Dr. Supeno, M. Hum. / 168: Name: Ana Afriana NPM: 20197479054 Class: 2N Answer The Questions Clearly ! [PDF]

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UNIVERSITAS INDRAPRASTA PGRI FAKULTAS PASCASARJANA SOAL UJIAN PENGENDALI MUTU SEMESTER GASAL TH. AKADEMIK 2020/2021 Program Studi : PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS Mata Kuliah : Advanced Linguistics *)



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Name : Ana Afriana NPM: 20197479054 Class: 2N Answer the questions Clearly ! 1. What do you know about : a. Phonetics and Phonology Phonetic and phonology are two different things which are considered about sound in Language. There are a lot of thought from the expert about the meaning of phonetic and phonology These are some of definition of phonetic: 



Crystal defined that, phonetic is the science which studies the characteristic of human sound making. Especially those sound used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification, and transcription.



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Catford stated that, phonetic is the systematic study of human speech sound. It provides means of describing and classifying virtually all the sound that can be produced by human vocal tract.



These are some definition of phonology:  Catford the study of how sounds are organized into system and are utilized in language 



Verhaar stated that phonology is an investigation about the sounds of language considered only the functional aspect.



From those statements about the definition of phonetic and phonology we can make a little conclusion, phonetic is study about how sound produced by human vocal tract. Phonology is study about sounds language. The relationship between phonetic and phonology is a complex one, but we might initially approach phonology as narrowed-down phonetics.



 Example of Phonetics : the t sound in the word top. Various phonetic alphabets have been developed to represent the speech sounds in writing through the use of symbols. Some of these symbols are identical to the Roman letters used in many language alphabets; for example: p and b. Other symbols are based on the Greek alphabet, such as θ to represent the th- sound in thin and thought. Still others have been specially invented; e.g. ð for the th- sound in the and then. The most widely used phonetic script is the International Phonetic Alphabet.  An example of phonology is the study of the movements the body goes through in order to create sounds - such as the pronounciation of the letter "t" in "bet," where the vocal chords stop vibrating causing the "t" sound to be a result of the placement of the tongue behind the teeth and the flow of air. b. Morphology and Syntax 



John Lions (1968) says : “….morphology deals with the internal structure of words…” L. Bloomfield ( 1973) says: “ By the morphology of a language we mean the constructions in which bound forms appear among the constituents.” H.A. Gleason ( 1970 ) says: “….morphology is the description of the more intimate combinations of morphemes, roughly what are familiarly called ‘words’….” Charles F. Hockett ( 1958 : 177) says: “Morphology includes the stock or segmental morpheme and the ways in which words are built out of them”.



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Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis."(Noam Chomsky, 2002:11) Syntax is that part of our linguistics knowledge which concerns the structure of sentences. Knowing a language also means being able to put words together to form sentences to express our thoughts. (Fromkin and Rodman,1983) From Matthew, taken by Van Vallin and LaPolla (1997:1), he said: ‘The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together” From those statements about the definition of Morphology and Syntax we can make a little conclusion, Morphology deals with the understanding of how words are formed. For example, Cats has to morphemes- cat (singular) and cats (plural). Uneventful has three morphemes. event, eventful, and uneventful. Syntax is the arrangement of words that make a sentence. For example, The boy jumped happily The girl sang beautifully Each of these sentences has the same syntax. Each sentence follows the structure of subject-verb-adverb. However, each sentence uses different diction (word choice).



c. Semantics and Pragmatics 



There are some term semantics in various defenition by some expert, they are: Palmer (1976 : 1) states “Semantics is the technical term used to refer to study of meaning.” Hornby (1972 : 789) has defined “Semantics is branch of linguistics concerned with studying the meaning of words and sentences. Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences



attempting to focus on what the words conventionally mean, rather than on what an individual speaker (like George Carlin) might want them to mean on a particular occasion (the study of language: p.100). 



Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean, or ‘speaker meaning’, In many ways, pragmatics is the study of ‘invisible’ meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written In my opinion, Semantic meaning is the meaning of a word without it's context. A definition one might find in a dictionary, for example. This means that a sentence "I love ice cream" only means that the person in question loves ice cream. A pragmatic meaning of the same sentence might be "Let's go and have ice cream". Pragmatics is meaning in its context, and furthermore it studies how more information is conveyed than what is actually said. While the semantic meaning of a sentence might be just a statement, it's pragmatic meaning might be imperative, like in the previous example



d. Language and Context 



Language is a tool to convey information, ideas, concepts or feeling that comes to the heart, in the sense of the word as a means of conveying something. Language is a system, which means the language formed by the various components of the irregular and fixed. The system language is made up of sound symbols, which symbols represent a concept or meaning. As a symbol of the language that reads "mango", epitomizes the meaning of "something that can be used as a meal or a drink."



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Context is the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning. The interrelated conditions in which something exists or occurs : environment, setting the historical context of the war. An example of context is the words that surround the word "read" that help the reader determine the tense of the word. An example of context is the history surrounding the story of Shakespeare's King Henry IV



e. Linguistics anthropology 



Linguistic anthropology is a branch of anthropology that studies the role of language in the social lives of individuals and communities. Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication. Language plays a huge role in social identity, group membership, and establishing cultural beliefs and ideologies. For example, in New Guinea, there is a tribe of indigenous people who speak one language. It is what makes that people unique. It is its "index" language. The tribe may speak other languages from New Guinea, but this unique language gives the tribe its cultural identity. Another example, the use of English as an international language can have wideranging implications for the world's societies. This can be compared to the effects of colonization or imperialism and the import of language to various countries, islands, and continents all over the world.



f.



Neurolinguistics 



Neurolinguistics is the study of how language is represented in the brain: that is, how and where our brains store our knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak, understand, read, and write, what happens in our brains as we acquire that knowledge, and what happens as we use it in our everyday lives For example, when we understand or say a word like 'apple', we are likely to use information about what apples look, feel, smell, and taste like, even though we aren't aware of doing this. So listening, understanding, talking, and reading involve activities in many parts of the brain.



2. Complex words often consist of a root and one or more affixes. The root morpheme constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. In many case, the base is also the root. a. What are differences between roots and affixes ?  A root is a word part that comes from another language, such as Greek or Latin  An affix is a word part that can be attached to either a root or a base word to create a new word. For example one could analyze the word intangible, using the chart shown previously. First break the word into its parts: Prefix



Root



Suffix



English word



In



Tang



-ible



Intangible



Tang is a Latin roots meaning “touch” In- is a prefix meaning “not” -ible is a suffix meaning “able to” b. What are differences and similarities between roots and bases ? Explain ! The differences between root and base 



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A root word is the primary form of a word which can either be free morphemes or bound morphemes. Free morphemes are words that can stand alone or that can appear with other words while bound morphemes are prefixes and suffixes that appear with other morphemes to form a word. A root word may be a word that has a meaning or one that does not have a meaning. It is the term that a certain word comes from originally and is a word’s basic linguistic unit. It may come from several different languages like Greek and Latin. A base word is a word that does not have any other words added either at the beginning or its ending. It can stand on its own and has meaning. It is a word that is easily apparent in every language and is a word in its simplest form. It can be modified by adding suffixes and prefixes to form new words with related meanings although it can have a meaning on its own. Take the word “cycle” for example. It means “wheel.” And if the prefix “bi” is added, it forms the word “bicycle” which means “two wheels.”



The similarities between root and base Root words and base words are stem words. They form the base of other words which are created after affixes are added. The word “act” is a stem word which is also a base word as it can stand on its own. Adding the prefix “counter” would form the new word “counteract” which has an opposite meaning to the base word. Its root word is the Latin “actus.” 3. Linguistics has related to the people because it studies about language, it means that linguistics focus in language how the language formed, meaning and context. Morphology is very important for every people, because if we understand morphology, we will be easy to make new words. How to make new words s as many as possible ? Explain (at least 5 ways)! Language is constantly evolving and expanding! As some words fall out of fashion and into obscurity, others come into being, often because of highly specific contexts of time and place. This process of fashioning new words out of old ones is called derivation — and here are six of the most common types of word formation: 



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Affixation: Over half of the words in our language have been formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to root words. Recent coinages of this type include semi-celebrity, subprime, awesomeness, and Facebookable. From a logical perspective, affixation is probably the type of new work formation that is easiest to figure out or to use to "create" new words in casual speech. It relies on the fact that these suffixes or prefixes have known, stable definitions, so they can be attached to any existing word to layer their meaning. Affixation may create "official", formal words as well as slang. Back Formation: Reversing the process of affixation, a back-formation creates a new word by removing an affix from an already existing word, for example liaise from liaison and enthuse from enthusiasm. The logic of forming these words often follows established patterns of grammar and word structure, making them fairly predictable in their creation. Clipping: Clippings are shortened forms of words, such as blog (short for web log), zoo (from zoological garden), and flu (from influenza). In many instances, these clipped words will overtake their words of origin in popular usage, to the point where the original words or phrases become obsolete. No one calls a blog a "web log" anymore, and although "influenza" is still a valid medical term, common parlance is to simply call that particular family of viruses "the flu." Compounding: A compound is a fresh word or expression made up of two or more independent words: office ghost, tramp stamp, breakup buddy, backseat driver. Phrases like these will create a new, specific image separate from their individual parts, often with highly specific connotations or figurative language. A "backseat driver," for instance, refers to a person who tries to direct or advise the driver of a vehicle, often to an annoying degree, figuratively "driving" from the back seat. Conversion: By this process (also known as functional shift), new words are formed by changing the grammatical functions of old words, such as turning nouns into verbs (or verbing): accessorize, party, gaslight. Much like back formation, the formation of these words tends to emphasize known grammatical conventions.



4. Linguistics analysis is the description of language with regards to its morphological, syntactical, and semantics structures. Morphology describes the internal structures of words and how they can be modified, syntax describes how words combined to form grammatical sentences, and semantics is the study of the meaning of words and phrases and how those combined to form the meanings of sentences. a. What is meant by the linguistics and the advanced linguistics?  Linguistics is concerned with the nature of language and communication. It deals both with the study of particular languages, and the search for general properties common to all languages or large groups of languages. Linguistics is a major that gives you insight into one of the most intriguing aspects of human knowledge and behavior. Majoring in linguistics means that you will learn about many aspects of human language, including sounds (phonetics, phonology), words (morphology), sentences (syntax), and meaning (semantics).  Advanced Linguistics is an international peer-reviewed journal focused on linguistics, literary studies, and language learning and teaching. b. Mention the critical issues in the linguistics (at least 2) and explain ! Linguistic problems can be classed as lexical, syntactic or semantic depending on their context. Lexical problems involve the interpretation of particular words or phrases rather than entire classes. Semantic problems are subdivided into lexical, syntactic and discourse types. Although both lexical and semantic lexical problems involve single words or phrases, semantic problems are syncategoric rather than specific. Semantic problems in syntax occur when a construction's syntax is correct but its sense is ill-formed or ambiguous, or vice versa. Discourse semantic cases involve an utterance's discourse context and, because utterances of this type are both syntactically and semantically wellformed, describe language complexities rather than problems. 



Lexical Ambiguity in syntactic category (part of speech) `sink', `saw', `club', `ring' A sink is a -plumbing-fixture- noun as well as a verb that means to -disappear-underwater-. Syntactically ambiguous words can in addition be semantically ambiguous within a given category. As a noun, `club' is a homonym for both -bludgeoning-weapon- and -recreationalassociation-; within the latter sense, it is polysemous because it can mean both recreationalsocial-group and -recreational-building-. Taken as a set the examples suggest that syntactically or semantically ambiguous words are often common and short.



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Lexical Gaps `oppression', `aggression'; `oppress', *`aggress' The first two words both appear to be nominalizations but no form of `aggression' exists to match the verb `oppress'. This phenomenon of a lack of a word to express a concept is called a lexical gap. Lexical gaps are generally understood to apply to easily understood concepts having collateral concepts which are realized in words.



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