning, by definition, requires communication; that is, learning requires something to learn (a message) and someone to learn it (a learner); and the message must be transmitted to the learner from a source (a sender), and via a medium. What we have just described, communication, is a system. A reminder that in general systems theory, no subsystem is more important that any other subsystem—all are equally important. In systems, if a subsystem is not present, fails to function, or functions improperly, the whole system will probably fail, or a least function at an undesirable level. So, media must be used for learning to occur. Instructional designers, and good teachers, do not use a medium simply because it is available. They certainly do not consider media to be an audiovisual aid. If something is an aid, it can easily be considered superfluous, a frill or a gimmick. Good teachers and instructional designers use a given medium because it is the best, or necessary, for a given learning event. Media, as a component of the model for instructional design being used in this book, are part of the critical path in the process (see Figure 7.1). The component also acts as a member of the triad Operational Objectives/ Learner Activities/Media (see Figure 7.2). These three elements interact closely. Learner activities are selected at least partially on the basis of the



Figure 7.1.



Instructional Design Paradigm



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Figure 7.2.



Triad



availability/producibility/suitability of certain media; media are selected/ designed/procured/produced on the basis of the need, stated or implied, in the learner activities and present in the operational objective. No medium can be considered to be best in all situations. One cannot safely assume that motion pictures are better than television, or slides better than filmstrips, or computers (World Wide Web) better than a textbook for instructional purposes. Media have characteristics that preclude their use under certain conditions and mandate their use under other conditions. Added to this phenomenon is the characteristics profile of the learner. The learner has characteristics that preclude, or suggest, the use of a specific medium. Also, the characteristics of the objective (terminal behavior, conditions, and standards) as well as the learner activities affect the choice of media to be used in a specific learning requirement. See Figure 7.3, “Media Classifications,” for selected characteristics. Flowcharts of the media selection process will be found in Figures 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, and 7.8. As you answer the questions in the flowcharts concerning the nature of the message and the learner, you will be following a path that will lead you to the choice of the media class that is best for your specific application. PROCURING MEDIA Once you have determined the medium for instruction, you are faced with the task of selecting the appropriate software. As the specificity of the message increases, and as the requirements of the learner become more sophisticated, the software you need is less likely to be commercially available. It is suggested that you consider the following four steps in the order in which they appear.



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Figure 7.3.



Media Classifications



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Figure 7.4.



Overview of Media Selection Process



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90 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



Figure 7.5.



Step One in Media Selection



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Media Selection



MEDIA SELECTION, DESIGN, PRODUCTION, AND INTEGRATION



Figure 7.6.



91



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Figure 7.7.



1.



Media Selection-Information



Borrow.



Other conditions being equal, you will find it less expensive and to your obvious advantage to borrow the media. Sources for borrowing include: Educators Guide to Free Films and Educators Guide to Free Filmstrips (both published by Educators Progress Service, Inc., Randolph, Wisconsin; the editors have searched out thousands of free films and filmstrips, and provide information about them in these valuable guides), regional service centers, interest groups, governmental agencies (e.g., the National Aeronautics



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Figure 7.8.



Medial Selection-Information



and Space Administration [NASA]), business and industry (e.g., Bell Telephone), and nonprofit organizations such as the American Cancer Society and the American Heart Association. Your school library’s media center, your regional service center, or your local public library may already have what you need in its collection. Never base your learning event simply on



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availability of media; find the medium to suit the event, not the other way around. 2.



Rent.



If your efforts to find the software from free sources are unsuccessful, then your next effort should be directed toward renting the medium from a rental library. There are many rental libraries. The number is too great to provide an exhaustive list here, but some of the larger libraries are the Indiana University Audio-Visual Center, Iowa Film and Video (Iowa State and Iowa University), and the Audiovisual Center Film and Video Library at the University of Wisconsin at La Crosse, and this list is by no means complete. Your library should have several catalogs from which to select. You will find that in most instances media rentals are surprisingly inexpensive. The R. R. Bowker Company publishes The Educational Film and Video Locator, a reference which lists films and videos by title, a description of the film or video including a synopsis, and, for most entries, several sources for rental. Your library media specialist is a valuable resource in helping you locate rental media in any format. 3.



Buy.



If the media cannot be borrowed or rented, then you should purchase what you need if it is commercially available. You will find, however, that in many instances it will be cheaper to rent the software than to purchase it. An exception would be when your anticipated usage over a specified period of time would cost more to rent than to purchase. For example, to rent a film from the Audio-Visual Center, Indiana University, might cost you $15 for a three-day rental. Over a period of five years you anticipate using the film fifteen times for a total cost of $225. To purchase the film may only cost $200, resulting in an immediate savings of $25, plus a great savings in time and effort in not having to complete the paperwork necessary for rental, not to mention the handiness of owning. 4.



Produce.



If the media are not commercially available (do not exist), then you should produce what you need, either locally (in-house) or on a contractual basis. In fact, the more specific and unique the learning event, the less likely you will be to find the software commercially available. A good explanation for this is that producers/distributors often feel that they are limiting their market by producing media for a limited use. An indispensable source for determining whether media are available either for rental or purchase is the NICEM Index. Published by the National Information Center for Educational Media, University of Southern California, the NICEM Index is a multivolume work containing information about non-book media. It is now available online or on CD. Volumes in the series



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include indexes to 16mm educational films, 35mm filmstrips, 35mm slides, audiotapes, videotapes, transparencies, records, 8mm motion picture cartridges, CDs, and a guide to producers and distributors, among others. NICEM provides information about media; it does not rent or sell the software. A typical entry: INDIAN CRAFTS—HOPI, NAVAJO AND IROQUOIS C 11 mm l6MM FILM OPTICAL SO I-J Illustrates the wide range of arts and crafts practiced by American Indians, including basket weaving, pottery making, kachina carving, mask carving and jewelry making. Shows how the Indians used the natural materials around them to create products that were both useful and beautiful.



LC NO. 80-700134 Prod-CREEDDist-BFA1980 DESIGNING MEDIA FOR INSTRUCTION Chapter 8 of this book, “Media Design in Instructional Design,” describes considerations which can be applied to the design of visuals, including electronic graphics, Web sites, overhead transparencies, 35mm slides, filmstrips, posters, realia, models, mock-ups, television and motion picture graphics, opaque projections, and multi-image/multi-media. In this chapter an overview of a scriptcard/storyboard technique for production will be described, as well as a video scripting process. Chapter 9, “Message/Medium Design,” provides greater detail for a wider application of message design, while this chapter concentrates on certain media designs. Storyboarding is a technique that provides system in any type of production. The technique requires only cards and a large wall or table area. Cards are used primarily because they are durable and self-supporting. They are relatively inexpensive and easy to obtain. The 5-inch by 7-inch card is a convenient size. It should be divided as shown in Figure 7.9. The division can be hand-drawn with a straight-edge and a felt tip pen, or it can be printed. Hand-drawing can be very time consuming, so it may be useful to have a supply of these cards printed professionally. Some storyboard programs are available on the World Wide Web. The three sections of the card are used to develop (1) narrative, (2) images, and (3) status and objectives. The upper-left section can be used to sketch illustrations, to describe them verbally, or to place a bibliographical reference if the image is to be scanned from a another source (see Figure 7.10). The source of the image, if scanned, can be stated for reference. The illustration should be in direct support of the narrative/text. The upper-right section of the card contains the status information and objective for that image (see Figure 7.11). The status information that pro-



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Figure 7.9.



Storyboard Card Dimensions



vides the control system includes artwork, photography status, processing status (if emulsion photography), post-production status (if digital photography),whether the completed visual is put into the program or filed, where it is filed (with emulsion photography, the physical location; with digital photography, the electronic location—hard drive, disk, CD, server, etc.), and file status. Other information contained in this section includes



Figure 7.10.



Storyboard Card Upper-Left Quadrant



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Figure 7.11.



Storyboard Card Upper-Right Quadrant



the number of the scene or its position in the program, the medium to be used, and a statement of the objective (reason) for the image. The narrative, or text, is written in large letters on the bottom of the card (see Figure 7.12). All of the audio (if streamed) or text pertaining to the visual should be in this section. The narrative/text for one image should not exceed 45 words or 15 seconds. If the space is not large enough, continue the narrative on the next card, leaving the upper sections blank except for the word “continuation” in the upper-left section.



Figure 7.12.



Storyboard Card Bottom



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Figure 7.13.



Storyboard



You will have at least one card for every image in the program. Every card will have information about the visual, a reason (objective) for that visual (if you don’t have a reason, then you don’t need the slide—omit it), a number (consecutive), and audio instructions. Once the production has been completely planned, you begin the production phase. You will find it convenient to arrange all shots in one location into one group. After the artwork has been completed, the pictures taken, and the film/raw data is being processed, the other media, such as the Web site, can be produced and programmed. When the images are processed, all you have to do is match the slide to the appropriate card and then place the slide in the corresponding location in the program. The storyboard can be a cork or ply board on which clear plastic strips have been stapled (see Figure 7.13). The better strips have a beaded edge that implements the insertion, holding, and withdrawal of the cards. A tentative order for the cards can be arranged by placing them in the storyboard from left to right and from top to bottom. Skip every third or fourth space on the board to allow for easier editing. Cards can be easily added, deleted, or rearranged using this technique. Selecting cards and placing them on the storyboard has several purposes: 1.



It gives the designer an integrated overview of the organization.



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2. 3. 4. 5.



It allows for easy sequencing and rearranging. It allows for easy deletion and replacement. It allows for easy revision and refinement. It allows for convenient abridgment between cards to provide or enhance continuity. GUIDELINES FOR VIDEO SCRIPT



The scriptcard/storyboard process is also suggested for scripting for television. Once the scriptcard/storyboard process has been completed, the script can be converted to a format which is easier for a production team to use in the production of the program. Each card represents one scene; every time there is a camera movement or a scene transition you go to the next card. A script form is suggested in Figure 7.14



Figure 7.14.



Script Format



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The script form is divided into two columns. The left column is headed “Video” and the right column is headed “Audio.” In the Video column, list the type of transition: -fade -dissolve -cut desired camera (including film chain) type of shot any special effects any camera movements Video changes must be written opposite the point in the audio portion where the change is to occur. The audio portion should be double-spaced. It may be all in capital letters, with the speaker identified in underlined lower-case letters. Or it may have the text in lower-case, with the speaker identified in all capitals. Use whichever method you prefer, but be sure to make a distinction between speaker and text. The audio may start with music and then fade to then fade to the announcer. If you have any creative ideas, try them. Video Graphics Some schools and non-public educational settings have sophisticated production and editing equipment that makes it possible to include special effects, digital imaging, digital effects, and character generators. If you are operating on a small budget with limited hardware and other resources, you can get professional-looking results by following these points. As part of your television production, use media to illustrate your script. These media may be in different forms. Listed are types of materials which are easily used with television: 1. Maps and charts 2. Pictures and illustrations in books 3. Slides 4. Film clips



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5. 6. 7.



Demonstration models and cut-a-ways Three-dimensional objects Prepared illustrations and printed material



Other media are compatible with television. Regardless of the media chosen, there are some important things to remember when using graphics. 1. Printed media should have a style that lends itself to your production. 2. Use pastel background, never white, with dark letters for printing. 3. All media should be kept simple. Use no more than ten words per graphic, and limit detail in illustrations. 4. Media should be large enough and clear enough to be shown easily. 5. Media should be in a horizontal format, with a 3 X 4 aspect ratio_three units high to four units wide. Good examples are 9 inches by 12 inches and 11 inches by 14 inches. You can get four 11 X 14 cards from one regular sheet of posterboard. Two-inch borders for a bleed area on the graphic will yield a 9-inch by 12-inch (3 X 4) graphic which will fit the required aspect ratio. 6.Prepared graphics should have ample borders of at least 2 inches (more if possible). Each graphic contains a bleed area, scan area, and essential area. 7.Graphics should be kept in register whenever possible. That is, successive graphics should fit the camera shot and essential viewing area. This is especially important when there is no camera transition to serve as a buffer between graphics. 8.Tabs make graphic changes easier. 9.Avoid objects that tend to glare or reflect. 10. Slides may be used in either negative or positive form, but not both. The next chapter in this book contains more information on visual design and should be read prior to designing and producing television graphics. Camera Movements There are three kinds of camera movements: 1.



The movement of the camera lens while the tripod and camera remain stationary. A. Zoom-in: enlarge the image B. Zoom-out: reduce the image size



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The movement of the camera itself on a stationary camera mount (tripod). A. Pan: turning the camera horizontally to the right or left. B. Tilt: tilting the camera up or down; vertical movement. Movement of the camera mount (tripod). A. Dolly: “dolly in” or dolly out” moves the camera toward or away from the subject. B. Truck (left or right): moves the camera laterally. C. Arc (left or right): moves the camera in a slightly curving manner keeping the subject at the same distance from the camera at all times.



Basic Camera Shots -LS: long shot, shown from a distance, person and surrounding -FS: full shot, from a person’s head to feet -MS: medium shot, waist or belt-line up -MCU: medium close-up, chest up -CU: close-up, shoulders up -XCU: extreme close-up, face and head only (or portion of face) -2-shot: two people, or a large object in the frame with one person -3-shot: three people in the frame -O-shot: shot over one shoulder to objects or other people, also called OS shot Wipe: moving a different picture onto the monitor in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal direction. Corner insert: second picture filling a corner of the screen. Split Screen: may be either horizontal or vertical; two pictures occupying different portions of the screen. Camera Transitions Fade: picture either goes gradually to black (fade to black) or appears gradually on the screen from black (fade-in). Dissolve: gradual transition from one picture to another, so the two overlap briefly and there is no black period.



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Cut: instantaneous switch from one camera to another. General Instructions On the cover sheet of the script provide the following information: LESSON TITLE: OBJECTIVES: INTENDED AUDIENCE: PRESENTED BY: Each time the speaker changes the center of attention or shifts to another camera, it should be indicated to the director by extra spacing. Remember to allow the necessary time for the cameraperson to change shots and to be in focus before having the scene punched up on the switcher. Television is a person-to-person medium. The script should be written as if the instructor were talking to an individual, not a group. Use enough space and try to keep directions clear to the director. When the director becomes lost, the lesson is also lost. When ending a lesson, it is desirable either for the teacher to conclude the program or for the announcer to close with an over-the-title graphic or ID graphic. Have a definite conclusion for your program. SUMMARY No medium can be considered best. A given medium may be best in one situation for that learner, that environment, that objective, and under those conditions, but not in another situation. Once a medium has been selected, based upon its characteristics and upon the learner’s characteristics, the instructional designer determines whether the software is commercially available, using selection tools like the NICEM Index. If the software is commercially available, the instructional designer then tries to borrow, rent, or purchase it (in that order). If the software is not commercially available, it should be designed/produced. Activities 1.



Select media for each of the objectives/learner activities for your instruction, and enter the information on the learning event design form in the column headed “media.”



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Using the NICEM Index when appropriate, determine whether the software is commercially available for each medium, each objective, and each appropriate practice, and enter the information on the learning event design form in the column headed “media.” 3. Using catalogs from distributors/libraries, locate for rental, purchase, or loan the media listed in item 2. 4. Design software when it is not commercially available. Include in your report all scripts, storyboards, layouts, etc.



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Chapter 8



MEDIA DESIGN IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN



Instructional design has been described by theorists as a primarily visual process. They contend that to be an effective instructional designer, one must think visually. Instructional designers need to convert archetypes to paradigms, and paradigms to models—a visual process. Sardonically, professionals in the field of instruction state that it takes twenty-five years for a novel idea or technique to filter into general use. By that time, the original idea or technique has been so modified that it is unrecognizable. During the past twenty-five years, and before, the writers have observed professional instructors at all levels, kindergarten through graduate school, for prolonged periods of time, in various parts of the United States. Rather than the rule, it has been the exception to find instructors who had adequate support in media design and production. Rather than the exception, it has been more like the rule to find instructors who made and used instructional media without apparent awareness of standards of visibility, and even less knowledge or concern for effective layout. Newly developed software for the microcomputer has enabled instructional designers to do bad visuals more quickly and more easily. The ignored art, or craft, has become even more greatly ignored. Regardless of the medium—the traditional slide, poster, or bulletin board, or the more sexy World Wide Web 105



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presentation—principles of layout and design must be followed to be effective. Obviously, this is a criticism of the profession. It is not intended as a criticism of the professionals. The lack of awareness, the lack of knowledge or concern, is the result of a point of vacuum in the training of professionals. Even more, it results from a lack of awareness by boards of education and administrators of what it takes to have the greatest effect with the largest number of students in the first years of the twenty-first century. At this point in your study of instructional design, you have developed skills and knowledge in several areas. You have an operational knowledge of general systems theory and of instructional design; you can conduct a needs assessment culminating in the establishment of an instructional goal; you can do a task analysis; you can operationalize tasks, thereby converting them to objectives; you can select and integrate commercially prepared media into your instructional design; and you can facilitate learner activities leading to goal and objective achievement. All of these steps can be done within a constructivist learning theory paradigm. Now you are going to learn the general principles of layout and design for visuals to be integrated into your instructional design. Once learners have accepted a rationale for learning, they learn effectively when a variety of media is used with effect on several of their major senses. When the content of a medium is comprehensible only with great difficulty, the medium is more likely to repel than to attract. Such media are not expensive if one only considers the cost of the materials required to make them. They are enormously costly, however, in terms of the wasted working hours that are spent in their preparation. The cost to the profession is phenomenal. Not only are such media incapable of producing the results possible with media that are correctly designed, but their ineffectuality will probably drive the instructor back to the use of techniques that might just as well be performed by a mediocre tape-recorder. The real point of concern is, in any case, the effect of media on learners. When learning results are mediocre, or otherwise unfulfilled, the cost in educated people is astronomical. Appropriately designed media tend to produce taxpayers, their absence propagates tax consumers. All of us learn all the time. All of us learn through experience. All of us experience all the time. Most of what we learn is retained only briefly. We retain what we learn more or less permanently only when we accept it as worthwhile, review it from time to time, and use it for some purpose we deem to be important, interesting, or otherwise satisfying. Experiences come to us in more or less random forms and from more or less random sources. When the experiences are perceived, the reception is through one or more of our senses. The majority of our experiences consist of sights and sounds: Eighty-three percent of our experiences are received by sight. Eleven percent are received by listening. Seeing is increasingly effective in relation to



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our visual literacy. Sounds are increasingly effective in relation to our ability to listen and convert sounds into cognition. When experiences are selected, designed, and appropriately arranged, learners can be exposed to them by means of a variety of techniques. One of the techniques contains five steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



lecture on a specified content assign activities study material recite test



This is, of course, a more or less traditional format. Given criteria guidelines, the process could be conducted by means of an audiotape playback instrument, and certainly by means of a videotape playback instrument, appropriate note sheets, and proctors. A more versatile arrangement of experiences employs: 1. SHOWING in whatever order more clearly corresponds to telling. 2. TELLING whatever the objectives to be learned are. 3. DIRECTION of learners to practice. 4. SUPERVISION of practice to reduce errors and make unlearning unnecessary. 5. PERFORMANCE within criteria. 6. EVALUATION of performance relative to the criteria that correspond to the objectives of learning. Behavior develops in quality and quantity. Which comes first depends on how experiences and consequent practices are arranged. The target behavior is more likely to develop when stimuli are designed appropriately for the objectives of learning and when responses and practices are directed and supervised. The rate of learning and the ability to manipulate data, construct concepts, gain indicator behaviors that lead to genuine affective qualities, and gain psychomotor skills with precision, sophistication, and increasing abstraction establish and increase in quantity and refine in quality in relation to the following: 1.



2. 3. 4.



The effective design of the experience, including directives to pertinent practice, time to practice under expert supervision, time to demonstrate that learning has occurred, and reinforcement by knowledge of results. The acceptability by learners of the rationale. The appropriateness of the level of experiences. Placement of the experiences on the concrete-abstract continuum.



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Figure 8.1.



Dale’s Cone of Learning



Dr. Edgar Dale of Ohio State University arranged experiences on what has come to be known as the Cone of Experience (see Figure 8.1). The experiences at the base of the cone are assumed to be concrete. The experiences at the apex of the cone are assumed to be more abstract. The most concrete kind of experience, according to Dr. Dale, is the direct purposeful experience. Verbal symbols were assumed by Dr. Dale to be more abstract. By inspection of each of the levels of the cone, it can be seen that experience is likely to be a combination of visuals and sounds. It is possible, of course, to have visuals without sounds. It is also possible to have sounds without visuals, but other than radio and sound recordings, all other experiences imply visuals and do not necessarily imply sounds. The base of the cone is larger than any of its companion levels. The dimensions of each of the levels can be assumed to be indicative of the



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scope, depth, and variety of the experiences likely to occur at that level, relative to any of the other levels. Most experiences, for instance, can be arranged to be at the level of the direct and purposeful. There are some, such as the demonstration of a disassembled turbine, which cannot. There are many possibilities for field trip experiences, but for some learners, field trips into some of society’s shortcomings might be too dangerous. There are five main categories of visuals: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



real objects (realia) models mock-ups motion media still media



Real objects include anything that is animal, vegetable, or mineral, whether it occurs in nature or is fabricated. A model is a representation of a real object. It may be in high magnification, in its real size, or miniaturized. Models may be static, as, for example, a piece of statuary, a model of a building, a model of a bridge, or even a model of a geographical feature. Models may also be operable, such as a working model of a locomotive, a functioning model of a heart, or a model of a factory of some kind. A mock-up is like a model, except that it is usually a section of a real object, and it works as the real object works. Motion media include motion pictures, video (by television or computer), and computer animations. Still media include any still visual image, opaque or projectable, regardless of size. Visual images may include the following: 1. 2. 3.



Pictorial counterparts of anything, real or imagined, natural or fabricated; Symbols that are coded representations of real or imagined, natural or fabricated objects. Verbals, which are really symbols of anything, real or imagined, natural or fabricated.



Pictorial counterparts can be contrived as one of the positions on the concrete-to-abstract continuum. Beginning at the concrete end of the continuum, and ranging to the abstract, visual positions may be conceived as the following: 1. 2. 3.



full-color photographs full-color stereographic photographs continuous tone black-and-white (gray-scale) photographs



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4. 5. 6. 7. 8.



high-detail full-perspective color drawings high-detail full-perspective black-and-white (gray-scale) drawings high-contrast line drawings diagrams cartoons



Still media may be portrayed on any surface that will accept a static line, mass, or texture. When a still medium is on a transparent surface of appropriate size, it can be backlighted, or projected onto surface that will reflect it. Visual images can be arranged for display on the horizontal plane or on the vertical plane. On either plane, displays can be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. The horizontal plane is more versatile on the three-dimensional display level. The horizontal display makes use, in many cases, of both the horizontal display surface and the vertical display surface. The horizontal display surface is useful for the following: 1. convention display booths 2. museum displays 3. fairs 4. public information displays The vertical plane is found in several formats: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.



chalkboards bulletin boards magnetic boards flannel boards peg boards hook- and-loop boards posters wall displays projection surfaces permanent display panels.



The meanings of the verbals, symbols, and pictorial counterparts used in a visual are in the mind of the beholder. It does not matter what the source, the designer, or the transmitter of the message means by the parts that make up the visual. To achieve an effective response, the only thing that makes a real difference is the meaning that the receiver (the audience, the learner) sees in the visual. To know with even the most minimal certainty what the parts of a visual mean to a specific audience, the designer must analyze the target audience with as much penetrative perceptivity as possible.



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Accurate interpretation of the elements of elements of a visual display requires that the viewer be able to see them. The visibility of a visual is influenced by these characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.



abstractness of imagery and the ability of the viewer to interpret — style of lettering, mode of lines, size of relevant details, mode of backgrounding, and coloring.



Acuity of visibility is achieved when viewers can perceive and resolve each pertinent detail of a visual, and how each detail relates to and interacts with other details in the same field (see Figure 8.2). The ordinary classroom is about 30 feet in depth. Some viewers are almost always at the extreme depth. The usual small auditorium is about 60 feet in depth. It must be assumed that when such a space is put to use, part the audience will be at the extreme viewing distance. When a viewer is 60 feet away from a visual, whether opaque or projected, any significant detail on the visual needs to be, at minimum, 2 inches tall.



Figure 8.2.



Visibility Standards



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When a viewer is 30 feet away from a visual, whether opaque or projected, any significant detail on the visual needs to be, at minimum, 1 inch tall. When a viewer is 15 feet away from a visual, whether opaque or projected, any significant detail on the visual needs to be, at minimum, ¼ -inch tall. To achieve any of these minimum viewing sizes, several related factors must be considered. These factors are visual field or projection screen size, the aspect ratio of the visual, and the image size on the opaque or projected field. To achieve an adequate image on an opaque field, one need only make the significant detail within minimum limitations of size. To achieve adequate image size on a projected visual, a guideline for the preparation of artwork is useful. The artwork preparation guideline is related to the aspect ratio of the visual, regardless of whether the visual is to be a 2-inch by 2-inch slide, a filmstrip, an overhead transparency, a televised image, or whatever. The significant detail should occupy 1/25 of the space in the aspect ratio—horizontally, vertically, or both. When such a transparency is projected onto a surface that is 4 feet square, and fills the surface, a detail that occupies 1/25 of the aspect ratio of the field on the transparency will appear on the screen as an image that is 1.92 inches tall. This presumes, of course, that since the screen is filled, the projector must be at the appropriate distance from the screen, and the lens used is of the appropriate focal length. An image that is 1.92 inches tall satisfies and exceeds the minimum requirement for a 30-foot viewing distance. It should be kept in mind that significant images on projected visuals have both height and width. The image on the transparency, therefore, should occupy 1/25 of the space by its width, as well as by its height, to be clearly perceived. When a viewer is at the extreme depth of an ordinary classroom, about 30 feet from an opaque surface or from a projection surface, the field of the surface in either case ought to be no smaller than 4 feet square (see Figure 8.3). In a classroom of this size, the front row of viewers ought to be seated no closer to the viewing surface, or the projection screen, than 8 feet. In this case, 8 feet is the equivalent of two widths of the screen. One of the viewing problems in the ordinary classroom, or a room that has a relatively flat floor, is that viewers in the first several rows tend to block the vision of viewers in the rows behind. An immediate way to neutralize this blockage is to stagger the seats in each row. Another way to overcome the blockage is to provide pallets and stack them to tier the seating. Each stack of pallets should be 6 inches higher than the stack immediately before it. Also, the projector should be elevated so that the lowermost portion of its projected image is at the eye level of the viewers in the front row.



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Figure 8.3.



Screen Visibility



The actual opaque surface, or projection surface, should be installed to be 8 feet from the floor. To do this with a screen that is 4 feet high, the ceiling must be, obviously, at least 8 feet high. The projection surface ought to be mounted with its top edge 18 inches from the wall. This will allow its lower edge to be drawn back to offset projection keystoning. To avoid obstacles in the line of projection, illumination lights in the classroom should be flush-mounted in the ceiling. They should be fitted with directive diffusers to provide down lighting for response and practice. Illumination lights ought to be fitted with dimmer switches. The maximum viewing distance necessarily varies, depending on the size of the audience and the room in which the viewing occurs. From one environment to another, the screen size may change, the projector-to-screen distance may be restricted at one distance or another, and the available lens focal lengths may be restricted. Unless appropriate visuals can be prepared whenever necessary, the size of the significant images will determine how large a screen is needed and the maximum tolerable viewing distance. Knowing any two elements of the data, and using the template, one can determine the third when it is unknown. For example: 1.



Knowing the screen size and the maximum necessary viewing distance establishes the necessary size of significant details.



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Knowing the screen size and the size of letters or significant details on the visuals establishes the maximum tolerable viewing distance. Knowing the probable maximum viewing distance and the size of significant details on the visuals establishes the necessary size of the screen and the projector-to-screen distance required to produce an image visible to viewers at the maximum distance.



Research discloses that the verbals of a message on a medium will have optimal legibility if simple, bold, block letters are used. Old English letters, or any otherwise attractive letter style, may lend beauty to the format of a visual, but they are not as legible as block letters. Further, to avoid illegibility, it is wise to avoid the use of serifs on letters. Like other artistically designed and adorned letters, those with serifs are attractive and have a pleasantness of design, but the serifs make the letters difficult to read, especially in relation to other letters. This is particularly true when then are viewed at a distance. Letters with serifs are also more difficult to produce (see Figure 8.4). The spacing of letters and the spacing between words in a visual also contribute to visibility. Mechanical spacing (i.e., spacing letters equidistant



Figure 8.4.



Lettering Hints



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from each other) does not produce satisfactory results. Optical spacing is a more useful technique. In optical spacing, the important estimate is the volume of white area between any two letters. Each volume between two letters should be the equivalent of the volume between the two letters that precede and the two letters that follow. To space words, the white area between the end letter of a word and the beginning letter of the next word should be about 1½ times as much as the optical volume between letters between words. Letters can be either upper-case, popularly known as capitals, or lower-case, popularly known as small letters. Upper-case letters should be used sparingly. If the line used to make letters is too thick, and the letter is not large enough, block-up may result. Avoid it, if possible. At various viewing distances, the visibility of lines is a matter of concern. At extreme distances, a line that is too thin may be anything from indeterminable to invisible. At 60 feet, line thickness ought to be 1/8 of an inch for clear perception. At 45 feet, line thickness can be reduced to 1/16 of an inch and be adequately visible. At 30 feet, the thickness of lines can be reduced to 1/32 of an inch and be visible. One and thirty-two hundredths of an inch is an optimal thickness to use at any closer distance (see Figure 8.5).



Figure 8.5.



Visibility Standards



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Changes in the basic size and/or style of selected letters of verbals ought to be made rarely, if ever. When changes are made, they ought to be made boldly. The new letters selected should vary significantly in size or in style, preferably both. It is also useful to the attractiveness of format and the legibility of the visual to make a significant shift in position within the rule of thirds. When using color, it might also be useful to change the color to a complementary hue. Grid patterns also influence visibility (see Figure 8.6). When the lines of a grid are too close together horizontally and vertically, they tend to appear to the viewers, at distances exceeding resolution, as gray areas or mass blacks. Obviously, such blockages cause a loss of detail, and may even make a visual unintelligible. At 60 feet of viewer-display distance, grid patterns should have interstices from top to bottom and from side to side of 1/8 inch. The interstices should be 1/16 of an inch when the viewer-display distance is 45 feet, and



Figure 8.6.



More Lettering Hints



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the same grid pattern can be used for viewer-distances of 30 feet and 15 feet. When the viewer-display distance is as small as 7 ½ feet, a grid pattern of 1/32 of an inch can be used. The symbols used with visual displays must also conform to the viewer-distance-size triad. When symbols are two-dimensional, the minimums apply to height and width. When symbols are three-dimensional, the added dimension of depth must be treated. In any case, it is the significant detail that must be treated, not only the major object. At 3 ¼ feet, the detail should be 1/8 inch. At 7 ½ feet, the detail must be ¼inch. Detail should be ½ inch and larger beyond 15 feet. A horizontal display consists of several elements that are different from those of the vertical display. Both the horizontal display and the vertical display have the same composition of grounds, namely, foreground, mid-ground, and background. The foreground, the mid-ground, and the background of the vertical display are usually more apparent than real. On the horizontal display, they can be employed with three-dimensional objects. On a horizontal display, the attention of the viewer is ordinarily drawn first to the foreground. Unless there is an unusual treatment, visual progression goes from the foreground to the mid-ground to the background. Attention can be drawn to the mid-ground or the background first by means of intense stimuli. A flashing light, motion, especially motion that is irregular, fluorescent colors, contrasting textures, or high-contrast geometrics can be used to override natural visual progression. On a vertical display, the attention of the viewer may be drawn to the apparent grounds in the same order as for the horizontal display. The stronger impulse for the Western eye, however, is to move to the upper left of the visual, then to the right and downward to the lower right. When the attention reaches the lower right, the visual may lose the attention of the viewer unless a device for recapturing the eye, and recycling it, is part of the design. This control of eye movement is demonstrated in Figure 8.7. The attention is captured with the written word “Fox,” then the eye is guided to the right by “seeds,” down the corn stalks, then redirected horizontally to the left to the real fox, and finally the route is completed at the initial point. The pictorial counterparts of a visual are placed in whatever sequence appears to be appropriate on the selected grounds. Pictorial counterparts may be installed in the visual field together with whatever verbals support the objective. Some visuals may use nothing but verbals to make their point. To guarantee that viewers will perceive the visual as intended, directive devices should be strategically installed in the visual. A visual designed to make optimal use of its opportunities includes these elements:



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Figure 8.7.



1. 2.



Eye Movement Control



A means of attracting attention. This is laced, ordinarily, in the upper-left quadrant of the visual field and actually or apparently in the foreground, no farther than the actual or apparent mid-ground. A means of moving the eye of the viewer from the point of attraction to the next relevant point. Ordinarily, the next relevant point will be to the right of the attractor and slightly downward. In an actual or apparent three-dimensional field, the eye can be moved one ground deeper or one ground more shallow; arrows, pointing fingers, staring eyes, a protrusion on an object, progressions of increase or decrease in size, color, tone, or geometrics can direct eye movement.



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3.



4.



5.



A means of emphasis of the critical elements of the visual. This emphasis can be accomplished by means of significant variations of color, tone, contrast, size, style, and use of backgrounding, pointers, or converging lines Effective isolation of significant elements within a coherent field. This can be done by using backgrounding of items, lines, or masses. Coherence can be achieved by using mass designs as backgrounding, arranging them so that their edge lines are directional The background of a visual should be planned and arranged to enhance the primary message of the visual. It should separate primary elements from subordinate elements while maintaining their coherence.



A visual is composed by including all of the elements within a space known as the field. The field includes all of the available space within the parameters of whatever material one uses. It is the area of the material; that is, the height times the width. A field can be oriented vertically so that it is taller than it is wide. The field can also be oriented horizontally, so that it is wider than it is tall. The relationship between the height and width is called the aspect ratio. The aspect ratio ought to conform to whatever camera and projector is used. In preparation, artwork for 2-inch by 2-inch slides uses a ratio of two units by three units (2 X 3). Filmstrips require a ratio of three units by four units (3 X 4). Television also employs a ratio of three units by four units. Overhead transparencies have an aspect ratio of 7 ½ inches on to 9 inches, usually arranged on the horizontal plane. Vertical and horizontal displays use whatever space is available. A visual which has the emphasis of its components placed at or near the center of its field is in a condition of extreme or near extreme stasis (see Figure 8.8). It is in almost total balance and is the antithesis of dynamic. For the viewer, it is difficult to achieve productive visual scan. It is even difficult to image stasis converted to motion. Moving the attentive eye of the viewer is less likely in a visual that has stasis. Losing viewer attention is more probable, faster. A visual which has its main elements placed to the extreme sides, top, or bottom of the field is in extreme imbalance. Viewers generally interpret such arrangements as giving the impression of uncertainty or insecurity. In the absence of specific purpose, severe imbalance ought not to be used in visuals. Imbalance is, however, one of the ways that eye movement can be directed. Also, when the purpose is to achieve instability or uncertainty, severe imbalance is a means of doing it. Imbalance can be created by an irrational placement of mass. This too makes the viewer uncomfortable. It should only be used when necessary to achieve a specific purpose.



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Figure 8.8.



Balance



With appropriate purpose indicating the need, imbalance can be created within the major visual field or within subordinate visual fields. One of the more immediately conceived uses for imbalance within subordinate fields is to create eye-movement in sequences relevant to the major field. A visual field can be divided into horizontal and vertical segments. Two equally spaced horizontal lines and two equally spaced vertical lines divide the field into thirds on both planes. This imaginary division establishes the rule of thirds. The dynamic points of a field are at the intersection of the lines. At the dynamic points, the motion potential of the visual is clockwise, along the lines, from upper left to upper right to lower right. Recycle can be achieved by putting directors at the lower right and the lower left. The closer attention is directed, or randomly drifts, toward the center of the field, the more stasis it generates. The farther from the dynamic intersections and their connectors attention is directed or drifts, the more imbalance it achieves.



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There is a mnemonic device encapsulating a number of concerns that produce more effective visuals: “Successful Design Produces Better Visuals Helpfully.” The first letters of each word are the key: S,D,P,B,V,H. In turn, the words connected with the letters are the effective features of the visuals: 1. Successful 2. Design 3. Produces 4. Better 5. Visuals 6. Helpfully



Simplicity Dominance Pattern Balance Variation Harmony



A visual ought to be correlated with a clear objective. An instructional visual is an outcome of an objective. The visual implements the objective. Whether or not a visual is simple depends on the objective and the intricacy and complexity of the characteristic behaviors it educes. To some degree, whether or not a visual is simple is a subjective evaluation made overtly or covertly by the viewer. Whatever the level of simplicity must be, the designer of the visual should seek to make it as uncluttered and as relevant as imagination and creativity will allow. When possible, as permitted by the implications of the objective, visuals related to it should present one unencumbered item of information. For any given visual, simplicity includes the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.



A single concept, skill description, or indicator behavior motivator. Only those cues that are relevant to enable the viewer to deduce meaning by means of the symbols. Freedom from errors and inaccuracies. Avoidance of abstraction beyond the training of the audience.



The elements of a visual carry the primary message dominant in the total design. Each key element should be treated graphically to persuade attention and should be emphasized. When key elements in a visual require the support of subordinate elements, directors should be used to move the eye in appropriate sequences. If there is more than one key element, each should be isolated and be placed and related through the others for pertinent dominance. The technique of dominance is used to attract attention to the elements of a visual in the order of their significance. The designer of the visual can make astute selections from the following: 1. rule of thirds 2. pointers 3. color intensities 4. perspectives



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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.



contrast intensities magnifications texture variations line of inspection motion light size variation style variation



The arrangement of the visuals, the verbals, and the dominance techniques results in a pattern (see Figure 8.9). The pattern is effective when it— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



gets attention directs attention holds attention ensures meaning, and recycles attention.



Figure 8.9.



Rule of Thirds



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The optimal patterns will pattern will have the same meanings for the views as it does for the pattern designer. Any regular geometrical design provides a pattern that tends to control the eye. Geometric patterns provide eye control because their patterns are predictable to the viewer. A viewer who knows the geometrical pattern has an expectancy of probability of where to look next. Any letter of the alphabet provides a control pattern for the same reasons as geometrical patterns. The design of a pattern is a plan for manipulation and arrangement of the basic elements. The basic elements include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



Verbal elements. Pictorial counterparts. Paces on the field where there is something. Places on the field where there is nothing (called “white space” regardless of actual color). This is a significant part of a successful pattern; there should not be too little of it Directors.



Balance is another important factor in the design of a visual. Lack of balance creates a feeling of uneasiness, of uncertainty, even of lack of equilibrium in some viewers. Unless there is a clear and present need for lack of balance, every effort ought to be made to achieve balance. A balanced visual provides viewers with security and comfort. Viewers are more likely to look at balanced visuals, but will attempt to evade looking at visuals that have poor balance. Imbalance in design can be used purposefully to persuade eye movement. To achieve balance, dark areas and large masses should be placed at or near the center of the field, preferably just slightly below the focal center and the horizontal center of the field. The impression of balance is created, as are the other subjective aspects of a visual, as the viewers’ responses to their own expectancies. Generally, viewers expect large masses and dark masses to be heavier than small and light ones. Variations in a sequence of otherwise similar design elements can attract attention and hold it long enough to generate cognizance. When variation in a design is unexpected, intensity of emphasis can be the result. The intensity of visual attractiveness, isolation, and emphasis can be provided by changing the following at pertinent places (see Figure 8.10): 1.



The shape of an object that is a visual target within a series of similarly shaped objects. 2. The size of an object within a series of objects that are similar in size.



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Figure 8.10.



3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.



Size Balance



The texture of an object in a series of objects of similar textures or backgrounded by similar texture. The color of an object within a series of objects of similar color. The format of a line, differing from the rest of the line elsewhere in the design. The position of an object within a series of similarly positioned objects. The dimensions of an object within a series of objects of similar contrast. The organization of a group of objects within a series of similarly grouped or randomly grouped objects. Variations of style, such as cartoons within photographs, photographs inset into cartoons, magnification insets, and the like.



The elements of a visual should provide for continuity of the process of the development of related data, the formation of indicator behavior, or the establishment of psychomotor behavior. The visual should give the impression of a unified configuration.



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Harmony is created when the eye and the mind can follow the layout of the visual smoothly, with predictable patterns, without sharp diversion, and in a more or less effortless fashion. The first task of a visual is to attract attention to itself. Eastman Kodak research has shown that once attention is achieved by a visual, it is maintained for about 12 seconds, after which it erodes at a rate described by the deceleration curve. To renew the 12-second limitation, the visual should move the eye continuously to relevant parts of the field, in the sequence that is most appropriate to the message. The main object is to avoid loss of interest and attentive effort. Attention can be attracted to pertinent visual elements by various techniques, including: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.



spotlighting the use of speculars varying the intensity of lighting, colors, tones, or contrasts within the field combining reality with line drawings or caricatures verbal directions on the visual, or in accompanying sound framing significant elements significant background variations pointers motion, actual or simulated



Even the lines and consequently the attitude of the elements of a visual can create a reciprocity of impression with viewers (see Figure 8.11). Communication theorists, graphics technicians, artists, and others generally agree on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.



Diagonal lines suggest motion. Curves indicate flow, and the larger the curve, the slower the flow. Vertical lines suggest strength. In context, curlicues indicate turmoil and unrest.



In summary, visuals intended to change behavior are almost always composed using sets of significant elements. Categorically, the significant elements include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



A main image, which may be pictorial counterparts. Verbals, more abstract symbols, or correlated combinations thereof. Subordinate images, arranged in sequences. Placement on the concrete-abstract continuum. Colors, contrasts, textures, arranged to be used as attention-getters, eye-movers, recapturers, recyclers.



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Figure 8.11.



Line Indicators



The elements of a visual should employ only as much detail as is necessary to configure the message to the viewer. Research has shown that the more abstract subsequent visuals should be for learners who have previous knowledge and/or experience. When objects or ideas are novel to viewers, concrete visuals are more effective. Appropriate reduction of cues eliminates viewer distraction and confusion when the cues are designed with skill. The elements of a visual are the equivalents of the elements of a syntax. For example, the use of backgrounding includes the following purposes: 1. 2. 3. 4.



To set forth primary images. To sequence images in the order of their importance. To provide directors to control eye movement. To modify the meaning of images as intended by the designer.



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The use of backgrounding is a subtle technique. It is more effective when it does its job without intruding on the awareness of viewers. SUMMARY Visuals are prepared for a purpose. When that purpose is related to behavior change, the visual can be classified by a position at a point along a continuum. The continuum begins at its lowermost end with visuals, which have only the purpose of attracting attention. At the opposite end of the continuum, which may be considered to be the more sophisticated and complex end, visuals should be found which have the purpose of near-total to total instruction. The continuum is illustrated in Figure 8.12. At the simplest end of the continuum, visuals are intended only to attract attention. Other than those capture that the viewer’s immediate attention , this kind of visual is composed of no other cues, symbols, verbals, or pictorial counterparts. When such a visual is successful in capturing attention, its hold on attention, otherwise unsupported, is temporary. About 12 seconds, or less, is all the time that can be depended upon without other visual devices. At the next, somewhat more complex level of the continuum can be found the visual condition, which generates interest. At this level something is added to the attractive element that enables it to hold attention somewhat longer than unsupported attraction. Since the attention of the viewer is held—whether by perception, a desire to scan, focus on an attractive detail, or something else—the viewer can be said to be interested. The next, still more complex, visual format is the continuum’s entertainment level. At the level of entertainment, it can be assumed that the viewer’s cognizance has passed through all the preceding levels and been influenced by them. The viewer’s attention has been attracted, has been held by the interest generated by what is perceived, and at this level, what is perceived is entertaining. At the level of entertainment, the visual holds the attention of the viewer for an additional period of time. The condition



Figure 8.12.



Simple:Complex Continuum



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of entertainment can be identified by an overt, or even covert, reaction to satisfaction or pleasure. At the next, even more complex, level, the viewer experiences the gain of information. Again, at this level, the attention of the viewer has been attracted, it has been held by interest, it has been additionally held, perhaps even reinforced, by satisfaction or pleasure, called entertainment, and now, the viewer consciously perceives information. The perception of information may include the conscious addition of an item of data to the repertoire of the viewer or the recognition of an indicator behavior as representing an act of appreciation, an establishment of values, the significance of a credo, or the perception of the details of a psychomotor skill. The level of motivation is the next-higher level on the continuum. Motivation is the condition of the visual which provides a rationale that the viewer can accept. Now the viewer finds a desire to continue perception in what previously attracted him, gained his interest, provided satisfaction or pleasure, and made him recognize that he has gained information. The visual has established in the viewer a desire to synthesize or apply the information gained. At the highest level of the continuum, the visual is designed to include all of the characteristics that make it instructional. The characteristics include attention to and treatment of all of the visibility standards: 1. detail height 2. line thickness 3. grid patterns 4. optical spacing 5. visual field 6. rule of thirds The aspects of the continuum include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



eye-movement devices emphasis designs solation techniques coherence techniques recycling techniques.



The mnemonic “Successful Design Produces Better Visuals Helpfully” features the following characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.



simplicity dominance pattern balance variation harmony



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Other techniques include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.



effective use of “white” space attraction techniques line uses visual elements cue reduction syntax backgrounding



The level of instruction also makes use of all the other aspects of the continuum to serve its primary purpose: to change behavior from whatever it is to whatever it is supposed to become, and to develop behavior progressively and refine it. A visual is inadequate if it has significant details in conditions that deny the viewer the ability to resolve them and to relate one significant detail, together with its subordinate elements, to other significant details. Whatever an inadequate visual costs, it is too expensive. Depending on the assumptions of whoever employs the visual to instruct, an inadequate visual may also be wasteful of time, energy, and opportunities to learn. A more suitable visual, used within equivalent frameworks of instruction and conformed to the appropriate standards and techniques, is cost-effective and worth whatever it costs. A visual that employs verbals, symbols, and/or pictorial counterparts that require viewers to analyze their meanings by deduction or induction obstructs learning. Unless the purpose of the visual is to educe analysis, deduction, or induction of meaning—that is, to decode the message by means equivalent to cryptographic techniques—it is unnecessarily resistant to generating a target behavior change. Meanings for verbals, symbols, and pictorial counterparts, and whatever arrangements of any of them the designer believes to have a specific meaning, are actually in the beholder. To assure consistency of interpretation, the designer of a visual needs to know the kinds of meanings that are held by the target audience, and to use visual components that are dependable. The alternatives are to teach the target audience the meanings that are intended by specific visual components or to gamble that the audience will somehow interpret the meanings correctly. The latter gamble is an extreme long shot that seldom pays off. Motion is one the elements of a visual that can attract and hold attention. Motion can be provided by means of small, inexpensive, battery-powered motors. There are motors that oscillate, others that rotate, and twoand four-place motors that revolve visuals, or parts of them, in stages. Walt Disney’s animators have discovered that increasing degrees of realism and of interest are obtained with the use of counter-motions, either within or between visual components.



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Chapter 9



MESSAGE/MEDIUM DESIGN



INTRODUCTION There are at least five billion people in the world. Technology exists that makes it possible to talk to all the people in the entire world in their own language and idiom at the same time. If you could get their attention, and if you talked for only one minute, you would have the “time of humanity” for five billion person-minutes, more or less! Five billion person-minutes is the equivalent of 9,513 person-years. That is the equivalent of more than twice the time span of recorded history. What would you say that mattered? What would you say that would be worth the money, energy, time, and skill expended? If you instruct in the ordinary schoolroom, it is not unlikely that you will instruct thirty persons, more or less. For every hour that you instruct thirty persons, you use instructional time at the rate of 30 person-hours, more or less. Thirty person-hours is the equivalent of one person work-week. The school day usually consists of six such class hours. Thus, you use person-hours of learning at the rate of six person work-weeks per day! What will you instruct that matters? What will your students learn that is worth the money, energy, time, and skill expended? Productive citizens in contemporary society are likely to change their occupations as often as five or more times during their lifetimes. Technological and industrial development is evolving at a rate that requires pro131



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ductive citizens to reeducate themselves, at least for occupational change, by means of their own initiative, resourcefulness, and learning skill. Increases in available leisure time, correlated with early retirement, make avocational, recreational, and gerontological education advisable. Society cannot tolerate inadequate education or educational failures. Inadequate education and educational failures cause and stimulate the growth of • • • • • • • • • • • • •



police forces military forces penal institutions drug abuse welfare rolls alcohol abuse personal abuse crisis clinics mental health clinics teenage pregnancy teenage venereal disease physiological dropouts functional illiteracy



No matter what valid accountable education costs, it is far more economical than the alternatives. MAJOR QUALITIES Effective instruction, especially validatable instruction, has an objective. When the instructor specifies the objective, the message that will elicit the behavior sought must be designed. When the message is designed to suit the persons who are to learn, a medium must be designed to convey the message to them. When the medium is designed to carry the message, it ought to include directives to the persons who are to learn so that they can practice appropriate responses, indicator behaviors (for attitudes, appreciations, general affective behaviors), psychomotor skills, and discriminations. When those who are to learn practice, the medium ought to include criterion checks as diagnostic devices to ensure that appropriate learning has occurred, or to isolate omissions or breakdowns of learning so that they can be repaired and learning established with economy of time and effort. Planning cards constitute a device for the systematic design of messages and media to be used for instruction, and possibly for many other practical purposes. Planning cards provide the conveniences of flexibility, versatility, and clarity or progressive revision and refinement. Planning cards also



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enable the assembly of informational bits, directives, criterion checks, and other instructive techniques, and make editing by addition, deletion, or rearrangement economical of effort and materials. Planning cards, brought together in a selected appropriate sequence, constitute a story, or a learning event. To manipulate planning cards conveniently, a storyboard is useful. There have always been people worth listening to for their random inspired comments, such as Jesus Christ, Einstein, Buddha, Muhammad, Aristotle, Plato, Galileo, Shakespeare. Nowadays, however, the pace of society prevents constant attention. Besides, we can’t all be in the right place at the right time to benefit from the randomly valuable comment. Most instructors profit by application of storyboarding techniques to the design of their instruction—and so do the persons who are to learn from their instruction. LEARNING EVENT DESIGN Decision Learning event design begins with making a decision. The decision is to change behavior from whatever it is to whatever it is to become. The product of the decision is the attainment of the defined goal. Objective(s) Goals are usually attained by accomplishing one or more objectives. Instructional time is frequently limited to a specified period of time. Therefore, objectives which are excessive in scope are unlikely to be accomplished within the time delimitations. Objectives should be structured to a manageable size, and several learning events may be needed to attain the objective and/or goal. To be manageable, objectives must be written so that anyone who reads them will agree on their intent. A properly written objective includes three characteristics : 1. 2. 3.



An overt verb that is semantically stable and describes an appropriate behavior that can be observed when it occurs. within which learning must take place and ultimately be demonstrated to have happened, that is, with or without what, where, and when. Standards of performance that will be acceptable to whoever is to evaluate performance, at whatever levels are appropriate (best,



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good, mediocre, or minimal). Some behaviors are tenable in various degrees of competence. Other behaviors require the highest standards for acceptability. Audience Analysis Earlier, we emphasized that instructors need to provide learners a rationale, from the learners’ point of view, if what they are learning is required of them but not elected. Further, the instructor needs to process content selected to achieve objectives and attain goals. To process content requires that the instructor learn everything possible about the audience of learners. Using this information, the instructor organizes the content so that it meets the following conditions: 1. 2.



It is at levels of difficulty appropriate for the audience. It is at levels of concreteness or abstractness acceptable to the audience. 3. It is arranged in bits of information of appropriate size. 4. It is grouped appropriately so that pertinent bits assume intended relationships. 5. is presentable at a stimulating pace of exposure. 6. It is presentable at an attention-holding rate of development. 7. It is capable of appropriate delay to accept feedback, then re-engageable without loss of continuity. 7. It is presented in an appropriate narrative that is direct expository narrative or personalized narrative. It is these characteristics that make the use of planning cards so valuable and effective. Planning cards make the characteristics manageable and applicable. PLANNING CARDS The term “planning cards” is a convenience, since either paper or cardstock can be used for the purpose. Whatever is used can be white or colored, and, if colored, can be used for encodement as is convenient for the user. Planning cards should fit conveniently in some kind of standard filing box. Each card should be capable of accommodating elements of a content outline, directive indicators, or criterion checks. Also, the card should hold descriptions (verbal or pictorial) of a visual related to the content element, the directive indicator, or the criterion check, and should have space for about sixty words of narrative. Depending on how one writes, 3 by 5 inches and 5 by 8 inches are convenient sizes (see Figure 9.1).



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Figure 9.1.



Storyboard Card Dimensions



Design Structures To design message and medium, using planning cards to do the following: 1. Design the content. 2. Design the visuals which interact with the content. 3. Design the narrative, including exposition description discussion directives to respond and practice criterion checks to diagnose degrees of success. Upper-Right Quadrant The content outline of the learning event is developed, one item per card, in the upper-right quadrants of all the cards of the storyboard. Determining the elements of the content outline requires decisions about these items: 1. 2. 3.



Where the event is to begin. Where the event is to end. What must be in between to accomplish the objective.



The elements of the content outline placed in the upper-right quadrant of the planning cards of the storyboard control these items:



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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.



INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN: A PRIMER



level of presentation degree of abstraction pace of presentation rate of presentation continuity of content contiguity of content directives for practice diagnostic criterion checks



Planning cards begin with the major points to be made during the learning event. There should be one card for each major point. Major points and all subsequent plan cards are arranged continuously, and in sequence whenever appropriate. Sequence is appropriate only when a subsequent item on a card is dependent on a preceding item. Otherwise, sequence is irrelevant. The content outline is divided into whatever subpoints contribute to the development of each major point. For example, cards may be added, one item per card, arranged in whatever order appears appropriate, to include the following: 1.



2.



Support from data and research historical sociological experimental scholarly writing informed opinion Continuity items, such as humor abridgement allegory explanation anecdotes examples



As a learning event proceeds, one major idea after another within the event is initiated, dealt with, and completed (see Figure 9.2). According to the judgment of the designer of the event, especially when the instruction for a major idea is completed, cards are inserted into the storyboard to provide directives to the learners. Providing directives removes the probability that the wrong kinds of behaviors will be practiced. Providing directives improves the probability that appropriate kinds of behavior will be practiced when the information that supports them is fresh in the minds of those who are to learn. For directives that correspond to objectives requiring verbal behavior, the directive should call for a verbal response (see Figure 9.3).



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Figure 9.2.



Storyboard Cards



A verbal response can be spoken, written, chosen from multiple choices, matched, labeled, and so on. For directives that correspond to objectives requiring affective behavior, the responses called for should indicate behaviors (see Figure 9.4). Responses can be spoken, written, or physical.



Figure 9.3.



Verbal Response



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Figure 9.4.



Affective Behavior



For directives that correspond to objectives requiring psychomotor behavior, the directive should call for physical performance (see Figure 9.5). Responses should utilize whatever equipment is necessary. For all directives, time is required. The designer should indicate the time in brackets following the directive statement. Time allotments ought to be realistic. The designer can determine how much time is needed by



Figure 9.5.



Psychomotor Behavior



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testing, making the response as the learner might, and timing the response as it is made. Once a directive has been made or a pattern of directives has been made and responded to, it may be presumed that learners have accomplished a subobjective or an objective. Rather than taking this for granted, the designer of the learning event tests persons who are to learn to ascertain whether they have learned completely, in part, or not at all. The process is diagnostic. It is called making a criterion check (see Figure 9.6). It determines, between the beginning of a learning event and the first criterion check, or between any two criterion checks, whether success or breakdown has occurred. Criterion checks should correspond to objectives, subobjectives, and directives.



Figure 9.6.



Criterion Checks



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Lower Part of the Card The larger space at the bottom of the plan card is for the narrative. The narrative includes whatever is spoken, related to the item of the content outline on the upper right of the card. Compared to the space occupied by ordinary typed script, when using similar-sized cursive writing, there is space in the narrative part of the planning card for about 60 words of ordinary typed script. When the narrative is spoken at standard speaking rates—about 120 words per minute—each card will hold 30 seconds of narrative. Eastman Kodak research shows that attention related to a static visual tends to erode precipitously after 12 seconds. The attention can be renewed by adding to the visual, subtracting from the visual, pointing to details, moving to close-up or to long shot, or otherwise changing the perceptive mode. When more narrative is required, the reverse side of the card can be used. The symbol on the obverse side indicates the need to flip the card. The more narrative on the card, the more need there is to renew the visual. The narrative may be personalized or direct expository. Sound effects or musical effects may be included in brackets. Timing cues are given, also in brackets. Upper-Left Quadrant of the Card In the upper-left quadrant of the card, instructions are given for visuals related to the narrative and to the content outline item from the upper -right quadrant. An illustration can be described in any of the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.



verbally with stick figures with crude sketches with paste-ups referentially, when an appropriate illustration exists at a known location with more or less finished artwork



In the upper-left quadrant, directions should be given for figure, ground, and other visual effects, such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.



coloring lettering sizes lettering styles backgrounding foregrounding textures camera directions special effects



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Lower Part of the Card The narrative is written on the lower part of the planning card (see Figure 9.7). It may include any of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.



what is to be said what is to be practiced stimuli and directions for responding timing to control practice and response music sound effects criterion checks with test items opportunities to respond



Exposure and Opportunity The purpose of planning cards is to enable the designer of a learning event with a convenient system to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.



Ensure that all content necessary to the learning event is included in forms most likely to be effective. Ensure that pertinent visual displays are related to appropriate parts of the content and are designed for maximal effect. Ensure that the narrative does not overpower the visuals. Ensure that directives for response and practice are given at points where they are most appropriate.



Figure 9.7.



Lower Part of Storyboard Card



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Ensure a continuing diagnosis of learning by using criterion checks at points sufficiently close together to implement the location of breakdowns or progressive success.



System for Notation Planning cards are excellent systematic notation devices for any purpose. Notes are made on the lower part of the card. The reverse side of the card can also be used for notation when necessary. Quotations When the notation is a quotation, it is written word-for-word as it is heard or seen in whatever medium is read, viewed, or auditioned. When words, sentences, paragraphs, or even pages are omitted from a quotation, the omission is shown by means of an ellipsis (. . .). When the omission is terminal to the notation, three dots plus the terminal punctuation are used (. . . !). Commentaries Whenever a notetaker wishes to insert a comment in a note, but the comment is not part of the quotation being noted, the comment is placed wherever the notetaker wants it within the notes and is enclosed in the comment with brackets [ ]. Pagination Following any notation, the numbers of the page or pages from which the notes were taken should be recorded. Recording page numbers make bibliographical reference and notation convenient. Notes made from books are usually taken from chapters. Chapters are usually numbered and sometimes are titled. Chapters can always be delimited by page numbers. Journals, house organs, digests, and other printed matter that is ordinarily divided into chapters have volume numbers, unit numbers, and dates. These may be substituted in referencing readings and notes from such publications. Chapter or volume notations are referenced in the upper-right quadrant of the planning card. Sequencing Notemakers usually take their notes in a sequence. To hold or reorganize the sequence, a sequence number is recorded in the lower-right corner of the upper-right quadrant.



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Classification Notes generally fit into some form of classification pertinent to the notemaker. The category that accommodates the notemaker is encoded along the lower line of the upper-right quadrant. Later, this notation can be used to reassemble all of the notes from the same category. Encodement All the note cards made from a single reference source can be identified by an encodement recorded in the upper-right corner of the upper- right quadrant. Any kind of mark can be used, such as roman numerals, arabic numerals, letters, or symbols. File, Use, Refile Notecards, recorded as previously described, can be taken out of their file sequences, resequenced for use in writing or other purposes, and returned to proper groups for refiling and storage by means of the encodement and sequence numbers. A complete bibliographical reference should be recorded on the first card of a set of notecards taken from a given reference. The reference should be recorded in the upper-left quadrant. The bibliographical reference needs to be recorded only on the first card of a series of notes taken from a single reference. All other note cards made from that reference can be related to the first card by the encodement in the upper-right quadrant. Separator Cards Separator cards can be used as a means of separating sets of note cards (see Figure 9.8). They provide a means of identifying each set Separator cards are generally available to accommodate all standard card sizes. They come in a variety of colors, useful for visual coding. Encodement The encodement from the note cards is placed on the tab of the separator card.



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Figure 9.8.



Separator Card



Bibliographical Reference A complete bibliographical reference to the cards should be made on the face of the separator card. When a Dewey Decimal Classification number is available, it should be recorded on the lower-left corner of the face of the separator card. When a Library of Congress number is available, it should be recorded on the lower-right corner of the face of the separator card.



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Chapter 10



VALIDATION



Accountability is the foundation of professionalism. Accountability means that when specific professionals are afforded appropriate environments, materials, personnel, and of time, they are able to produce the product expected by a sponsoring society and a profession that declares itself to be self-regulating. Accountability is possible, at appropriate levels of quality and significant levels of confidence, only when the techniques, processes, and media designed to generate the intended product are validated. Validation means that whatever is presumed to be validated works, confidently, in whatever manner it is supposed to work, and with the person or persons with whom it is supposed to work. Obviously, this kind of validation implies that no single technique, process, or medium is likely to be an omnibus, or omniscient, or omnipotent. Therefore, whatever works, works for whom it works. Thus those for whom the technique, process, or medium does not work have an obligation to revise to suit, until it does work. INTRODUCTION Public education is supported by a sponsoring society. The citizens of the sponsoring society pay taxes for which they expect certain specific, positive results. It is expected, in a tax-supported system of public education, that 145



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all participants will succeed to the extent of the limits of the personal capacity of each. When all of the youth of a given society do succeed, the professionals, the techniques, the processes, and the media can be said to have met standards of accountability. When any technique, process, or medium accomplishes what was predicted, it can be said to be validated. Except for those whose pathological, psychological, or physiological condition requires highly trained, licensed specialists, participants should all expect from regular instructional design the kind of learning experience that works for them. The statements of philosophy of school systems very often include a declaration acknowledging that each participant has worth, dignity, and unique needs and differences. Oftentimes all the participants are instructed in the same way. In many schools and school systems, all of the participants are subjected to similar, possibly even the same, evaluation methods and media. In many schools, participants declared unique are graded mainly in comparison to other participants rather than in relation to their own accomplishment of unambiguous criteria or in relation to cognitive, affective, or psychomotor development from the beginning of a learning experience to the end. GRADE INFLATION Periodically, the clangor of a tocsin warning against artificial grade inflation resounds through the wonderland of education. The alarm would be more authentic if it warned against irresponsibility and deprecation of academic product. Apparently, there are those in the profession who really do not comprehend the nature or process of evaluation. Some supervisors secretly doubt that any instructor can really be very successful. They believe that interaction between instruction and learning is weighted on the side of learning, and that instruction is the lesser necessity. They believe that every class is a randomized, equated, cross-section sample of society. They cannot believe in the genuine success of all learners at given levels of criteria. To the doubter, high grades are seen as skewed toward success, indicating at best remarkable luck, or “teaching to the test.” Instructing to the means of evaluation, or teaching to the test, is generally viewed as cheating or, at least, as not playing fair. On the other hand, it is well to consider the following: 1. 2. 3.



The objectives should be found in the evaluation criteria. Whatever is important should be in the evaluation. Whatever is unimportant would not be in the evaluation, if the evaluator capable, and how to get it done.



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PEDAGOGICAL PROGRESS Since the beginning of human history, people have been instructing their young. The process was refined very little until the Gutenberg press began to produce printed matter economically. History has been recorded systematically for about 2,500 years. In this period of time we have achieved significant development in academic content and technology. One might expect that similar development has been made in pedagogy during the same period, but it has not. Humanity has been instructing its young at least as long as there has been recorded history. We might expect that modern education would produce better results. Instead society is riddled with functional illiterates who have passed through its schools. Grades are signs used to display degrees of success. When professionals know what they intend and how to achieve what they intend, when the learners know what they are supposed to learn and can improve it under specified conditions, then grades will represent success in teaching and learning. Supervisors seem to be disturbed less when grade scores are arranged to conform closely to a curve of normal probability. When grade scores clump toward the high end of the tail of the curve, supervisors sometimes claim that • the standards of instruction are not high enough, or • that the instructor is “too easy,” or • that the instructor does not know how to test. When grade scores clump toward the lower end of the tail of the curve, supervisors sometimes conclude • • • • •



that instructor is too demanding, or is incompetent, or did not test what he or she instructed, or did not instruct what was tested, or does not know how to construct a test.



In any case, a set of scores from the usual class is unlikely to conform to the curve of normal probability. The scores can be forced—that is, adjusted or treated—to make them conform, more or less, but the bias distorts the mathematics to a meaningless hodgepodge that has shape without substance. When instructors attempt to “adjust” the scores, it becomes an exercise in camouflage.



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NORMAL PROBABILITY To be valuable for its intended purpose, the law and the curve of normal probability must function in accord with its own characteristics, as follows: 1.



2.



3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.



The data from which the distributions are made must result from a valid measurement; that is, one that measures what it purports to measure. The measurements that produce the data must be reliable; that is, consistently measure what they are supposed to measure, time after time. The data must be obtained from a significantly large population. The large population must represent a sample that is a randomly selected and is a cross-section of the society of which it is a part. The data are the result of influential variables. The intervening variables are recognized, eliminated, or controlled, or their effects are accounted for. It can be demonstrated that similar data can be generated naturally with similar populations when the conditions are similar. The degree of standard error is known and taken into account during interpretation of the data. No artificial means are used to make the data conform to the ideal shape of the curve that symbolizes normality.



Ideally, what goes on as treatment in the institutions of instruction is not random. Ideally, what goes on as instruction is biased in favor of the unique needs and differences of the participants. Ideally, in 2,500 years, the professionals of instruction have developed techniques on which everyone can rely. Ideally, the element of chance has been minimized and eliminated to a significant degree. Sadly, the evidence indicates that these ideals have not been met. Yet in public and private institutions of instruction, in training and development in industry and business, too many personnel, too much time, effort, and money, are expended to allow the existence of randomness or chance in instruction. There are too many tenured and certified teachers and too much respect for teacher certification for randomness and chance to be accepted as a modus operandi. Investment in in-service education programs, supervision, and administrative leadership should cancel the curve of normal probability as a reliable expectation. Assuming that professionals are competent, the curve of normal probability should “normally” show a significant skew toward the high tail (see Figure 10.1). Especially in public education, purported to be for all American youth, normative-referenced evaluation, when accurately used, is appropriate to



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Figure 10.1.



The Curve



only a few isolated, unique purposes. Used generally for all evaluation purposes, it is a misdirected technique that produces irrelevant results. For worthy, dignified participants whose needs and differences are unique, the technique is malevolent. BIAS Randomness is a key condition to the generalization of data. Bias is introduced when any condition forces selection of any part of an observation, a measurement, a means of interpretation of the data from a test, instrument readings, or placement of members in any kind of audience. Partici-



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pants in classes in institutions of learning are seldom randomly selected. Seldom, if ever, are such classes true samples of populations. Contamination of randomness results frequently when, for one reason or another, whether benign or practical, one participant or another is moved by design into one group or another, ignoring the table of random numbers or computerized placement. Bias influences the validity of data. When validity is uncertain, reliability is worthless and generalization is not genuine. BIAS OF SELECTIVITY The mass media, peer groups, schools, family and home life, social agencies, and religious institutions have been shown by sociological research to have influence on youth. The impact of their influence is in that order. School influences are third in the order of impact upon youth and have by no means the intensity of the mass media and the peer groups. Experience becomes increasingly intense and influential as youths mature and form attitudes. Attitudes may be arranged on a scale with the enthusiastic, successful, versatile, self-reliant learner at one end of the continuum, and the physiological and psychological dropouts, depressed, unsuccessful, insecure, and dependent, at the other end. History shows that erosive forces in general society and in schools tend to divert and eliminate youths who find institutions of learning to be punitive, coercive, irrelevant, and unsatisfying. Only the law keeps many participants in attendance at schools, but it does not hold all that it might. Students who experience advanced study or training are truly a selected group. At the least, this selected group has survived the influence of the mass media, peer groups, negative experiences in public or private institutions of learning, family life, social agencies, and religious agencies. They are not cross-sectional, randomized representatives of society. SUBJECTIVITY Evaluation in most institutions of learning consists of an assessment disclosed by means of a judgment of a product, a performance, an activity, or a test of some sort. Not infrequently, the evaluation is made by subjective comparison of the performance of one participant with the performance of others. Not unusually, some such judgments are tempered by the inclusion of extenuating circumstances, which not only are not extended to all participants, but also are not even applied consistently to those who benefit from them. Other comparisons are made using data from invalid tests or unreliable tests, and from means that may be beyond the economic range of some participants.



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Normative-referenced evaluation is appropriate when it is used to discriminate between learners. On the other hand, the purpose of public education is to provide conditions within which all learners can achieve potentials of growth and development related to their unique personal characteristics. Adequate application of valid and reliable normative-referenced evaluation depends upon the knowledge and competence of the evaluator in selecting items for the evaluation, skill in writing items when necessary, item analysis, item refinement, and the derivation of known reliability and validity. Contrivance of data manipulation invalidates the curve of normal probability and renders normative-referenced evaluation meaningless to the degree and frequency of the manipulation. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY A normative-referenced test, like any other kind of test, must be valid to be worth anything. A test that is valid is one that tests what it is supposed to test. A test cannot be valid without also being reliable. Reliability means that the same test will provide similar data, confidently, when administered to similar persons under similar conditions. To be respectable, reliability must be expressible in coefficients of .90 or above. A coefficient of .50 means that the test will be reliable only 50 percent of the time. A reliability coefficient of .90 means that the test will produce reliable results nine out of ten times, or ninety out of a hundred times, or any other multiple of ten. The reliability of a test is determined by any of a variety of statistical means. Reliability analyses often involve item-difficulty analyses and the disclosure of negative and positive discrimination items. When an item discloses itself as a negative discriminator—that is, when low-scoring participants succeed in getting the item correctly, and high-scoring participants fail to get the item correctly—it needs to be replaced. An unreliable test produces unreliable data that lead to unreliable evaluations of those who took the test. Attempts to equate evaluations with evaluations are equally or more unreliable. When a professional is unaware the applications and importance of reliability, or insists on using the evaluation in disregard of its characteristics, such use is, at most, a disservice to participants. At worst, it is a dereliction of professional practice. ITEM WRITING At any level, normative-referenced evaluation consists of items. Item writing is a precise skill that requires training and practice. One is not born with the skill of item writing. While literary ability may be helpful, it is of secondary or even tertiary value.



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First, item writing is a matter of selecting an appropriate class of items. To evaluate cognitive learning in any of its several divisions, the item must be cognitively structured within the appropriate division. Similarly, evaluation of affective behavior requires appropriate items to evaluate specified indicator behaviors. In turn, evaluation of a psychomotor behavior requires items that call for psychomotor performance. Next, item writing, whatever its classification, calls for appropriate use of terms and symbols. Attention must be given to the length of the item, the complexity of its structure, the abstractness of its terminology, and the relative difficulty of semantic decipherability. The item writer must understand and avoid inadvertent clueing, obvious errors, and the use of distracters. DISCRIMINATION When an evaluator needs to learn which of a number of participants are most qualified to become members of any criteria-charged opportunity, normative-referenced reliable evaluation is the way to get the task done. Normative-referenced reliable evaluation is a respectable technique for discriminating among learners. The consistency of reliability should continue from evaluation to evaluation, group to group, and institution to institution. Evaluations based on opinion, and supported only by the judgments of one’s expertise, place the decisions made squarely in the realm of the subjective. At best, the judgment may be informal opinion. At worst, the judgments may be purposeful bias. Those who defend subjectivity on the basis of their experience are, at least, clear about their intent, though they may not be clear about the validity of their evaluations. There are so many areas of bias, so many intervening variables, and so much error indigenous to the technique, that it is not defensible. No persistent data are generated by subjective evaluations. Moreover, research shows that subjective evaluations vary from one participant to another, and even from one time to another with the same participant. This holds even for second evaluations of the same performance by the same participant when the evaluator, with knowing it, was evaluating the identical performance and performer for a second time. To suggest, as some do, that the evaluation techniques in a given district or school compare favorably with the evaluative techniques used by other instructors in similar institutions in the same part of the country is probably to compare one’s techniques with others that are equally inept and mediocre, and as unlikely to be valid or reliable. What must be emphasized is that the evaluations made by instructors in educational institutions end up on transcripts, and transcripts follow learners throughout their of academic careers.



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CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION Criterion-referenced evaluation is a viable alternative to normative-referenced evaluation. Since tax-supported public education is for all American youth, the implicit mandate is that all American youth will have opportunities that are appropriate to their unique needs and differences. To accomplish this respectable purpose with system and consistency, criteria for learning, both general and specific, need to be formulated. The assumptions of criterion-referenced evaluation are outlined in the paragraphs that follow. 1.



2.



3.



4.



The participants in public institutions of learning need learning opportunities designed for them. A great deal of remediation, enrichment, and advanced learning is necessary for effective learning. The essential product of public institutions of learning is that participants learn. When participants learn what is expected, the public institution has satisfied the burden of accountability. It is, of course, desirable that participants learn with economy of time and effort, for them as well as their instructors. Time, however, is basically irrelevant. Participants should learn as much as they can, and as swiftly as they can, but the intent of the process is for them to learn, and time ought not to be a key factor. A course of study consists of arranged experiences. The last experience ought to be as consequential, significant, and relevant as the first. As a gestalt, a pattern of learning is unlikely to be complete until the terminal experience has been concluded. The task analysis conducted early in the design process specifies all the tasks necessary to achieve the goal. None can be eliminated; none should be added. The process is decentralized; no experience based on learning tasks is more important than any other experience. Some participants need more time than others, even to reach general readiness, and certainly to activate and order what they learn into an applicable format. Therefore, artificial, administratively convenient boundaries, such as terms, quarters, semesters, or any other limiter, have no real bearing on learning and ought to be ignored. Participants need to know what they are supposed to learn and under what conditions, what they are supposed to do to demonstrate that they have learned, and what standards are acceptable or excellent. When time limitations are relevant, participants need to know how much, and why.



One of the characteristics of criterion-referenced evaluation is that, disregarding time when it is not a genuinely relevant factor, all learners can eventually succeed at the higher levels of quality. To those who insist on the



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curve of normal probability, the skew generated may be untenable. To those who comprehend the mission of public education, there is no other genuine route. For all learners to succeed eventually at high levels of quality is a mark of distinction and a condition of the finest kind of educational opportunity. It is also evidence of the highest kind of performance in professional instruction. Criterion-referenced evaluation is based on the direct, positive, criteria-guided observation of a tangible product. Evaluative criteria, properly constructed, are unambiguous. Evaluation, using criteria, may be diagnostic. Such evaluation is objective and can be applied consistently to all participants. LEVELS Using criterion-referenced evaluation, there are only three tenable levels of evaluation: 1. The participant has not yet learned. 2. Within the established criteria, the participant has learned acceptably. 3. Within the established criteria, the participant has achieved, qualitatively or quantitatively, a superiority of learning. The only limitations on criteria are those designed by a professional instructor. The accountability of a professional is validated when the product is generated by participants within acceptable standards of quality. When participants are unable to accomplish the criteria, the criteria need to be redesigned. NORMATIVE-REFERENCED EVALUATION VS. CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION The differences between normative-referenced evaluation and criterion-referenced evaluation correspond to the differences between the Jeffersonian philosophy of education and the Jacksonian philosophy of education. To be valid, normative-referenced evaluation must discriminate between learners. Normative-referenced evaluation becomes increasingly valid, regardless of the quality, quantity, or duration of learning, as the spread of the data conforms to the characteristic curve. Within normative-referenced evaluation, someone always succeeds. Someone else fails. Criterion-referenced evaluation, on the other hand, is based on what is to be produced as performance by the participant, within what conditions,



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and with what standards of acceptability. Participants are not compared to others but to themselves individually. Comparison is made between the participant’s levels of achievement at the beginning of participation and at the conclusion of the specific experience. In criterion-referenced evaluation, each participant may succeed at levels of the highest standards. In fact, no participant ever fails. Levels of accomplishment include the following: 1. 2. 3.



Some participants learn more swiftly than others and may continue other experiences. Some participants learn more slowly, but make consistent progress. Other participants take longer. They have not failed. They just have not succeeded, yet. GRADE INFLATION



When the educational system functions as it should, randomness and chance of participant success are inadmissible to the process. Development ought to generate a curve of progression. When purposes, content, and technique are similar, it is predictable that contemporary participants will learn at last as much and as well as their predecessors. When purposes, content, and technique improve, as they ought to have done in 2,500 years, contemporary learners should predictably learn more, better, and faster, retain longer, apply more often, and gain more applicable satisfaction than their predecessors. Under this system, the curve or normal probability would show a skew toward the high tail. This might be interpreted as grade inflation by those who do not comprehend the progression. JACKSONIAN PHILOSOPHY Under the Jacksonian philosophy, there is no need or intent to discriminate among learners, and this is the environment in which criterion-referenced evaluation is especially appropriate. Relieved of the artificiality of arbitrarily imposed limitations, especially limitations of time, criterion-referenced evaluation opens a trend toward increasingly universal success. Grades may appear to be inflated, but the phenomenon is actually one of normal, predictable progress in production. When genuine professional practice makes rational use of valid systems of evaluation, resulting from sophisticated, effective techniques of instruction, learners learn more, and evaluation within evidence shows it.



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Figure 10.2.



Accountability



WORTH, DIGNITY, UNIQUENESS Regardless of the attitudes and opinions of those whose decisions in the matter, though apparently couched in contemplative trappings, are actually and finally arbitrary, any curriculum or aspect of it may not satisfy the uniqueness of particular learners. If we believe that learners have worth and dignity and are unique in their needs and differences, we must genuinely and intensively act upon this belief to provide each learner with optimal patterns for learning. Uniqueness requires that participants learn different experiences at different rates of speed, in different amounts, at different levels of quality and quantity. Accountability is enhanced significantly when instruction is supported by validated media (see Figure 10.2). In 2,500 years, amazingly few learning experiences have been validated. Contemporary instructional banks hold only a few standardized tests , programmed learning experiences, and computer programs for learning that have been validated. Most of the experiences known collectively as education have never been validated. Few professionals know how to validate experiences. Few administrators know how to go about having their instructional personnel do the job. Yet the product of the functions of learning can almost certainly be predicted to miss accountability without validation of experiences. Explanations of the failure to educate all American youth are generally are in equivocation and sophistry. But the task can be accomplished. We need only appropriate together with an implemented intent.



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DEVELOPMENTAL TESTING The first step in the development of a validated instructional experience is learning event design. A learning event design includes the following: 1. 2. 3.



4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.



The definition and unambiguous statement of an intended learning goal. A rationale from the point of view of the participant for expending the attention, effort, and time required to accomplish the goal. An objective for the specific learning experience, including an overt verb describing the behavior to be developed, the conditions within which the behavior is to be practiced and demonstrated, and standards of performance acceptable as adequate and excellent. Entry behaviors that need to be established, remediated, or enriched, if any, before the behavior can be developed. Media to be used to convey the information, direct the practice, diagnose progress, and otherwise develop the behavior. Plans for involvement correlated with the objective, and practice of the learned experiences under conditions that are real, or match reality as nearly as possible. Plans for motivation for each objective. A bibliography of media to support establishment, remediation, development, and enrichment of behavior. A statement of events to which the behavior can be applied.



The next step is to detail the development of the learning experience. One effective technique is by means of storyboarding. Storyboarding includes the following: 1. 2. 3.



A comprehensive content outline. Visuals to support facts, ideas, concepts, skills, and indicator behaviors. A narrative to appropriately present the content. The narrative also includes directives for practice at tactical points, timing indicators for practice, and criterion checks to diagnose progress and indicate success.



The next step is to detail the development of the appropriate practices. The appropriate practices should be correlated with the overt verb, conditions, and standards of the objective. Cognitive performance should be appropriate. For affective behavior, appropriate practices related to indicator behaviors should be provided. Appropriate practices for psychomotor behavior should direct psychomotor practice. When a learning experience is ready, it should be tried first with a participant as well prepared and able to learn as there is in the target audience. Any participant who is helping to developmentally test the learning experience should be informed that she or he is testing the event, and not



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personally being tested. This first participant should be able to succeed with the experience. If he or she has any difficulties with the experience, it can be assumed that others will also have difficulties with it. The instructor who is supervising this event should make detailed descriptive notes about anything the participant says or does related to some divergence from successful progress with the experience. After the first developmental test, the learning experience should be revised to modify the points of difficulty expressed by the first participant. The modified experience is then tried with another participant who is representative of the ordinary members of the target audience. This second participants should be treated in all respects the same as the first participant. Detailed descriptive notes should be made about any difficulties the participant expresses or displays. After the experience is finished, the learning experience is modified again at the points of difficulty. After the experience has again been refined by modification, a third participant is asked to try it. The third participant should be representative of the slower learners in the target audience. This participant is also treated the same as the preceding two. Detailed descriptive notes are taken when the third participant expresses or displays difficulty, and the experience is again modified to conform. Now the experience should be tried with a small group of participants. None of the first three participants should be used. The group of participants should consist, minimally, of two fast learners, two ordinary learners, and two slower learners. They too are instructed that they are testing the event, and should freely express any difficulties they encounter. The supervising instructor makes detailed descriptive notes when difficulties are expressed or displayed. The small group of participants will probably express few difficulties, since the shakedown given the experience by the first three participants will have gone a long way toward eliminating problems. If any are expressed or displayed, the experience should again be modified accordingly. VALIDATION Finally, to be validated, the experience needs to be tried under conditions that approach real classroom conditions as nearly as possible. Any difficulties disclosed are reason, again, to make corresponding modifications. When, at last, the learning experience is learned successfully, within criteria, by all participants in real classes, it can be said to be validated. Genuine professionalism in learning institutions during the opening years of the twenty-first century strongly indicates a need, even a requirement, for the systematic, progressive development of a comprehensive bank of validated learning experiences.



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Chapter 11



AFTERWORD



Instructional technology is an academic area in which all teachers and trainers should be competent. It is virtually impossible to engage in teaching, training, and learning without utilizing the knowledge and skills in this field. With the advances made in delivery systems, software development, and pedagogy at the end of the twentieth century and continuing into the twenty-first century, the way our society envisions the process of teaching and learning is changing. If not a completely new paradigm, there is at least the proverbial paradigm shift. We appear to be decentralizing the process. Instead of teaching/learning being teacher-dominated— that is, the role of the teacher being a dispenser of information in a closed system—the process is teacher-guided, and the learner has input into what is to be learned and how, building upon prior knowledge. The contemporary learner has an incredible number of options to internalize the foundations of learning in knowledge, comprehension, and application. Using the World Wide Web, the leading libraries, databases, and storehouses of knowledge are at everyone’s fingertips. Opportunities for learners to externalize, demonstrating their analysis, synthesis, and evaluation competencies are greater than ever before. Learners can be given almost unlimited opportunities to construct meaning and demonstrate their construction in non-traditional ways. No longer must learning be directed toward the lower levels. Learners now have resources to develop and demonstrate higher-order thinking 159



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skills. Fear of the constructivist approach with this cornucopia is probably natural. Room for abuse and misuse is enormous enough for many to decry its application. The trepidation caused in the uninitiated by the constructivist approach is nothing to fear if the tenets of instructional design are incorporated into the curriculum. This book advocates a process which enables the teaching/learning process to capitalize upon the constructivist approach in a non-threatening, coherent fashion. THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PACKAGE The completed instructional design should be packaged in a manner that makes it usable by anyone who chooses. The completed design should be bound in a protective cover and should contain the following components: 1. A title/cover page. 2. An overview to the learning event. The overview should contain a statement(s) about the philosophy undergirding the design, the audience or learner for whom the design is intended, and the scope of the learning event. 3. A goal statement followed by a statement about the key elements contributing to the formulation of the goal. Typical key elements might include, the expectations of the society, the expectations of the subject specialists, and the needs and interests of the learner. The philosophical filter as well as the learning theory filter should be addressed in this statement. 4. A rationale. The rationale should present an answer to the question so many learners ask, “Why should I learn this?” It should include inductive, deductive, intrinsic, and/or exhortative arguments. Remember that when learners find utility in what they are asked to learn that is relevant to the present moment, they are more likely to submit controlled attention to the learning task. Not only should “why” be answered in the rationale but also “where,” “how,” and “when.” 5. A motivational strategy. Maslow’s hierarchy provides a good approach to motivational strategy. Maslow described the individual’s needs as residing at a particular place at a given time. He identified physiological, psychological, sociological, ego, and self-fulfillment (or self-actualized) levels. Earlier in this book a definition of learning was presented. Learning was defined as a desired behavioral change that is relatively stable over a relatively extended period of time and devoid of undesirable side-effects. A personal anecdote might be appropriate at this point. As a



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6. 7.



8.



9.



young faculty member, I was assigned to supervise interns (student teachers, as they were called in those days). During one of my visits to an intern in a fifth-grade classroom, I saw a cafeteria tray on her desk. The tray contained a lunch as yet untouched. Assuming the lunch was hers and that she was working too hard, I queried her about it with the intent of suggesting that she be sure to take time to eat. Her response was, “Oh, I’ve eaten. That is Billy’s lunch.” “Is Billy sick?” I asked? “Oh no, he’s not sick. He won’t do his arithmetic. I told him that until he did his arithmetic he could not eat,” she responded. I was horrified. Could Billy be forced to learn by withholding food from him? Even if he could (and each of us likely could be forced), the practice surely would generate undesirable side-effects probably manifested in hatred of school, of arithmetic, and even of the intern. Yet we often unwittingly withhold satisfaction of other physiological, psychological, sociological, ego, and self-fulfillment needs of the learner thus negatively affecting the teaching/learning process. A list of the results of a task analysis. Be sure to emphasize that accomplishment of these tasks will be evidence that the goal has been achieved. A list of the operational objectives for each task. Make sure that each objective includes a terminal behavior, a condition, and a standard. Also, a reminder to write the objective(s) on the highest level possible. While objectives often include characteristics from more than one domain of learning, they can usually be classified as primarily at one level. This is important because later the learner activities must include activities at all the lower levels. Pre-tests. Your pre-test should provide a means (not necessarily a penciland-paper test) to determine two things: (1) Does the learner possess the entry behaviors to be successful? (2) Does the learner already have the skills, knowledge, or attitudes called for in the objective? Advanced organizers. Learners possess a schema within which they process information. For example, when asked to name as many animals as they can, most learners will unconsciously group the animals as they name them. They usually will name four or five animals within a group (e.g., tigers, lions, panthers, cougars, all of which are related to cats), then switch to another group (e.g., cows, pigs, horses, goats, all of which are domesticated farm animals, or elephants, rhinos, hippos, etc., all large jungle animals). In doing so they will be demonstrating a schema at work. The instructional designer can either



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provide a new schema or suggest one that the learner already possesses. Regardless of which technique you choose, an advance organizer makes information processing much easier for the learner. 10. A list of the learner activities to accompany each objective. Each objective should have learner activities at every level lower than itself. For example, if the objective is at the highest level, evaluation, then there should be learner activities requiring knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, and synthesis. 11. A list of the media required for the learning event. First determine the need for a given medium. State in the design where that medium can be obtained, or make it a part of the package. The process should be reemphasized that if all conditions are equal, it is usually best to first borrow, then to rent, then to purchase, and finally to design and produce. Message design skills are important at this level. 12. A validation plan. With operational objectives, the criterion check was written at the time the objective was written. The authors advocate two tenets: (1) Every learning event should generate a product (an externalization). Do not overuse pencil-and-paper tests. In fact, we advocate that pencil-and-paper tests be used rarely. This is consistent with the contstructivist approach advocated by this book. (2) Creativity is the goal of learning. learners should be encouraged to not be satisfied with mediocrity. The difference between mediocrity and excellence is attention to detail. The design should encourage excellence. Many instructional designers give learners an opportunity to carry a goal beyond a required or expected level. This allows the learners to be especially creative while at the same time anchoring learning. In addition to the combination list/narrative described above, place your completed instructional design on the form advocated throughout this book (see Figure 3.4). Make sure that the design is aesthetically packaged. While packaging can be just window dressing, a professionally developed instructional design of the quality of the one you have prepared deserves no less. Take pride in your accomplishments in instructional design. Realize that you have developed skills that are highly sought by school systems and by training programs in the military, in health and allied agencies, in religious education, in corporate settings, and in business and industry. Realize that you now have skills that will cause you to be sought as a consultant. The design you have prepared is written from the point of view of what the learner is going to do. This is a major point differentiating what you can now do, as an instructional designer, from what can be done by those who limit themselves to making lesson plans. If you feel that a lesson plan—a description of what the teacher is going to do—is in order, go



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AFTERWORD 163



ahead and make one. Just remain aware that it is not an instructional design and will not take the place of one. Gently correct anyone who calls your design a lesson plan. Make every effort to incorporate everything you know about teaching and learning into your designs. Be on the cutting edge in developing techniques that do not fail. Be diligent in becoming contemporary in your knowledge and skills of pedagogy. Finally, the profession has its own language. Use that language routinely, especially in situations in which you are dealing with other professionals. One of the criticisms leveled at teachers at the beginning of the twenty-first century is that they are incompetent and use jargon. Medicine, law, and all other professions have highly specialized languages. Physicians and attorneys use their professional languages routinely without apologizing to anyone. In fact, their prestige may be enhanced by using their specialized language. Educators, especially instructional designers and instructional technologists, should do no less.



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BIBLIOGRAPHY



Anglin, G. J. (ed.) (1995). Instructional technology: Past, present, and future. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1995. Baine, D. (1982). Instructional design for special education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Banathy, B. H. and J. L. Hayman. (1976). Systems inquiry in education.The International Journal of Instructional Media 3(2), 303–310. Beckschi, P. (1993). Procedural guide for integrating cognitive methods into instructional systems development task analysis. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Armstrong, Laboratory, Air Force Materiel Command. Blanton, B. B. (1998). The application of cognitive learning theory to instructional design. The International Journal of Instructional Media 25(2), 171-177. Bloom, B.S. (1974). The taxonomy of educational objectives: Affective and cognitive domains. New York: David McKay. Bower, R. L. (1976). A comprehensive learning event design using a communication framework. The International Journal of Instructional Media 3(4), 311-333. Bower, R. L. (1977). The relationship between learning event design, validation and accountability. The International Journal of Instructional Media 4(1), 7-14. Bruning, R. H.; G. Schraw; & R. R. Carkhuff (1999).Cognitive psychology and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Brush, T. A. (1998). Embedding cooperative learning into the design of integrated learning systems: Rationale and guidelines. Educational Technology Research & Development 46(3), 5-18. Carkhuff, R.R. and S. G. Fisher, with J.R. Cannon, T. W. Friel, and R.M. Pierce. (1984). ISD instructional systems. Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press.



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Dalbotten, M. (ed.) (1989). Model learner outcomes for educational media and technology. St. Paul, MN.: Minnesota Deptartment of Education, Instructional Design Section. Dick, W., and L. Carey. (1990). The systematic design of instruction. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown. Dillon, R. F., and J. W. Pellegrino. (eds.) (1991). Instruction: Theoretical and applied. New York: Praeger. Dynneson, T.L., and R. E. Gross. (1999). Designing effective instruction for secondary social studies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Dynneson, T.L., and R. E. Gross. (1995). Designing effective instruction for secondary social studies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill. Foshay, W. R.; K. Sibler; and O. Westgaard. (1986). Instructional design competencies: The standards. Iowa City, IA: International Board of Standards for Training, Performance, and Instruction. Flagg, B.N. (1990). Formative evaluation for educational technologies. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates. Gagné, R.M.; L. J. Briggs, and W.W. Wager. (1988). Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Gillespie, F. (1998). Instructional design for the new technologies.New Directions for Teaching & Learning. Winter, p. 39-52. Haney, J., P. Lange, and J. Barson. (1968). The heuristic dimensions of instructional development. Audio Visual Communications Review (16) 370-385. Hannafin, M.J., and Peck, K.L. (1988). The design, development, and evaluation of instructional software. New York: Macmillan. Hedley, C.N.; P. Antonacci; and M. Rabinowitz. (eds.) (1995).Thinking and literacy: The mind at work. Hillsdale, NJ: Hove. Hickey, A.E; J.M. Spector; and D. J. Muriada. (1992). Specifications for an Advanced Instructional Design. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Armstrong Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command. Hoey, Ross (ed.) (1994). Designing for learning: Effectiveness with efficiency. East Brunswick, NJ: Nichols. Ivers, K. S., and A. E. Barron. (1998). Multimedia projects in education: Designing, producing, and assessing. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Johnson, C. (1998). The affective domain: What can instructional designers learn from arts education? Educational Technology 36(6), 47-50. Jonassen, D. H.; M. Tessmer; and W. H. Hannum. (1999). Task analysis methods for instructional design. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Jonassen, D. H. (ed.) (1996). Handbook of research for educational communications and technology: a project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. New York: Macmillan. Jonassen, D. H.; M. Tessmer; and W. Hannum. (1989).Handbook of task analysis procedures. New York: Praeger. Kafai, Y. B., and M. Resnick (eds.) (1996). Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kemp, J. E.; G. R. Morrison; and S. M. Ross. (1994). Designing effective instruction. New York: Merrill. Kleinman, E. B., and F. M. Dwyer. (1999). Analysis of computerized visual skills: relationships to intellectual skills and achievement. The International Journal of Instructional Media 26(1), 53-69.



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BIBLIOGRAPHY 167 Kommers, P. A. M.; R.S. Grabinger; and J. C. Dunlap (eds.) (1996). Hypermedia learning environments: Instructional design and integration Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lai, Shu-Ling. (1998). The effects of visual display on analogies using computerbased learning. The International Journal of Instructional Media 151-160. Lawless, K. A., and E. V. Smith, Jr. (1997). Teacher beliefs about instructional media: Confirmatory factor structure. The International Journal of Instructional Media 24(3), 191-196. Lunenburg, F. C. (1998). Constructivism and technology: Instructional Designs for successful education reform. Journal of Instructional Psychology 25(2), 75-81. Main, R. G. (1992). Integrating the affective domain into the instructional design process. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Armstrong Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper. Mclellan, H. (1993). Case study of using resources about sonar operators to teach instructional design. The International Journal of Instructional Media 20(1), 2134. McNeal, G. H., and F. Dwyer. (1999). Effect of learning style on consistent and inconsistently designed instruction. The International Journal of Instructional Media 26(3), 337-345. Melton, R. F. (1984) Instructional models for course design & development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Mijksenaar, P., and P. Westendorp. (1999). Open here: The art of instructional design. New York: Joost Elffers Books. Milheim, W. D. (1996). Utilizing case studies for teaching effective instructional design principles. The International Journal of Instructional Media 23(1), 23-30. Newby, T. J. (1996). Instructional technology for teaching and learning: Designing instruction, integrating computers, and using media. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Newren, E. F., and E. B. Lasher. (1993). The basic instructional media course for teacher education. The International Journal of Instructional Media 20(3), 251–262. Ollerenshaw, A., Aidman, E., and G. Kidd. (1997). Is an illustration always worth ten thousand words? Effects of prior knowledge, learning style and multimedia illustrations on text comprehension. The International Journal of Instructional Media 24(3), 227-238. Oliver, R. A., Omari, A., and J. Herrington. (1998). Investigating implementation strategies for WWW-based learning environments. The International Journal of Instructional Media 25(2), 121-138. Petraglia, J. (1998). The real world on a short leash: the (mis)application of constructivism to the design of educational technology. Educational Technology Research & Development 46(3), 53-65. Price, E. A. (1998). Instructional systems design and the affective domain.Educational Technology 38(6), 17-28. Reigeluth, C. M. (ed.) (1999). Instructional-design theories and models. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reiser, R. A., and W. Dick. (1996). Instructional planning: A guide for teachers. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Reynolds, J. (1998). What the instructional designer needs to know about HTML. The International Journal of Instructional Media 25(2), 151-160.



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Richey, R. (1986). The theoretical and conceptual bases of instructional design. New York: Nichols. Ritchie, D., and J. Earnest. (1999). The future of instructional design: Results of a delphi study. Educational Technology 39(1), 35-42. Romiszowski, A. J. (1981). Designing instructional systems: Decision making in course planning and curriculum design. New York: Nichols. Rothwell, W. J., and H. C. Kazanas. (1998). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Saba, F. (1999). Designing instruction for the distant learner. Distance Education Report 3(4), 1-7. Schauble, L., and R. Glaser (eds.) (1996). Innovations in learning: New environments for education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Schott, F.; S. Dijkstra; and N. M. Seel (1997).Instructional design: International perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Seels, B., and R. Richey. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Shambaugh, R. N. and S. Magliaro (1997). Mastering the possibilities: A process approach to instructional design. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Sherry, A. C. (1998). Evaluation of multimedia authoring instruction based in a behaviorist-cognitive-constructivist continuum. The International Journal of Instructional Media 25(2), 201-216. Smith, P. L., and T. J. Ragan. (1992). Instructional design. New York: Merrill. Spector, J. M. (1992). Designing and developing an advanced instructional design. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Air Force Human Series. Story, C. M. (1998). What instructional designers need to know about advance organizers. The International Journal of Instructional Media 25(3), 253-261. Terlouw, C. (1993). Instructional development in higher education: Theory and practice. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Thach, L. (1995). Instructional design and adaptation issues in distance learning via satellite. The International Journal of Instructional Media 25(2), 93–110. Thoms, K. J. (1999). Teaching via ITV: Taking instructional design to the next level. T.H.E. Journal 26(9), 60-66. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Vickers, J. N. (1990). Instructional design for teaching physical activities: A knowledge structures approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. Walker, D. F., and R. D. Hess. (eds.) (1984). Instructional software: Principles and perspectives for design and use. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Wang, S., and P. J. Sleeman. (1993). Computer-assisted instruction effectiveness...a brief review of the research. The International Journal of Instructional Media 20(4), 333-348. Whitehead, L. K. (1994). Guided Approach to Instructional Design. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Armstrong Laboratory, Air Force Materiel Command. Wolfgang, C. H., and M. E. Wolfgang. (1999). School for young children: Developmentally appropriate practices. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Zheng, Y., and K. Wong. (1997). A critical challenge to traditional theories of instructional design: A preliminary analysis of the implications of constructivism for instruction. Chinese University Education Journal 25(2), 81-97.



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ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY



(Information about these associations and organizations was taken from the literature produced by them and posted on the world wide web)



ASSOCIATION FOR EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY (AECT ) AECT’s mission is to provide leadership in educational communications and technology by linking professionals holding a common interest in the use of educational technology and its application to the learning process. Goals include a focus on leadership through an effort to: (1) define those disciplines and professional activities that make up educational communications and technology; (2) accommodate, serve, & represent professionals in educational communications and technology; 169



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(3) develop elements & attributes that enhance the professional stature of educational communications and technology; (4) actively promote the improvement in learning environments through the use of educational communications and technology. http://www.area.net INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT (ISPI) ISPI’s mission is to improve the performance of individuals and organizations through the application of Human Performance Technology. Founded in 1962, the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) is the leading international association dedicated to improving productivity and performance in the workplace. ISPI represents more than 10,000 international and chapter members throughout the United States, Canada, and 40 other countries. They provide conferences, books, periodicals, and research. Members include: Performance technologists, training directors, human resources managers, instructional technologists, human factors practitioners, and organizational consultants. They work in a variety of settings including business, academia, government, health services, banking, and the armed forces. http://www.ispi.org INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION (ISTE) ISTE is the largest teacher-based, nonprofit organization in the field of educational technology. Its mission is to help K-12 classroom teachers and administrators share effective methods for enhancing student learning through the use of new classroom technologies. ISTE members truly are redefining the boundaries of the K-12 classroom. They form an everexpanding network of dedicated professionals sharing classroom-proven solutions to the challenge of incorporating computers, the Internet, and other new technologies into their schools. ISTE provides conferences & workshops, publications and resources. http://www.iste.org AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION (AERA) The American Educational Research Association is concerned with improving the educational process by encouraging scholarly inquiry



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related to education and by promoting the dissemination and practical application of research results. AERA is the most prominent international professional organization with the primary goal of advancing educational research and its practical application. Its more than 22,000 members are educators; administrators; directors of research, testing or evaluation in federal, state and local agencies; counselors; evaluators; graduate students; and behavioral scientists. The broad range of disciplines represented by the membership includes education, psychology, statistics, sociology, history, economics, philosophy, anthropology, and political science. http://www.aera.net ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (ASCD) The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development is a unique international, nonprofit, nonpartisan association of professional educators whose jobs cross all grade levels and subject areas. In their diversity, our members share a profound commitment to excellence in education. Founded in 1943, ASCD’s mission is to forge covenants in teaching and learning for the success of all learners. http://www.ascd.org AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT (ASTD) Founded in 1944, ASTD is the world’s premier professional association and leading resource on workplace learning and performance issues. ASTD provides information, research, analysis and practical information derived from its own research, the knowledge and experience of its members, its conferences, expositions, seminars, publications and the coalitions and partnerships it has built through research and policy work.ASTD’s membership includes more than 70,000 people, working in the field of workplace performance in 100 countries worldwide. Its leadership and members work in more than 15,000 multinational corporations. http://www.astd.org INTERNATIONAL VISUSAL LITERACY ASSOCIATION (IVLA) The International Visual Literacy Association is a not-for-profit association ofeducators, artists, and researchers dedicated to the principles of visual literacy. IVLA was formed for the purpose of providing education, instruc-



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tion and training in modes of visual communication and the application through the concept of visual literacy to individuals, groups, organizations, and to the public in general. Our members represent a wide range of disciplines including the arts, sciences, education, communication, business, videography, photography, instructional technology, health, and computer applications. We hope you will feel free to join us in the lively debates of our field, and we look forward to forming lasting professional and personal friendships. http://www.ivla.org



INDEX



Accountability, 145, 156 American Society for Curriculum Development (ASCD), 48 Archetypes, 13–14 in instructional design paradigm, 15–17 Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), 48 Attention research, 125, 140 Audiovisual aids, 9 Banathy’s paradigm, 26–27 Behavioral change, 11–12 qualitative and quantitative development, 107–8 terminal behavior, 68 see also Taxonomy of learning Bertalanffy, Ludwig von, 19 Bias, 149–150 of selectivity, 150 and subjective vs. normative-referenced criteria, 152 Bloom’s taxonomy, 61, 69, 74, 81 see also Taxonomy of learning California Achievement Test (CAT), 6 Closed-system strategy, 34 “Closeness of fit” concept, 60 Cognitive apprenticeship, 11



Cognitive mapping, 40 Communication communication/learning model, 12–13 general paradigm, 8 as a system, 86 Cone of Learning/Experience, 108 Constructivism, 10, 160 history, 11 Criterion-referenced method, 39 evaluation, 3–5 assumptions, 153–154 drawbacks with commercially published tests, 5 instructional decision-making benefits, 4 levels, 154 vs. normative-referenced, 154–155 and progressive education philosophy, 40 Curricular restraints, 9 Dale, Dr. Edgar, 108 Dewey Decimal Classification reference notation on planning cards, 144 Display Format for Instructional Design, 57, 62, 63–64, 82–83, 162 Educational Testing Service and NAEP, 3 “Electronic expanded families,” 49



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Emerging-systems strategy, 35 and knowledge explosion, 36–37 Evaluation (role of) see also criterion-referenced evaluation; normative-referenced evaluation Gagne, Robert, 28 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory, 54 chaining, 55 concept learning, 55 discrimination learning, 55 problem-solving, 55–56 rule learning, 55 signal learning, 54 stimulus-response learning, 54 verbal association, 55 General Paradigm of Instruction (GPI), 28–29 Gerlach and Ely paradigm, 23–25 strengths and weaknesses, 25–26 Gestalt, 20 Glaser, Robert, 28 Goals characteristics, 35–36 format from learner’s perspective, 56–57 goal vs. objective, 23, 36 instructional design critical task, 34, 56 see also Philosophical screen; Psychology of teaching/learning as screen Grade inflation, 146, 155 Hill, Joseph E., 40 Holistic approach, 19 ID paradigm of interactive teaching, 23, 24 Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI), 3–4 Instructional design and cognitive psychology research, 61 critical path, 79–80, 86 describing learner behavior, 64–65 goal writing, 34 language, 163 package, 160–162 paradigm, 13, 30–32, 59, 65, 86 and principles of systems analysis, 21 rigor importance, 8–9 synthesizes a system of learning, 20 teacher’s guide, 62 as a visual process, 105 see also Display Format Instructional technologist, 2, 16, 33 Instructional technology system aspects, 22 system beyond specific medium/device, 9 Internalization/externalization mode model, 74–76, 84



Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), 6 Item writing see Normative-referenced method Jacksonian philosophy, 155 vs. Jeffersonian philosophy of education, 154–155 Jeffersonian philosophy of education see Jacksonian philosophy vs. Jung, C., 13 Krippendorff, 20 Learners analyses, 38–39 see also Superstructure of learner analysis available resources, 159 effect of media on, 106 experiences, 106–7 as source (Tyler model), 37 underlying assumptions about, 16 worth, dignity, uniqueness, 156 Learning as a behavioral change, 11, 86 characteristics of effective, 16–17, 132 creativity goal, 16 entry behavior, 38 long-term/short-term, 12 side effects, 12 see also Taxonomy of learning Learning activities, 82, 84, 86–87 directed, 2 Learning Event audience analysis, 134, 157–158 decision, 133 design, 157 Design Form, 77–78 objective(s), 133–134 Lesson plan, 66 vs. instructional design, 80 Library of Congress Classification reference notation on planning cards, 144 Licensure tests, 4 McConnell, Robert E., 9–10 Mager’s premise, 40 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 39, 53 Mastery tests, 3–4 Media, 85, 103–104 as aids, 9, 86 characteristics, 87, 88 designing, 95–99 layout and design principles, 105–6 procurement, 87



INDEX 175 borrowing/sources, 92–94 buying/sources, 94 producing/sources, 94–95 renting/sources, 94 selection process, 87, 89, 91 first step, 90 information, 92 use in teaching/learning process, 2, 13 see also Storyboarding, Video script guidelines; Visuals Mediated learning, 11 Minimum competency testing, 4 Model, 15 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 3 and criterion-referenced testing techniques, 3 National Council of the Teachers of English, 47–48 Normative-referenced method, 39–41, 151 evaluation, 5–7 concerns about results, 7 vs.criterion-referenced evaluation, 154– 155 item writing, 151–152 normal probability, 148–149 vs. subjective evaluation, 152 Objective vs. domain referenced tests, 5 Objectives, 36, 62 components, 80 importance of writing, 66 and levels of taxonomy, 76, 81 Objective Checks, 67 operational, 65, 74, 76–78 characteristics, 68 synthesis level prerequisites, 81–82 Open-system strategy, 34–35 Paradigm, 14–15 Pedagogical progress, 147 Philosophical screen, 50–51 motivation, 52–53 philosophy (value complex), 50, 51, 146 relevance, 51–52 Piaget, Jean cognitive development theory, 10 Planning cards, 132–133, 134 bibliographical reference, 144 classification, 143 commentaries, 142 design structures, 135 design structures/lower card, narrative, 140 design structures/upper-left, visuals, 140



design structures/upper-right content outline, 135–136 diagnostic criterion check, 139 directives and behavior, 136–138 time allotments, 138–139 encodement, 143 exposure and opportunity, 141–142 file/use/refile, 43 pagination, 142 quotations, 142 separator cards, 143, 144 sequencing, 142 systems for notation, 142 Popham, James, 28 Prescott’s classifications of needs, 39 Progressive education philosophy, 40 Psychology of teaching/learning as screen, 53–54 see also Gagne Reeducation, 131–132 Rule of thirds, 121–122 “Saber Tooth Curriculum,” 48 Scaffolding see Mediated learning Scriptcard technique see Storyboarding SDPBVH mnemonoic see Successful design/ mnemonic Searle’s System of Instruction, 29–30 Social learning, 11 Society as source (Tyler model), 48–50 Split-brain theory, 49 Stanford Achievement Test (SAT), 6 Storyboarding, 95, 98–99, 133, 157 images, 95, 96 narrative, 97 status and objectives, 95–97 Student-centered instruction, 10 Subject specialist essentialists vs. progressivists, 47 as source (Tyler model), 47–48 Subjectivity, 150–151 Successful design balance, 123 dominance, 121–122 harmony, 125 mnemonic, 121, 128 pattern, 122–123 simplicity, 121 variation, 123–124 Superstructure of learner analysis, 41, 43–45, 47 affective, 43, 46–47 cultural determinants, 42–43, 46



176



INDEX



interactional-transactional patterns, 43, 46 oral communication skill, 42, 45 personal identity, 42, 45–46 sensory-motor, 41, 45 spatial relationships, 42, 45 symbol manipulation, 41–42, 45 Synergy, 9–10, 20 Systematic instruction, 21–22 paradigms, 22–29 Systems theory, 19–22 Task, 60 analysis, 59 characteristics, 61 vs. objective, 62 Taxonomy of learning, 68–69, 74 affective domain/levels, 71, 72 cognitive domain/levels, 69–71, 81 psychomotor domain/levels, 71, 73–74 Teachers as a facilitator of information, 10 as instructional technologists, 1–2, 33, 159 responsibility, 50 vs. instructional technology, 53, 66, 160 Test development pilots of normative-referenced tests, 5 Thiagarajan’s paradigm see ID paradigm “Time of humanity,” 131 Tyler, Ralph W., 37 Tyler model for goal setting, 38 Validity/validation, 145, 158 impact of bias, 149–150 and reliability of tests, 151 Value complex see Philosophical screen



Variability of test scores, 6 Video script guidelines, 103 basic camera shots, 102 camera movements, 101–102 camera transitions, 102–103 graphics, 100–101 script form, 99–100 Visuals, 109 attention motion, 129 research, 125 continuum, 127–128 eye movement control, 118, 125 fields aspect ratios, 119 balance, 120, 123–124 dynamic points, 120 grid patterns, 116–117 horizontal and vertical displays, 110, 117 lettering hints, 114–115, 116 meaning to perceiver, 110, 125, 129 optimizing elements, 118–119, 125 syntax, 126–127 size calculations, 113–114 viewing problems/solutions, 112–113 visibility standards, 111–112, 115 see also Successful design Vygotsky, Lev Semionovich theoretical emphasis on discovery/cooperative learning, 11 World Wide Web availability of storyboarding programs, 95 Zone of proximal development, 11