Educational Psychology 14th Edition.c2 [PDF]

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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY



FOURTEENTH EDITION



ANITA WOOLFOLK



EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY FOURTEENTH EDITION



ANITA WOOLFOLK THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, EMERITA



330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013



Director and Publisher: Kevin M. Davis Content Producer: Janelle Rogers Development Editor: Alicia Reilly Digital Studio Producer: Lauren Carlson Digital Producer: Daniel Dwyer Editorial Assistant: Casey Coriell Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Executive Product Marketing Manager: Christopher Barry



Procurement Specialist: Carol Melville Full-Service Project Management: Kathy Smith Cover Designer: Jerilyn Bockorick Cover Art: Anita Woolfolk Hoy Composition: Cenveo® Publisher Services Printer/Binder: LSC Communications/Wiillard Cover Printer: Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Text Font: ITC Garamond Std. Regular



Credits and acknowledgments for material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text. Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. To obtain permission to use material from this work, please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Acknowledgements of third-party content appear on the page within the text, which constitute an extension of this copyright page. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trademarks are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress



ISBN 10: 0-13-477432-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-477432-9



To my husband, Wayne K. Hoy A remarkable scholar, A demanding and caring mentor, A dedicated father and grandfather, And a wonderful companion in life. The best is yet to be…



ABOUT THE AUTHOR So you will know your author a bit better, here is some information. Anita Woolfolk Hoy was born in Fort Worth, Texas, where her mother taught child development at TCU and her father was an early worker in the computer industry. She is a Texas Longhorn—all her degrees are from the University of Texas, Austin, the last one a PhD. After graduating, she was a psychologist working with children in elementary and secondary schools in 15 counties of central Texas. She began her career in higher education as a professor of educational psychology at Rutgers University, and then moved to The Ohio State University in 1994. Today she is Professor Emerita at Ohio State. Anita’s research focuses on motivation and cognition, specifically, students’ and teachers’ sense of efficacy and teachers’ beliefs about education. For many years she was the editor of Theory Into Practice, a journal that brings the best ideas from research to practicing educators. With students and colleagues, she has published over 150 books, book chapters, and research articles. Anita has served as Vice-President for Division K (Teaching & Teacher Education) of the American Educational Research Association and President of Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. Before completing this fourteenth edition of Educational Psychology, she collaborated with Nancy Perry, University of British Columbia, to write the second edition of Child Development (Pearson, 2015), a book for all those who work with and love children.



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PREFACE Many of you reading this book are enrolled in an educational psychology course as part of your professional preparation for teaching, counseling, speech therapy, nursing, or psychology. The material in this text should be of interest to everyone who is concerned about education and learning, from the nursery school volunteer to the instructor in a community program for adults learning English. No background in psychology or education is necessary to understand this material. It is as free of jargon and technical language as possible, and many people have worked to make this edition clear, relevant, and interesting. Since the first edition of Educational Psychology appeared, there have been many exciting developments in the field. The fourteenth edition continues to emphasize the educational implications and applications of research on child development, cognitive science, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment. Theory and practice are not separated in the text, but are considered together. The book is written to show how information and ideas drawn from research in educational psychology can be applied to solve the everyday problems of teaching. To help you explore the connections between research and practice, you will find in these pages a wealth of examples, lesson segments, case studies, guidelines, and even practical tips from experienced teachers. As you read this book, I believe you will see the immense value and usefulness of educational psychology. The field offers unique and crucial knowledge to any who dare to teach and to all who love to learn.



NEW CONTENT IN THE FOURTEENTH EDITION Across the book, there is increased coverage of a number of important topics. Some of these include: • Increased coverage of the brain, neuroscience, and teaching emphasized in Chapter 2 and also integrated into several other chapters. • Increased coverage of the impact of technology and virtual learning environments on the lives of students and teachers today. • Increased emphasis on diversity in today’s classrooms (see especially Chapters 1 to 6). Portraits of students in educational settings make diversity real and human for readers. In a number of chapters there are new exercises asking readers to “Put Yourself in Their Place” as a way to develop empathy for many students and situations. • Increased coverage of effective application of learning principles as identified by the Institute for Educational Sciences (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/1) Key content changes in each chapter include: • Chapter 1: My goal is that this text will provide the knowledge and skills that will enable students to build a solid foundation for an authentic sense of teaching efficacy in every context and for every student, so there is new information on the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). Also, the section on research now includes mixed methods (complementary methods) (see Table 1.2) and evidence-based practice. • Chapter 2: New information on the brain and brain imaging techniques, synaptic plasticity, brain development in childhood and adolescence, and implications for teaching. Also, there is greater critical analysis of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories.



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• Chapter 3: Updated section on physical changes in puberty, cultural differences in play, childhood obesity, eating disorders and the Web sites that promote them, parenting, aggression, racial identity, and self-concept. • Chapter 4: New sections on biases in labeling, neuroscience and intelligence, problems with learning styles, ADHD, student drug use, seizure disorders and other serious health concerns, and autism spectrum disorders. • Chapter 5: New information on language development, emergent literacy, language diversity, and bilingual education. • Chapter 6: New coverage of intersectionality, ethnicity and race, prejudice, expanded coverage of stereotype threat, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and creating culturally compatible classrooms. • Chapter 7: Expanded coverage of ethical issues in behavioral approaches, reasons for classroom disruptions, and teaching implications of behavioral learning. • Chapter 8: Updated coverage of the brain and cognitive learning, multitasking, working memory and cognitive load, concept teaching, desirable difficulty, effective practice, and teaching implications of cognitive learning theories. • Chapter 9: All new section on teaching for complex learning and robust knowledge, updated discussion of metacognitive strategies, retrieval practice, worked examples, argumentation, and critical thinking. • Chapter 10: New sections on designing learning environments, facilitating in constructivist classrooms, scaffolding, asking and answering deep questions, and the flipped classroom. Updated discussion of collaboration, learning in a digital world, and computational thinking. • Chapter 11: Updated coverage of modeling, self-efficacy and agency, teacher efficacy, self-regulated learning, and emotional self-regulation. New section on grit. • Chapter 12: Chapter reorganized around five broad themes in motivation. Updated treatment of expectancy-value-cost theory. New section on mindsets. Updated material on flow and on the TARGET framework for motivation. • Chapter 13: New sections on the role of relationships, social skills, and mentoring in classroom management. Updated material on dealing with discipline problems, bullying and cyberbullying, restorative justice, and culturally responsive classroom management. • Chapter 14: Updated research on teaching, homework, and teacher expectations as well as new sections on learning targets, the Common Core, asking deep questions, and giving feedback. • Chapter 15: New sections on formative and interim assessment, guidance for using different types of test formats and rubrics, and assessing complex thinking. Updated material on discussing test results with families, controversies around high-stakes testing, value-added assessment, and PARCC and SBAC tests.



A CRYSTAL CLEAR PICTURE OF THE FIELD AND WHERE IT IS HEADED The fourteenth edition maintains the lucid writing style for which the book is renowned. The text provides accurate, up-to-date coverage of the foundational areas within educational psychology: learning, development, motivation, teaching, and assessment, combined with intelligent examinations of emerging trends in the field and society that affect student learning, such as student diversity, inclusion of students with special learning needs, education and neuroscience, educational policy, and technology.



MyLab for Education The most visible change in the fourteenth edition (and certainly one of the most significant changes) is the expansion of the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in the etext. Designed to bring you more directly into the world of K–12 classrooms



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and to help you see the very real impact that educational psychology concepts have on learning and development, these digital learning and assessment resources also: • Provide you with practice using educational psychology concepts in teaching situations. • Help you and your instructor see how well you understand the concepts presented in the book and the media resources. • Help you more deeply think about and process educational psychology and how to use it as a teacher (and as a learning tool). The online resources in the Enhanced Etext with MyLab for Education include: • Video Examples. In almost all chapters, embedded videos provide illustrations of educational psychology principles or concepts in action. These video examples most often show students and teachers working in classrooms. Sometimes they show students or teachers describing their thinking or experiences.



• Podcasts. In all chapters, AnitaTalks podcasts provide direct links to relevant selections from Anita Talks About Teaching, a series of podcasts in which Dr. Woolfolk discusses how the chapters in this text relate to the profession of teaching.



• Self-Checks. Throughout the chapters you will find MyLab for Education: Self-Check quizzes. There are four to six quizzes in each chapter, with one at the end of each major text section. They are meant to help you assess how well you have mastered the concepts covered in the section you just read. These self-checks are made up of self-grading multiple-choice items that not only provide feedback on whether you answered the questions correctly or incorrectly, but also offer with rationales for both correct and incorrect answers.



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• Application Exercises. Also at the end of each major section, you can find one or two application exercises that can challenge you to use chapter content to reflect on teaching and learning in real classrooms. The questions you answer in these exercises are usually constructed-response items. Once you provide your own answers to the questions, you will receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.



• Practice for Your Licensure Exam. Every chapter ends with an exercise that can give you an opportunity to apply the chapter’s content while reading a case study and then answering multiple-choice and constructed-response questions similar to those that appear on many teacher licensure tests. By clicking on the MyLab for Education hotlink at the end of a Connect and Extend to Licensure exercise, you can complete the activity online and get feedback about your answers.



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• Classroom Management Simulations. In the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab for Education, you will be able to access interactive simulations that engage you in decision making about classroom management strategies. These interactive cases focus on the classroom management issues teachers most frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each simulation presents a challenge scenario at the beginning and then offers a series of choices to solve each challenge. Along the way you receive mentor feedback on your choices and have the opportunity to make better choices if necessary. • Study Modules. In the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab for Education, you will also find a set of Study Modules. These interactive, application-oriented modules provide opportunities to learn foundational educational psychology concepts in ways other than reading about them. The modules present content through screen-capture videos that include animations, worked examples, and classroom videos. Each module consists of three parts. In the first part, begin with the Learn section that presents several key concepts and strategies. Then work through the problems in the Apply section. These will give you practice applying the concepts and principles to actual teaching and learning scenarios. The third part of each module is a multiple-choice test in the Assess section. This test includes higherorder questions that assess not only what you can remember about the module’s content but also how well you can apply the concepts and strategies you’ve learned to real-life classroom situations. • Video Analysis Tool. Our widely anticipated Video Analysis Tool is also available in the left-hand navigation bar of MyLab for Education. The Video Analysis Tool helps you build your skills in analyzing teaching. Exercises provide classroom videos and rubrics to scaffold your analysis. Timestamp and commenting tools allow you to easily annotate the video and connect your observation to educational psychology concepts you have learned in the text.



Additional Text Features With an unswerving emphasis on educational psychology’s practical relevance for teachers and students in classrooms, the text is replete with current issues and debates, examples, lesson segments, case studies, and practical ideas from experienced teachers. Point/Counterpoint sections in each chapter present two perspectives on a controversial question related to the field; topics include debates on the kinds of research that should guide education (p. 20), brain-based education (pp. 42–43), the self-esteem movement (p. 107), pills or skills for students with ADHD (p. 151), the best way to teach English language learners (p. 203), should girls and boys be taught differently? (pp. 244–245), using rewards to encourage student learning (pp. 290–291), what’s wrong with multitasking? (p. 306), teaching critical thinking and problem solving (p. 367), problem-based education (pp. 396–397), are “grittier” students more successful? (p. 442), the value of trying to make learning entertaining (p. 484), zero tolerance (p. 532), the Common Core standards (p. 558), and holding children back (p. 614). Guidelines appear throughout each chapter, providing concrete applications of theories or principles discussed. See, for example, pages 52, 86, 91, 138, 155, 186, 199, 228, 274, 308, 331, 363, 408, 417, 437, 485, 515, 528, 562, 574, 608, and 616. Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships sections offer specific guidelines for involving all families in their children’s learning—especially relevant now, when demand for parental involvement is at an all-time high and the need for cooperation between home and school is critical. See, for example, pages 84, 144, 201, 372, 500, 545, 569, and 623. Teachers’ Casebook sections present students with realistic classroom scenarios at the beginning of each chapter and ask “What Would You Do?”—giving students the opportunity to apply all the important topics of the chapter to these scenarios via application questions. Students may then compare their responses to those of veteran



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teachers appearing at the end of each chapter. See, for example, pages 71, 174, 259–260, 378–379, 504–505. Reaching Every Student sections present ideas for assessing, teaching, and motivating ALL of the students in today’s inclusive classrooms. See, for example, page 65. Lessons for Teachers are succinct and usable principles for teaching based on the research. See, for example, page 479–480. Put Yourself in Their Place experiences develop empathy by asking students to imagine how they would feel in different situations. See pages 197, 198, 232, 278, 351, 477, and 615. Stop and Think activities give students firsthand experience with the concept being discussed, as on pages 218, 304, 309, 465, 470, 478, 511, 555, and 610.



SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Many supplements to the textbook are available to enhance readers’ learning and development as teachers. ONLINE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL. Available to instructors for download at www. pearsonhighered.com/educator is an Instructor’s Manual with suggestions for learning activities, supplementary lectures, group activities, and additional media resources. These have been carefully selected to provide opportunities to support, enrich, and expand on what students read in the textbook. ONLINE POWERPOINT® SLIDES. PowerPoint slides are available to instructors for download at www.pearsonhighered.com/educator. These slides include key concept summarizations and other graphic aids to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and ideas. ONLINE TEST BANK. The Test Bank that accompanies this text contains both multiplechoice and essay questions. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask students to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others (higherlevel questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations––that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strategies. The lower-level questions assess basic knowledge of educational psychology. But ultimately, it is the higher-level questions that can best assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice. TESTGEN®. TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. Instructors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create their own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook material. Assessments––including equations, graphs, and scientific notation––can be created in either paper-and-pencil or online formats. The tests can be downloaded in the following formats: TestGen Testbank file—PC TestGen Testbank file—MAC TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF Angel Test Bank (zip) D2L Test Bank (zip) Moodle Test Bank Sakai Test Bank (zip)



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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During the years I have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent revision, many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply could not have been written. Many educators contributed to this edition and previous editions. Ellen L. Usher (University of Kentucky) contributed her remarkable scholarship and delightful writing to revise Chapters 6 and 11. Carol Weinstein wrote the section in Chapter 13 on spaces for learning. Michael Yough (Purdue University) looked over several chapters including Chapter 5, “Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education.” Chapter 5 was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University. Jerrell Cassady, Ball State University, provided invaluable guidance for Chapter 12, “Motivation in Learning and Teaching.” The portraits of students in Chapters 1 and 6 were provided by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). As I made decisions about how to revise this edition, I benefited from the ideas of colleagues around the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer my questions, and review chapters. For their revision reviews, thanks to Karen Banks, George Mason University; Marcus Green, North Carolina State University; Cheryl Greenberg, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Michelle Koussa, University of North Texas; Nicole Leach, Mississippi State University; and Lu Wang, Ball State University. Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed their experience, creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. I have thoroughly enjoyed my association with these master teachers, and I am grateful for the perspective they brought to the book: AIMEE FREDETTE • Second-Grade Teacher Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA ALLAN OSBORNE • Assistant Principal Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA BARBARA PRESLEY • Transition/Work Study Coordinator—High School Level, BESTT Program (Baldwinsville Exceptional Student Training and Transition Program) C. W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY CARLA S. HIGGINS • K–5 Literacy Coordinator Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH DAN DOYLE • History Teacher, Grade 11 St. Joseph’s Academy, Hoffman, IL DANIELLE HARTMAN • Second Grade Claymont Elementary School, Ballwin, MO DR. NANCY SHEEHAN-MELZACK • Art and Music Teacher Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA JACALYN D. WALKER • Eighth-Grade Science Teacher Treasure Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT JANE W. CAMPBELL • Second-Grade Teacher John P. Faber Elementary School, Dunellen, NJ JENNIFER L. MATZ • Sixth Grade Williams Valley Elementary, Tower City, PA JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher, K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL JESSICA N. MAHTABAN • Eighth-Grade Math Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ JOLITA HARPER • Third Grade Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH KAREN BOYARSKY • Fifth-Grade Teacher Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ KATIE CHURCHILL • Third-Grade Teacher



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Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL KATIE PIEL • Kindergarten to Sixth-Grade Teacher West Park School, Moscow, ID KEITH J. BOYLE • English Teacher, Grades 9–12 Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ KELLEY CROCKETT Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX KELLY L. HOY • Fifth-Grade Humanities Teacher Katherine Delmar Burke School, San Francisco, CA KELLY MCELROY BONIN • High School Counselor Klein Oak High School, Spring, TX LAUREN ROLLINS • First Grade Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH LINDA GLISSON AND SUE MIDDLETON • Fifth-Grade Team Teachers St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA LINDA SPARKS • First Grade John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA LOU DE LAURO • Fifth-Grade Language Arts John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ M. DENISE LUTZ • Technology Coordinator Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH MADYA AYALA • High School Teacher of Preperatoria Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • Eighth-Grade Foreign Language Teacher (German and French) Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH MICHAEL YASIS L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN NANCY SCHAEFER • Grades 9–12 Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy High School, Cincinnati, OH PAM GASKILL • Second Grade Riverside Elementary School, Dublin, OH PATRICIA A. SMITH • High School Math Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX PAUL DRAGIN • English as a Second Language, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH PAULA COLEMERE • Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ SARA VINCENT • Special Education Langley High School, McLean, VA THOMAS NAISMITH • Science Teacher Grades 7–12 Slocum Independent School District, Elkhart, TX VALERIE A. CHILCOAT • 5th-/6th-Grade Advanced Academics Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD On this edition, I was again privileged to work with an outstanding editorial group. Their intelligence, creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality can be seen on every page of this text. Kevin Davis, Director and Publisher, guided the project from reviews to completion with the eye of an artist, the mind of a scholar, and the logistical capacity of a high-powered computer. He proved to be an excellent collaborator with a wise grasp of the field and a sense of the future. Casey Coriell, Editorial Assistant, kept everything running smoothly and kept my e-mail humming. On this edition I was fortunate to have the help of Kathy Smith. She carefully and expertly read and reread every page—and improved the writing and logic in every chapter. Her expertise and dedication set the standard for everyone in this project. Alicia Reilly was the outstanding developmental editor with the perfect combination of vast knowledge,



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organizational ability, and creative thinking. The text features, Teachers’ Casebook, and excellent pedagogical supports would not exist without her tireless efforts. Content and Media Producers Janelle Rogers, Lauren Carlson and Daniel Dwyer from Pearson and Gail Gottfried kept all aspects of the project moving forward with amazing skill, grace, and good humor. Somehow they brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to what might have been drudgery. Now the book is in the able hands of marketing managers Christopher Barry and Krista Clark. I can’t wait to see what they are planning for me now! What a talented and creative group—I am honored to work with them all. Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during the long days and nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Marion, Bob, Eric, Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly, and the newest member, Amaya—you are amazing. And of course, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband— you are simply the best. —ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY



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BRIEF CONTENTS 1



LEARNING, TEACHING, AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY



2



PART I STUDENTS



2 3 4 5



COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT



THE SELF, SOCIAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT



72



LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND LEARNING NEEDS



120



LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT, LANGUAGE DIVERSITY, AND IMMIGRANT EDUCATION



6



30



176



CULTURE AND DIVERSITY



216



PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION



7 8 9 10



BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES



260 298 338



CONSTRUCTIVISM AND DESIGNING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS



11 SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 12 MOTIVATION IN LEARNING AND TEACHING 460



380



424



PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING



13 MANAGING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS 506 14 TEACHING EVERY STUDENT 550 15 CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT, GRADING, AND STANDARDIZED TESTING xiv



590



CONTENTS Preface



v



and Evidence-Based Practices Researchers



CHAPTER 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 2 Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would You Do? 2 Overview and Objectives 3 Learning and Teaching Today 4 Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology 4 Confidence in Every Context 5 High Expectations for Teachers and Students 6 Do Teachers Make a Difference? 7 Teacher–Student Relationships 8



Teaching



A Bilingual First Grade Grade



9 • A Suburban Fifth



9 • An Inclusive Class



9 • So What is Good



10 • Models of Good Teaching: Teacher



Teaching?



Observation and Evaluation



10



Research



15 • Answer



15 • Obvious Answers?



15



Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning Correlation Studies



17 • ABAB Experimental



Designs



17 • Clinical Interviews and Case



Studies



17 • Ethnography



18 • The Role of Time in



18 • What’s The Evidence? Quantitative



versus Qualitative Research Research



16



18 • Mixed Methods



19 • Scientifically Based Research



30



Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do? 30 Overview and Objectives 31 A Definition of Development 32 Three Questions Across the Theories 32 What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus Nur33 • What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity 33 • Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical 33 • Beware of Either/Or



General Principles of Development 34 The Brain and Cognitive Development 34 The Developing Brain: Neurons 35 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 38 Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence 39 Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works Culture and Brain Plasticity



16 • Experimental



Studies



Research



Cognitive Development



versus Sensitive Periods



15 • Answer Based



15 • Students in Control



Based on Research



CHAPTER 2



versus Discontinuity



14 • Answer Based on



15 • Skipping Grades



on Research



PART I STUDENTS



ture



Beginning Teachers 13 The Role of Educational Psychology 14 In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching 14 Educational Psychology Today 14 Is It Just Common Sense? 14 Helping Students



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? 20 Theories for Teaching 22 Supporting Student Learning 23 Summary and Key Terms 25 Practice Using What You Have Learned 27 Connect and Extend to Licensure 28 Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would They Do? 29



7 • The Cost of Poor



What is Good Teaching? 9 Inside Three Classrooms 9



19 • Teachers as



19



41



41



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 42 Does Instruction Affect Brain Development? Brain and Learning to Read and the Brain



33



42



42 • The



42 • Emotions, Learning,



43



Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 44 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 45 Influences on Development 46



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C ONT E NT S



Basic Tendencies in Thinking Organization



46



46 • Adaptation



47 • Equilibration



Four Stages of Cognitive Development Infancy: the Sensorimotor Stage



47



47



Connect and Extend to Licensure 70 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do? 71



48 • Early Childhood



to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage



CHAPTER 3



49



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 50



The Self, Social, and Moral Development



Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage



50



GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 52 High School and College: Formal Operations Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?



Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory The Trouble with Stages



52



54



54



54



Underestimating Children’s Abilities Development and Culture



55 • Cognitive



55



Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development 56 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 57 The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 57 Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 58 Technical Tools in a Digital Age Tools



59 • Psychological



59



The Role of Language and Private Speech



59



Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared



60



The Zone of Proximal Development Private Speech and the Zone Learning and Development



61



61 • The Role of 62



Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 62 Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers 62 Piaget: What Can We Learn? 63 Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking



63 • Activity and Constructing 63



Knowledge



Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? The Role of Adults and Peers Learning



Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 72 Overview and Objectives 73 Physical Development 74 Physical and Motor Development 74 Young Children



GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 54



64 64 • Assisted



65



An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind 65 Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” 65 Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 66 GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 67 Summary and Key Terms 67 Practice Using What You Have Learned 69



72



Years



74 • Elementary School



74 • The Adolescent Years



Later Maturing



75 • Early and



75



GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom 76 Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 76 Cultural Differences in Play Recess



77 • Exercise and



77



Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics Challenges in Physical Development 78 Obesity



78 • Eating Disorders



77



79



GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents 80 Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 80 The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model 80 Families 81 Family Structure and Parenting



81 • Parenting Styles



82 • Culture



83



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Connecting with Families 84 Attachment



84 • Divorce



84



GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce Peers 86 Cliques



87 • Crowds



• Friendships



86



87 • Peer Cultures



87 • Popularity



88



• Causes and Consequences of Rejection • Aggression



87 89



89 • Relational Aggression



• Media, Modeling, and Aggression



90



90



GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 91 Video Games and Aggressive Behavior



91



Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support Academic and Personal Caring



Teachers and Child Abuse Society and Media 94



93



92



92



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CON TEN TS Identity and Self-Concept 95 Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development



Intelligence 122 Language and Labels



96



The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative



96 • The Elementary and Middle School Years:



Industry versus Inferiority



97



GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry Technology



100 • Beyond the School Years



Multidimensional and Flexible Ethnic Identities Black Racial Identity: Outcome and Process



Self-Concept



Multiple Intelligences Theory Responds



102 • Racial



104 • Self-Concept and Achievement



105



108



109



Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices 110 for Teachers



110 • Implications



111



113 • Dealing with Cheating



125



School



115



Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 115 Summary and Key Terms 115 Practice Using What You Have Learned 117 Connect and Extend to Licensure 118 Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do? 119



127



Binet’s Dilemma Mean? Tests



Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every student: What Would You Do? 120 Overview and Objectives 121



128



130 • What Does an IQ Score



130 • Group versus Individual IQ 130 • The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting



Smarter?



130



GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores Intelligence and Achievement



131



131



Gender Differences in Intelligence and Achievement Heredity or Environment?



132



132



Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ 133 Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters 133 Assessing Creativity 134 OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter? 135 What Are the Sources of Creativity? 135 Diversity



136 • Creativity and



136



Creativity in the Classroom Brainstorming



136



137 • Creative Schools



137



GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity Learning Styles 139 Learning Styles/Preferences 139 Cautions About Learning Styles



140



Beyond Either/Or 141 Individual Differences and the Law IDEA 141



Families



141



142 • Individualized



142 • The Rights of Students and



143



Section 504 Protections 144 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Productive Conferences 144 Students with Learning Challenges 145 Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 145 Students with Learning Disabilities 146 Student Characteristics Learning Disabilities



138



139 • The Value of



Considering Learning Styles



Education Program



Learner Differences and Learning Needs 120



126 • Gardner



Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 128 Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Neuroscience and Intelligence 129 Measuring Intelligence 129



Least Restrictive Environment



CHAPTER 4



125



126 • Critics of



126 • Multiple Intelligences Go to



Creativity and Cognition



Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology 112 Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating 113 Who Cheats?



124



Intelligence: One Ability or Many?



101



Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence 105 Self-Esteem 106 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 107 Understanding Others and Moral Development 107 Theory of Mind and Intention 108 Moral Development 108



Moral versus Conventional Domains



What Does Intelligence Mean?



101



103 • How Self-Concept



• Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory



123 • Possible Biases in the Application of



124



What Are These Intelligences?



103



Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development



122 • Person-First



Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences



100



103



The Structure of Self-Concept Develops



98



99 • Identity and



Racial and Ethnic Identity 100 GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation



and Ethnic Pride



Language Labels



Adolescence: The Search for Identity



122



Disabilities and Handicaps



147 • Teaching Students with 148



xviii



CO NT E NT S



Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders Definitions



150 • Treating ADHD with Drugs



150



• Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments



150



149



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD? 151 Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD 151 Students with Communication Disorders 152 Speech Disorders



152 • Language Disorders



Suicide



154



When and How Does Language Develop? Sounds and Pronunciation



157 • Prevention



Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)



Impairments



160 • Other Serious



160 • Students with Vision 161 • Students Who Are Deaf



161



Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome 162



What Is the Origin of These Gifts?



166



167 • What Problems



Do Students Who Are Gifted Face?



167



168



168



Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents



169



170 • Methods and Strategies



182 • Building a



183 • When There Are Persistent 184



Languages and Emergent Literacy Emergent Literacy



185



185 • Bilingual



185



Second-Language Learning



170



Summary and Key Terms 171 Practice Using What You Have Learned 173 Connect and Extend to Licensure 174 Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would They Do? 175



CHAPTER 5 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education 176 Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would You Do? 176



187 • Benefits of



188 • Language Loss



188



Signed Languages 189 What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 189 Contextualized and Academic Language 190 GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning 192 Dialect Differences in the Classroom 193 Dialects 193 Dialects and Pronunciation



Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Recognizing Gifts and Talents



181



Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity



Bilingualism



163



Response to Intervention 163 Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Who Are These Students? 166



Problems



181



181



GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy 186 Diversity in Language Development 187 Dual-Language Development 187



159



Health Concerns: Asthma, Sickle Cell Disease, and Diabetes



180 • Pragmatics:



Using Language in Social Situations



Foundation



157



179



179 • Vocabulary and Mean-



179 • Grammar and Syntax



Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills



Students with Intellectual Disabilities 158 GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities 159 Students with Health and Sensory Impairments 159



Acceleration



178 • Beware of Either/Or



179



Emergent Literacy



GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems 155



Interventions



Choices



• Metalinguistic Awareness



155



Drug Abuse



The Puzzle of Language



ing



153



Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties



Overview and Objectives 177 The Development of Language 178 What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 178



Teaching



193 • Dialects and



193



Genderlects 194 Teaching Immigrant Students 194 Immigrants and Refugees 195 Classrooms Today 196 Four Student Profiles



196



Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 197 Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 198 Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture 198 GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs 199 Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers Student-Led Conferences



199



200



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Welcoming All Families 201 Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners 202 Two Approaches to English Language Learning 202 • Research on Bilingual Education



202



C ONT ENT S POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs? 203 Visual Strategies



204 • Literature Response Groups



• Bilingualism for All: Two-Way Immersion



204



Who Is Affected by Stereotype Threat? Effects: Test Performance Disidentification



CHAPTER 6



Sexual Orientation



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently? 244 Discrimination Based on Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation 245 GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 246 Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms 248 Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 249



Preferences



Styles Research



Know Yourself



221 • Dangers in



Influences and Resistance Cultures ronment and Resources



dice



226 • Peer



227 • Summer Setbacks



227



228



233 • The Development of Preju-



236



253



254 • Respect



254 • Teach Your Students



255



Behavioral Views of Learning 260



226 • Home Envi-



233 • From Prejudice to Discrimination



Stereotype Threat



253



CHAPTER 7



Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning 229 Terms: Ethnicity and Race 229 Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement The Legacy of Inequality 232 What Is Prejudice?



253 • Cultural



PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION



GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty 228 Tracking: Poor Teaching



252 • Sociolinguistics



GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching 255 Summary and Key Terms 256 Practice Using What You Have Learned 257 Connect and Extend to Licensure 258 Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would They Do? 259



226 • Low



Expectations—Low Academic Self-Concept



251 • Cultural Values and Learning



254 • Know Your Students



Your Students



Economic and Social Class Differences 222 Social Class and Socioeconomic Status 222 Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students 224 Poverty and School Achievement 224 Health, Environment, and Stress



251



Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student



222



251



252 • Cautions (Again) About Learning



Discontinuity



Stereotyping



251 • Relationship Strand



Social Organization



Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would You Do? 216 Overview and Objectives 217 Today’s Diverse Classrooms 218 American Cultural Diversity 218 Meet Two More Students 220 Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences 221



242



243



Diversity in Learning



Revised by Ellen L. Usher



Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities



238



Gender in Teaching and Learning 239 Sex and Gender 239 Gender Identity 239 Gender Roles 240 Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials and Media Gender Bias in Teaching 242



Self-Agency Strand



Culture and Diversity 216



236 • Short-Term



236 • Long-Term Effects:



237 • Combating Stereotype Threat



and Discrimination



205



Sheltered Instruction 205 Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts 208 Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities 209 Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students 211 Summary and Key Terms 211 Practice Using What You Have Learned 213 Connect and Extend to Licensure 214 Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would They Do? 215



235



230



xix



Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would You Do? 260 Overview and Objectives 261 Understanding Learning 262 Ethical Issues 263 Goals



263 • Strategies



263



Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 263 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning 264



xx



C O NT E NT S POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? 290 Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 290 Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 291 Summary and Key Terms 292 Practice Using What You Have Learned 294 Connect and Extend to Licensure 295 Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do? 296



GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning 266 Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 266 Types of Consequences 267 Reinforcement



267 • Punishment



268



Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment 269 Reinforcement Schedules 270 Extinction



271



Antecedents and Behavior Change Effective Instruction Delivery



271



271 • Cueing



CHAPTER 8



272



Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis 272 Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 273 Reinforcing with Teacher Attention



Cognitive Views of Learning 298



273 • Selecting



Reinforcers: The Premack Principle



273



GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately 274 Shaping



275 • Positive Practice



275



GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 276 Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences 276 Contingency Contracts Systems



276 • Token Reinforcement



277 • Group Consequences



Handling Undesirable Behavior Negative Reinforcement • Response Cost



278



280 • Reprimands



281 • Social Isolation



281 281



281



GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment 282 Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems 283 Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and SelfManagement 283 Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments 284 Positive Behavior Supports 285 Self-Management 287 Goal Setting Progress



287 • Monitoring and Evaluating



Self-Reinforcement



288



Cognitive Views of Memory Sensory Memory 304



289



302



302



ory



304 • Perception



tion



289 • Learning and



304 • The Role of Atten-



306 • Attention and Multitasking



306



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Multitasking? 307 Attention and Teaching



307



GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 308 Working Memory 309 Capacity of Working Memory Executive



309 • The Central



310 • The Phonological Loop



• The Visuospatial Sketchpad Buffer



311



Cognitive Load and Retaining Information Two Kinds of Cognitive Load Theory



311



312 • Retaining Information



312 • Levels of Processing



313 • Forgetting



314



Individual Differences in Working Memory ences



310



311 • The Episodic



311 • The Duration and Contents of Working



Memory



Developmental Differences



Challenges and Criticisms 289 Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning 289 Enactive and Observational Learning



301 • Declarative,



Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Knowledge



in Working Memory



287



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management 288



Performance



General and Specific Knowledge



Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Mem-



280



• Some Cautions About Punishment



Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do? 298 Overview and Objectives 299 Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 300 The Brain and Cognitive Learning 300 The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 301



314



314 • Individual Differ-



315



Is Working Memory Really Separate? 315 Long-Term Memory 316 Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory 316 Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories 317



C ONT ENT S Propositions and Propositional Networks



317



Metacognitive Development for Younger Stu-



317 • Two Are Better Than One: Words



• Images and Images



318 • Concepts



318 • Prototypes,



• Episodic Memory



319 • Schemas



319



321



323 • Reconstruction



• Forgetting and Long-Term Memory



Notes



322 323



323



324



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Organizing Learning 325 Organization



325 • Imagery



• Desirable Difficulty



325 • Context



327 • Effective Practice



Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful Mnemonics



327 327



328



328



Automated Basic Skills



331



333



Summary and Key Terms 333 Practice Using What You Have Learned 335 Connect and Extend to Licensure 336 Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do? 336



CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes 338 Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do? 338 Overview and Objectives 339 Metacognition 340 Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 340 Individual Differences in Metacognition 341 Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 342



346



346 • Taking



346



Appropriate Tasks and Efficacy



349



350 • Valuing Learning



350 • Effort



351



Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn 351 Problem Solving 351 Identifying: Problem Finding 352 Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 353 Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant Problem



353 • Under-



353 • Understanding the Whole



standing the Words



354 • Translation and Schema Training: Direct 355 • Translation and Schema



Instruction in Schemas



and Embodied Cognition



356 • Worked Examples 357 • The Results of Prob-



358



lem Representation



Searching for Possible Solution Strategies Algorithms



GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and Remember 332 Domain-Specific Strategies



344



Visual Tools for Organizing 347 Retrieval Practice: Powerful But Underused Reading Strategies 350 Applying Learning Strategies 350



Training: Worked Examples



If You Have to Memorize . . . 329 Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge 330 Development of Procedural Knowledge 331



343



346 • Summaries



• Underlining and Highlighting



Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory 324 Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications 324 Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections 324 Elaboration



342 • Metacognitive Development for



Secondary and College Students (Like You)



Deciding What Is Important



Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories 321 Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory Spreading Activation



dents



Learning Strategies 344 Being Strategic About Learning



318



Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories • Teaching Concepts



xxi



358 • Heuristics



358



359



Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 359 Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 360 Some Problems with Heuristics



360



GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving 361 Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 362 Knowing What Is Important



362 • Memory for



Patterns and Organization Knowledge



362 • Procedural



362 • Planning and Monitoring



362



GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student 363 Critical Thinking and Argumentation 364 What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder Model 364 Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 366 Argumentation 366 Two Styles of Argumentation



366



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving? 367 Lessons for Teachers



368



Teaching for Transfer 369 The Many Views of Transfer 369 Teaching for Positive Transfer 370 What Is Worth Learning? Supporting Transfer Strategies



370 • Lessons for Teachers: 371 • Stages of Transfer for



371



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Promoting Transfer 372



xxii



C ONT E N T S



Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge 372 What Is Robust Knowledge? 372 Recognizing and Assessing Robust Knowledge 373 Teaching for Robust Knowledge 373 Practice



374 • Worked Examples



• Analogies



Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal Teaching



Learning



399 • Beyond Groups to Cooperation



Tasks for Cooperative Learning



374



Tasks



402 • Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-



Solving Tasks Tasks



Setting Up Cooperative Groups Explanations



CHAPTER 10



384



How Is Knowledge Constructed? 384 Knowledge: Situated or General? 384 Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Teaching 386 Complex Learning Environments and Authentic 387 • Multiple 387



• Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process



387 • Student Ownership of Learning



Designing Constructivist Learning Environments Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments 388 Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom 388 Scaffolding ing



390 • Facilitating Through Asking and Answering 391



GUIDELINES: Facilitating Deep Questioning Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 392 Examples of Inquiry ing



387



387



389 • Advance Organizers as Scaffold-



Deep Questions



404



404 405 • Jigsaw



406



• Constructive/Structured Controversies



Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would You Do? 380 Overview and Objectives 381 Cognitive and Social Constructivism 382 Constructivist Views of Learning 382



Perspectives and Representations of Content



403



403 • Giving and Receiving



Reciprocal Questioning



Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments 380



386 • Social Negotiation



402 • Social Skills and Communication



402



Designs for Cooperation



383 • Social Constructivism



392



393 • Problem-Based Learn-



393 • Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based



Learning



395 • Being Smart About Problem-Based



Learning



395



400



402



Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building



Assigning Roles



Tasks



399



• What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning



Summary and Key Terms 375 Practice Using What You Have Learned 377 Connect and Extend to Licensure 377 Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do? 378



Cognitive Constructivism



398



398



Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative



374



374 • Self-Explanations



397 • Applying Reciprocal Teaching



Collaboration and Cooperation



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? 396 Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching 396



406



Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely 407 GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning 408 Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 408 Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World 410 Technology and Learning 410 Technology-Rich Environments Environments



410 • Virtual Learning



411 • Personal Learning Environ-



ments



411 • Immersive Virtual Learning Environ-



ments



412 • Games



412



Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children 413 Computational Thinking and Coding



GUIDELINES: Using Computers Media/Digital Literacy



414



415



416



GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy 417 The Flipped Classroom 418 Summary and Key Terms 419 Practice Using What You Have Learned 421 Connect and Extend to Licensure 422 Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would They Do? 423



CHAPTER 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 424 Revised by Ellen L. Usher Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do? 424 Overview and Objectives 425



xxiii



CON TEN TS



CHAPTER 12



Social Cognitive Theory 426 A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 426 Beyond Behaviorism 426 Triadic Reciprocal Causality 427 Modeling: Learning by Observing Others 429 Elements of Observational Learning 430 Attention tion



430 • Retention



430 • Produc-



430 • Motivation and Reinforcement



Observational Learning in Teaching Directing Attention Behaviors tions



431



431



431 • Fine Tuning Already-Learned



432 • Strengthening or Weakening Inhibi-



432 • Teaching New Behaviors



Emotion



Motivation in Learning and Teaching 460



432 • Arousing



432



GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning 433 Agency and Self-Efficacy 434 Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 434 Sources of Self-Efficacy 435 Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 436 GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy 437 Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy 438 Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will 439 What Influences Self-Regulation? 440 Knowledge



440 • Motivation



441 • Volition



441



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful? 442 Development of Self-Regulation



444



A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning 444 Reaching Every Student: Examples of Self-Regulation in Two Classrooms 446 Writing



446 • Math Problem Solving



447



Technology and Self-Regulation 447 Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification 448 Emotional Self-Regulation 449 GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional SelfRegulation 451 Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning 451 Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning 451 Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation 452 Complex Tasks 452 Control 453 Self-Evaluation 453 Collaboration 454 Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning 454 Summary and Key Terms 456 Practice Using What You Have Learned 457 Connect and Extend to Licensure 458 Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do? 459



Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do? 460 Overview and Objectives 461 What Is Motivation? 462 Meeting Some Students 462 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 463 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Lessons 464



for Teachers



What You Already Know About Motivation 464 Needs and Self-Determination 465 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 465 Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness 466 Self-Determination in the Classroom and Control



467 • Information



467 • The Need for Relatedness



468



Needs: Lessons for Teachers 468 GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 469 Goals and Goal Orientations 469 Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 470 Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School • Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad? • Social and Work-Avoidance Goals Social Context



470 471



472 • Goals in



473



Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance 473 Goals: Lessons for Teachers 474 Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations 474 Costs 474 Tasks Value 475 Lessons for Teachers 475 Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth 475 Attributions in the Classroom 476 Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions 477 Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs 477 Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability 478 Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers 479 Beliefs About Self-Worth 480 Learned Helplessness



480 • Self-Worth



480



Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers 481 GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth 482 How Do You Feel About Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety 482 Tapping Interests 482 Two Kinds of Interests Interests



483



482 • Catching and Holding



xxiv



CO NT E NT S Overview and Objectives 507 The What and Why of Classroom Management The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 510 The Goals of Classroom Management 511



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? 484 Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 484 GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity 485 Flow 486 Emotions and Anxiety 486 Neuroscience and Emotion Emotions



with Achievement?



488 • How Does Anxiety Interfere 489



Beyond Task Value to Genuine Appreciation



Rules for Elementary School



490



491



Accomplishment



• Time



494 494 • Evaluation



495



495



Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expecta498 • Do I Want To Do It? Seeing the Value of 498 • What Do I Need to Do to Succeed?



Staying Focused on the Task



499



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Motivation to Learn 500 Do I Belong in This Classroom?



Planning Spaces for Learning



517 • Who Sets the



517



518



518 • Interest Areas



519



519



Effective Managers for Elementary Students



493



495 • Putting It All Together



Learning



Rules and Consequences?



ments



Diversity in Motivation 497 Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation 498 tions



516 • Consequences



School



515



516 • Rules for Secondary



Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class



493 • Recognizing



Grouping and Goal Structures



514



Personal Territories and Seating Arrange-



492



Grouping, Evaluation, and Time



514 • Rules



513



GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines



Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment 493 Supporting Choices



513



Creating a Positive Learning Environment Some Research Results 513 Routines and Rules Required 514 Routines and Procedures



511



512



• Management for Self-Management



488 • Anxiety



Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety 489 GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety 490 Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers Motivation to Learn in School: On Target 491 Tasks for Learning 491 • Authentic Tasks



511 • More Time for Learning



• Management Means Relationships



486 • Achievement



487 • Arousal and Anxiety



in the Classroom



Access to Learning



508



500



Summary and Key Terms 501 Practice Using What You Have Learned 503 Connect and Extend to Licensure 504 Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources are Thin: What Would They Do? 505



PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING CHAPTER 13 Managing Learning Environments 506 Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do? 506



519



GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces



520



Effective Managers for Secondary Students



521



Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 522 Encouraging Engagement 522 Prevention Is the Best Medicine 522 GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged Withitness



523



523 • Overlapping and Group Focus



• Movement Management 524



as Prevention



Caring Relationships: Connections with School Teacher Connections tions



524



524 • Student Social Skills



524



524 • School Connec-



526 • Creating Communities of Care for



Adolescents



526



Dealing with Discipline Problems 527 Stopping Problems Quickly 527 GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships 528 If You Impose Penalties 529 Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility 529 GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties 530 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 532 What About Zero Tolerance? 532 Bullying and Cyberbullying 532 Victims



533 • Why Do Students Bully?



534



• What Can Teachers Do? Bullying and Teasing • Cyberbullying



535



Special Problems with High School Students 536 GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 537



534



xxv



C ON T ENT S Seatwork and Homework



The Need for Communication 538 Message Sent—Message Received 538 Empathetic Listening 538 When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving 539 “I” Messages



539 • Assertive Discipline



• Confrontations and Negotiations



Seatwork



GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction Homework Homework Students



540



540



Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice 542 Peer Mediation



542 • Restorative Justice



tions



Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do? 550 Overview and Objectives 551 Research on Teaching 552 Characteristics of Effective Teachers 552 552 • Enthusiasm and Warmth



553



554



557



POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are the Common Core Standards a Valuable Guide for Teaching? 558



Learning Targets



559



559 • The Affective Domain



• The Psychomotor Domain



Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 561 GUIDELINES: Using Learning Targets 562 Teaching Approaches 563 Direct Instruction 563 Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions Instruction



564



560



561 • Another Take on



561



Direct Instruction Work?



569 • Asking Deep Ques-



Students



571 • Responding to Student



Answers



571 • Group Discussion



572



576 • Flexible



576



GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping 577 Adaptive Teaching 577 Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms 578 Technology and Differentiation 579 Teacher Expectations 581 Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 581 Sources of Expectations 581 Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement? 582 Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations 583 GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations 584 Summary and Key Terms 585 Practice Using What You Have Learned 587 Connect and Extend to Licensure 588 Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do? 589



558



Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies The Cognitive Domain



568



570 • Fitting The Questions to the



The Problems with Ability Grouping



Teaching Every Student 550



An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core



568



Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 573 Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design 573 GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions 574 Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching 576 Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 576



CHAPTER 14



Classrooms Targets for Learning



567 • Homework for Older 567 • Beware of Either/Or



Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Homework 569



Grouping



Clarity and Organization



566



567 • The Case Against



Kinds of Questions



542



Research on Management Approaches 543 Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 543 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Classroom Management 545 Summary and Key Terms 545 Practice Using What You Have Learned 547 Connect and Extend to Licensure 548 Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do? 549



Knowledge for Teaching 553 Research on Teaching Strategies The First Step: Planning 555 Research on Planning 555 Learning Targets 556



565



565



563 • Why Does



564 • Evaluating Direct



CHAPTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 590 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do? 590 Overview and Objectives 591



xxvi



CO NT E NT S



Basics of Assessment 592 Measurement and Assessment



Standardized Testing 615 Types of Scores 615



592



Formative, Interim, and Summative Assessment



593



Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity Reliability of Test Scores of Bias



594 • Validity



Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard



593



594 • Absence



595



The Normal Distribution



Classroom Assessment: Testing 596 Interpreting Any Test Score 596



Rank Scores Scores



Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations



597



Using Multiple-Choice Tests Multiple-Choice Questions Constructing Essay Tests



Making Decisions



600



Think?



600



600 • Evaluating Essays



600



GUIDELINES: Writing Multiple-Choice Items 601 Assessing Traditional Testing 602 Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments 602 Informal Assessments 603 603 • Journals



Assessments



603 • Involving Students in



603



Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions Portfolios



606 • Exhibitions



604



606



606



GUIDELINES: Creating Portfolios 608 GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric 609 Reliability, Validity, Generalizability Bias in Performance Assessment



609 • Diversity and 609



Assessing Complex Thinking 610 Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers 610 Grading 610 Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading 611 Effects of Grading on Students 613 The Value of Failing?



619



613 • Retention in Grade



620 622



Testing



624 • What Do Teachers



624 • Documented Problems with High-Stakes 624



New Directions: PARCC and SBAC



613



Grades and Motivation 613 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back? 614 Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families 615



625



In Sum: Using High-Stakes Testing Well



625



GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing 626 Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests 627 Teacher Accountability and Evaluation 628 Value-Added Measures



606



Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Scoring Rubrics



619 • Standard Scores



Accountability and High-Stakes Testing 622 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Conferences and Explaining Test Results 623



599 • Writing



Constructed Responses: Essay Testing



618 • Grade-Equivalent



Discussing Test Results with Families



Using the Tests from Textbooks 598 Selected-Response Testing 598



616



618 • Percentile



Interpreting Standardized Test Reports



597



• Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations



Exit Tickets



615



Deviation



GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System



628



Quality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for Teachers 628 Summary and Key Terms 629 Practice Using What You Have Learned 631 Connect and Extend to Licensure 632 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do? 633



Licensure Appendix Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index N-1 Subject Index S-1



A-1



SPECIAL FEATURES TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



Helping Students to Use Formal Operations



Leaving No Student Behind



2



Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom



Leaving No Student Behind



29



Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents



Symbols and Cymbals



30



Symbols and Cymbals



71



Mean Girls



72



Mean Girls



119



Helping Children of Divorce



Including Every Student



175



Supporting Identity Formation 176



Cultures Clash in the Classroom



215



White Girls Club



216



White Girls Club



259



296



80



86



Encouraging Initiative and Industry



Cultures Clash in the Classroom



Sick of Class



76



Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 120



260



67



Family and Community Partnerships—Connecting with Families 84



Including Every Student



Sick of Class



Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching



54



Remembering the Basics



298



Remembering the Basics



336



Uncritical Thinking



338



Uncritical Thinking



378



Interpreting IQ Scores



98



101



131



Applying and Encouraging Creativity



138



Family and Community Partnerships—Productive Conferences 144 Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems



155



Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities



159



Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy



186



Promoting Language Learning



192



Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs 199



Learning to Cooperate



380



Family and Community Partnerships—Welcoming all Families 201



Learning to Cooperate



423



Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty



Failure to Self-Regulate



424



Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching



Failure to Self-Regulate



459



Culturally Relevant Teaching



228



246



255



Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin



460



Applying Classical Conditioning



Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin



505



Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately 274



Bullies and Victims



506



Bullies and Victims



549



266



Reaching and Teaching Every Student



550



Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 276



Reaching and Teaching Every Student



589



Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment



Giving Meaningful Grades



590



Giving Meaningful Grades



633



91



Family and Community Partnerships—Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management 288 Gaining and Maintaining Attention



308



GUIDELINES



Family and Community Partnerships—Organizing Learning 325



Family and Community Partnerships—Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 50



Helping Students Understand and Remember 332



Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child



282



52



Applying Problem Solving



361



xxvii



xxviii



SP E CI A L FEATU RES



Becoming an Expert Student



363



Writing Multiple-Choice Items



Family and Community Partnerships—Promoting Transfer 372



Creating Portfolios



Facilitating Deep Questioning



Using Any Grading System



Using Cooperative Learning Using Computers



408



Supporting the Development of Media Literacy Encouraging Self-Efficacy



417



Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing



451



What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? 469



Brain-Based Education



482



Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity



What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ SelfEsteem? 107



485



Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?



490



151



What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs? 203



Establishing Class Routines



515



Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?



244



Designing Learning Spaces



520



Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?



290



Keeping Students Engaged



523



What’s Wrong with Multitasking?



Creating Caring Relationships 530



Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? 396



537



Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Management 545 Using Learning Targets



442



Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?



566



Family and Community Partnerships—Homework Productive Group Discussions Using Flexible Grouping



Are ”Grittier” Students More Successful?



562



Effective Direct Instruction



307



Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving? 367



528



Handling Potentially Explosive Situations



20



42



Family and Community Partnerships––Motivation to Learn 500



Imposing Penalties



626



POINT/COUNTERPOINT



437



Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy



Coping with Anxiety



616



433



Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation Encouraging Self-Worth



609



Family and Community Partnerships—Conferences and Explaining Test Results 623



415



Using Observational Learning



608



Developing a Rubric



392



601



Are the Common Core Standards a Valuable Guide for Teaching? 558



569



574



Should Children Be Held Back?



577



Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations



532



584



614



484



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chapter one



m



TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Leaving No Student Behind



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



LEARNING, TEACHING, AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY It is your second year as a teacher in the Lincoln East school district. Over the last 4 years, the number of students from immigrant families has increased dramatically in your school. In your class, you have two students who speak Somali, one Hmong, one Farsi, and four Spanish speakers. Some of them know a little English, but many have very few words other than “OK.” If there had been more students from each of the language groups, the district would have given your school additional resources and special programs in each language, providing you extra help, but there are not quite enough students speaking most of the languages to meet the requirements. In addition, you have several students with special needs; learning disabilities, particularly problems in reading, seem to be the most common. Your state and district require you to prepare all your students for the achievement tests in the spring, and the national emphasis is on readiness for college and career by the end of high school—for everyone. Your only possible extra resource is a student intern from the local college. CRITICAL THINKING • What would you do to help all your students to progress and prepare for the achievement tests? • How would you make use of the intern so that both she and your students learn? • How could you involve the families of your non-English-speaking students and students with learning disabilities to support their children’s learning?



Anita Woolfolk Hoy



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Like many students, you may begin this course with a mixture of anticipation and wariness. Perhaps you are required to take educational psychology as part of a program in teacher education, speech therapy, nursing, or counseling. You may have chosen this class as an elective. Whatever your reason for enrolling, you probably have questions about teaching, schools, students—or even about yourself—that you hope this course may answer. I have written the 14th edition of Educational Psychology with questions such as these in mind. In this first chapter, we begin with the state of education in today’s world. Teachers have been both criticized as ineffective and lauded as the best hope for young people. Do teachers make a difference in students’ learning? What characterizes good teaching—how do truly effective teachers think and act? What do they believe about students, learning, and themselves? When you are aware of the challenges and possibilities of teaching and learning today, you can appreciate the contributions of educational psychology. After a brief introduction to the world of the teacher, we turn to a discussion of educational psychology itself. How can principles identified by educational psychologists benefit teachers, therapists, parents, and others who are interested in teaching and learning? What exactly is the content of educational psychology, and where does this information come from? Finally, we consider an overview of a model that organizes research in educational psychology to identify the key student and school factors related to student learning (J. Lee & Shute, 2010). My goal is that you will become a confident and competent beginning teacher, so by the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective1.1



Describe the key elements of the No Child Left Behind Act and its successor, the Every Student Succeeds Act, and discuss the continuing impact of testing and accountability for teachers and students.



Objective1.2



Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different frameworks describing what good teachers do.



Objective1.3



Describe the methods used to conduct research in the field of educational psychology and the kinds of questions each method can address.



Objective1.4



Recognize how theories and research in development and learning are related to educational practice.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Learning and Teaching Today Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology Confidence in Every Context High Expectations for Teachers and Students Do Teachers Make a Difference? What Is Good Teaching? Inside Three Classrooms Beginning Teachers The Role of Educational Psychology In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching Educational Psychology Today Is It Just Common Sense? Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning



LEARNING AND TEACHING TODAY Welcome to my favorite topic—educational psychology—the study of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment in and out of schools. I believe this is one of the most important courses you will take to prepare for your future as an educator in the classroom or the consulting office, whether your “students” are children or adults learning how to read or individuals discovering how to improve their diets. In fact, there is evidence that new teachers who have course work in development and learning are twice as likely to stay in teaching (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 2003). This may be a required course for you, so let me make the case for educational psychology, first by stepping into classrooms today.



Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology Who are the students in American classrooms today? Here are a few statistics about the United States. •



The United States is a land of immigrants. About 25% of U.S. children under 18 are living in immigrant families Theories for Teaching (Turner, 2015). It is likely that by 2060, nearly 20% of the Supporting Student Learning U.S. population will be foreign born, and people of HisSummary and Key Terms panic origin will comprise almost 30% of that population. By 2044, more than half of the U.S. population will be Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: members of some minority group (Colby & Ortman, 2015). What Would They Do? • Almost 15 million children—about 22% of all children— live in poverty, defined in 2017 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services as an income of $24,600 for a family of four ($30,750 in Alaska and $28,290 in Hawaii). And in the public schools, just over half the students qualify for free or reduced cost lunches—a rough indicator of poverty (Southern Education Foundation, 2015). At 22%, the United States has the second highest rate of child poverty among the 35 economically advantaged countries of the world, just above Romania and below Bulgaria. Iceland, the Scandinavian countries, Cyprus, and the Netherlands have the lowest rates of child poverty, about 7% or less (Ann E. Casey Foundation, 2015; Children’s Defense Fund, 2015; National Center for Child Poverty, 2013; UNICEF, 2012). • The typical Black household has about 6% of the wealth of the typical White household. The figure for Hispanic households is 8% (Shin, 2015). • About one in six American children have a mild-to-severe developmental disability such as speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, or autism. Over half of these children spend most or their time in general education classes (Centers for Disease Control, 2015c). • In 2012, for children ages birth to 17, 20% had parents who were divorced or separated, 11% were living with someone who had an alcohol or drug problem, 7% had a parent who had served time in jail, and 9% lived with someone who was mentally ill (Child Trends, 2013). Based on statistics such as these, Erica Turner (2015) concluded, “American society and schools are more diverse and more unequal than ever” (p. 4). In contrast, because of the effects of mass media, these diverse students share many similarities today, particularly the fact that most are far more technologically literate than their teachers. For example: • Infants to 8-year-olds spend an average of almost 2 hours each day watching TV or videos, 29 minutes listening to music, and 25 minutes working with computers or



4



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5



computer games. In 2013, 75% of homes with children under age 8 had a smartphone, tablet, or other mobile device (Common Sense Media, 2012, 2013b). Today the numbers probably have increased. • According to a 2015 Pew Research survey, 92% of 13- to 17-year-olds said they went online daily, and 24% were online “almost constantly.” This is possible because 88% of teenagers have access to some kind of mobile phone and most of these (73%) are smartphones. And 71% of teens use more than one social media site; Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat are the most popular (Lenhart, 2015). These statistics are dramatic but a bit impersonal. As a teacher, counselor, recreational worker, speech therapist, or family member, you will encounter real children. In this book, you will meet many individuals such as Josué, a bright first grader whose first language is Spanish, struggling to care about learning read in a language that offers only, “run Spot, run”; Alex, an 11-year-old who has created 10 languages and 30 or 40 alphabets; Jamie Foxx, a very bright third-grade student in a small, Texas town whose teacher rewards him for working hard all week by letting him do stand-up comedy for the class on Fridays; Tracy, a failing high school student who does not understand why her study strategies are failing her; Felipe, a fifth-grade boy from a Spanish-speaking family who is working to learn school subjects and make friends in a language that is new to him; Ternice, an outspoken African American girl in an urban middle school who is hiding her giftedness; Trevor, a second-grade student who has trouble with the meaning of symbol; Allison, head of a popular clique and tormentor of the outcast Stephanie; Eliot, a bright sixth-grade student with severe learning disabilities; and Jessie, a student in a rural high school who just doesn’t seem to care about her sinking grade-point average (GPA) or school in general. Even though students in classrooms are increasingly diverse in race, ethnicity, language, and economic level, teachers are much less diverse—the percentage of White teachers is increasing (now about 90%), while the percentage of Black teachers is falling, down to about 7%. Clearly, it is important for all teachers to know and be able to work effectively with all their students. Several chapters in this book are devoted to understanding these diverse students. In addition, many times within each chapter, we will explore student diversity and inclusion through research, cases, and practical applications.



Confidence in Every Context Schools are about teaching and learning; all other activities are secondary. But teaching and learning in the contexts just described can be challenging for both teachers and students. This book is about understanding the complex processes of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment so that you can become a capable and confident teacher. Much of my own research has focused on teachers’ sense of efficacy, defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. This confident belief appears to be one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that predict student achievement (Çakırog˘lu, Aydın, & Woolfolk Hoy, 2012; Woolfolk Hoy, Hoy, & Davis, 2009). Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder and persist longer even when students are difficult to teach, in part because these teachers believe in themselves and in their students. Also, they are less likely to experience burnout and more likely to be satisfied with their jobs (Fernet, Guay, Senécal, & Austin, 2012; Fives, Hamman, & Olivarez, 2005; Klassen & Chiu, 2010). I have found that prospective teachers tend to increase in their personal sense of efficacy as a consequence of completing student teaching. But sense of efficacy may decline after the first year as a teacher, perhaps because the support that was provided during student teaching is gone (Woolfolk Hoy & Burke-Spero, 2005). Teachers’ sense of efficacy is higher in schools when the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and the teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems (Capa, 2005). Efficacy grows from real success



Teachers’ sense of efficacy A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.



6



CH A P TE R O NE



with students, not just from the moral support or cheerleading of professors and colleagues. Any experience or training that helps you succeed in the day-to-day tasks of teaching will give you a foundation for developing a sense of efficacy in your career. This book was written to provide the knowledge and skills that form a solid foundation for an authentic sense of efficacy in teaching.



High Expectations for Teachers and Students In 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. Actually, NCLB was the latest authorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), first passed in 1965. In a nutshell, NCLB required that all students in grades 3 through 8 and once more in high school take annual standardized achievement tests in reading and mathematics. In addition, they had to be tested in science once in each grade span: elementary, middle, and high school. Based on these test scores, schools were judged to determine if their students were making adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward becoming proficient in the subjects tested. States and schools had to develop AYP goals and report scores separately for several subgroups, including racial and ethnic minority students, students with disabilities, students whose first language is not English, and students from low-income homes. But no matter how states defined these standards, NCLB required that all students reach proficiency by the end of the 2013–2014 school year. You probably noticed—this did not happen. For a while, NCLB dominated education. Testing expanded. Schools and teachers were penalized if they did not perform. For example, if a school underperformed for 5 years, federal money could be taken away, teachers and principals could be fired, and schools could be converted to charter schools or closed. As you can imagine, or may have experienced yourself, such high-stakes penalties pushed teachers and schools to “teach to the test” or worse. The curriculum narrowed and much time was spent on drill and practice. Cheating was a problem and graduation requirements were dumbed down in some high schools to avoid receiving penalties (Davidson, Reback, Rockoff, & Schwartz 2015; Meens & Howe, 2015; Strauss, 2015). With all this focus on test preparation, some schools and states seemed to make progress toward their AYP goals, but too many schools were labeled as failing. A closer look at these successes and failures showed that the states used very different formulas and procedures for calculating AYP, so we can’t really compare results across states (Davidson et al., 2015). All in all, NCLB requirements were widely criticized as “blunt instruments, generating inaccurate performance results, perverse incentives, and unintended negative consequences” (Hopkins et al., 2013, p. 101). NCLB was supposed to be reauthorized in 2007 or 2008, but this process was not completed until December 10, 2015 when President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). The main differences between ESSA and NCLB are that the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date has been dropped, most control is returned to the states to set standards and develop interventions, and penalties are no longer central to the law. A few key changes include:



Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) The 2015 replacement for the No Child Left Behind Act. ESSA drops the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date has been dropped and returns most control to the states to set standards and develop interventions.



1. Schools still must test the same subjects in the same grades, and at least 95% of students must participate in the testing. But the local districts now can decide when to test, whether to break one big test into several smaller tests, and even how to find better tests that really capture important student learning. Accountability plans have to be submitted to the Department of Education. In these plans, test scores and graduation rates have to be given greater weight than other more subjective measures, but at least one additional measure of school quality such as school climate and safety or student engagement must be included, along with measures of progress toward English language proficiency for English learners (Korte, 2015). 2. The schools still have to gather data about different subgroups of students, but they are not penalized if the students in these groups do not perform, unless the underperformance persists over time.



LE A R NI N G , TE A C H I NG , A ND E D U C ATI O NA L P SY CHOLOG Y



7



3. Only schools at the bottom 5% of test scores, schools that graduate less than two-thirds of their students, and schools where subgroups consistently underperform will be considered failing. The states must intervene in these schools with “evidence-based” programs, but ESSA leaves the decisions about which interventions to use to the state (Strauss, 2015). 4. States are allowed to adopt the Common Core Standards (see Chapter 14), but there are no federal incentives or pressures to do so. The goal is for high school graduates to be college and career ready. 5. States are now required to fund “equitable services” for children in private and religious schools if those students are eligible for special services. This could be a problem for many states that do not have enough money now to adequately fund these services in public schools (Strauss, 2015). 6. ESSA also emphasizes increased access to preschool by including new funding for early childhood education (Wong, 2015). Even though these seem to be major changes, the actual effects for many states and schools may not be too dramatic. By 2015, the Secretary of Education had waived the requirement to reach 100% proficiency for 42 states and the District of Columbia. To get the waivers, the states had to show they had adopted their own testing and accountability programs and were making progress toward the goal of college or career readiness for all their graduates. In other words, these 42 states and the District of Columbia already were operating under the main provisions of ESSA (Meens & Howe, 2015; Wong, 2015). One provision of the ESSA of interest to all teachers and teacher educators is a provision that establishes teacher education academies. The types of academies favored are nontraditional, non-university, and for-profit programs that don’t have to meet the standards of university programs. Many teacher educators worry that this step will lower the quality of new teachers (Strauss, 2015). Time will tell how the new ESSA law unfolds, especially with the election of Donald Trump as President. Many excellent teachers still believe they are spending too much time preparing for tests and not enough time supporting student learning in subjects not tested, such as social studies, art, music, physical education, and technology (Cusick, 2015). But no matter what policies the government adopts, capable and confident teachers will be required. Is that true? Do teachers really make a difference? Good question.



MyLab Education



Podcast 1.1 In this podcast, textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about the importance of teachers in students’ lives. Did you know that “teacher involvement and caring are the most significant predictors of a student’s engagement in school from first grade through twelfth grade?” Listen to learn more.



Do Teachers Make a Difference? You saw in the statistics presented earlier that many American children are growing up in poverty. For a while, some researchers concluded that wealth and social status, not teaching, were the major factors determining who learned in schools (e.g., Coleman, 1966). In fact, much of the early research on teaching was conducted by educational psychologists who refused to accept these claims that teachers were powerless in the face of poverty and societal problems (Wittrock, 1986). How can you decide whether teaching makes a difference? Perhaps one of your teachers influenced your decision to become an educator. Even if you had such a teacher, and I hope you did, one of the purposes of educational psychology in general and this text in particular is to go beyond individual experiences and testimonies, powerful as they are, to examine larger groups. The results of many large-group studies speak to the power of teachers in the lives of students, as you will see next. TEACHER–STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS. Bridgett Hamre and Robert Pianta (2001) monitored all the children who entered kindergarten one year in a small school district and continued in that district through the eighth grade. The researchers concluded that the quality of the teacher–student relationship in kindergarten (defined in terms of level of conflict with the child, the child’s dependency on the teacher, and the teacher’s affection for the child) predicted a number of academic and behavioral outcomes through the eighth grade, particularly for students with many behavior problems.



MyLab Education



Video Example 1.1 A bilingual teacher conducts a discussion with immigrant high school students. She asks students to discuss what teachers can do to help English learners and students from different cultures.



8



CH A P TE R O NE



Even when the gender, ethnicity, cognitive ability, and behavior ratings of the student were accounted for, the relationship with the teacher still predicted aspects of school success. So students with significant behavior problems in the early years are less likely to have problems later in school if their first teachers are sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback. It appears that the connection between teacher relationships and student outcomes is widespread. Deborah Roorda and her colleagues (2011) reviewed research from 99 studies around the world that examined the connections between teacher–student relationships and student engagement. Positive teacher relationships predicted positive student engagement at every grade, but the relationships were especially strong for students who were at risk academically and for older students. As an example, Russell Bishop and his colleagues (2014) observed 1,263 secondary teachers who taught the indigenous Maori students of New Zealand. The researchers found that when teachers established warm, caring relationships with their students, similar to those of an extended family, the students were more engaged. In fact, without such relationships there was no engagement. So evidence is mounting for a strong association between the quality of teacher–child relationships and school performance. THE COST OF POOR TEACHING. In a widely publicized study, researchers examined how students are affected by having several effective or ineffective teachers in a row (Sanders & Rivers, 1996). They looked at fifth graders in two large metropolitan school systems in Tennessee. Students who had highly effective teachers for third, fourth, and fifth grades scored at the 83rd percentile on average on a standardized mathematics achievement test in one district and at the 96th percentile in the other (99th percentile is the highest possible score). In contrast, students who had the least effective teachers 3 years in a row averaged at the 29th percentile in math achievement in one district and 44th percentile in the other—a difference of over 50 percentile points in both cases! Students who had average teachers or a mixture of teachers with low, average, and high effectiveness for the 3 years had math scores between these extremes. Sanders and Rivers concluded that the best teachers encouraged good-to-excellent gains in achievement for all students, but lower-achieving students were the first to benefit from good teaching. The effects of teaching were cumulative and residual; that is, better teaching in a later grade could partially make up for less effective teaching in earlier grades, but could not erase all the deficits traced to poor teachers (Hanushek, Rivkin, & Kain, 2005; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2001). Another study about test score gains from the Los Angeles public schools may be especially interesting to you. Robert Gordon and his colleagues (2006) measured the test performance of elementary school students in beginning teachers’ classes. Teachers were ranked into quartiles based on how well their students performed during the teachers’ first 2 years. Then the researchers looked at the test performance of students in classes with the top 25% of the teachers and the bottom 25% during their third year of teaching. After controlling for the effects of students’ prior test scores, their families’ wealth, and other factors, they found that the students working with the top 25% of the teachers gained an average of 5 percentile points more compared to students with similar beginning of the year test scores, while students in the bottom 25% lost an average of 5 percentile points. If these losses accumulate, then students working with poorer teachers would fall farther and farther behind. In fact, the researchers speculated that “. . . having a top-quartile teacher four years in a row would be enough to close the black-white test score gap” [of about 34 percentile points] (R. Gordon, Kane, & Staiger, 2006, p. 8). Effective teachers who establish positive relationships with their students appear to be a powerful force in those students’ lives. Students who have problems seem to benefit the most from good teaching. So an important question is, “What makes a teacher effective? What is good teaching?” MyLab Education Self-Check 1.1



LE A R NI N G , TE A C H I NG , A ND E D U C ATI O NA L P SY CHOLOG Y



9



WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING?



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®



Educators, psychologists, philosophers, novelists, journalists, filmmakers, mathematicians, scientists, historians, policy makers, and parents, to name only a few groups, have examined this question; there are hundreds of answers. And good teaching is not confined to classrooms. It occurs in homes and hospitals, museums and sales meetings, therapists’ offices, and summer camps. In this book we are primarily concerned with teaching in classrooms, but much of what you will learn applies to other settings as well.



Teacher Professionalism (IV, A2) Begin your own development by reading educational publications. One widely read periodical is Education Week. You can access it online at edweek.com.



Inside Three Classrooms To begin our examination of good teaching, let’s step inside the classrooms of three outstanding teachers. The three situations are real. The first two teachers worked with my student teachers in local elementary and middle schools and were studied by one of my colleagues, Carol Weinstein (Weinstein & Romano, 2015). The third teacher became an expert at helping students with severe learning difficulties, with the guidance of a consultant. A BILINGUAL FIRST GRADE. Most of the 25 students in Viviana’s class have recently emigrated from the Dominican Republic; the rest come from Nicaragua, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Honduras. Even though the children speak little or no English when they begin school, by the time they leave in June, Viviana has helped them master the normal first-grade curriculum for their district. She accomplishes this by teaching in Spanish early in the year to aid understanding and then gradually introducing English as the students are ready. Viviana does not want her students segregated or labeled as disadvantaged. She encourages them to take pride in their Spanish-speaking heritage and uses every available opportunity to support their developing English proficiency. Both Viviana’s expectations for her students and her commitment to them are high. She has an optimism that reveals her dedication: “I always hope that there’s somebody out there that I will reach and that I’ll make a difference” (Weinstein & Romano, 2015, p. 15). For Viviana, teaching is not just a job; it is a way of life. A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE. Ken teaches fifth grade in a suburban school in central New Jersey. Students in the class represent a range of racial, ethnic, family income, and language backgrounds. Ken emphasizes “process writing.” His students complete first drafts, discuss them with others in the class, revise, edit, and “publish” their work. The students also keep daily journals and often use them to share personal concerns with Ken. They tell him of problems at home, fights, and fears; he always takes the time to respond in writing. Ken also uses technology to connect lessons to real life. Students learn about ocean ecosystems by using a special interactive software program. For social studies, the class plays two simulation games that focus on history. One is about coming of age in Native American cultures, and the other focuses on the colonization of America. Throughout the year, Ken is very interested in the social and emotional development of his students; he wants them to learn about responsibility and fairness as well as science and social studies. This concern is evident in the way he develops his class rules at the beginning of the year. Rather than specifying do’s and don’ts, Ken and his students devise a “Bill of Rights” for the class, describing the rights of the students. These rights cover most of the situations that might need a “rule.” AN INCLUSIVE CLASS. Eliot was bright and articulate. He easily memorized stories as a child, but he could not read by himself. His problems stemmed from severe learning difficulties with auditory and visual integration and long-term visual memory. When he tried to write, everything got jumbled. Dr. Nancy White worked with Eliot’s teacher, Mia Russell, to tailor intensive tutoring that specifically focused on Eliot’s individual learning patterns and his errors. With his teachers’ help, over the next years, Eliot became an expert on his own learning and was transformed into an independent learner; he knew which strategies he had to use and when to use them. According to Eliot, “Learning that stuff is not fun, but it works!” (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006, pp. 184–185).



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What do you see in these three classrooms? The teachers are confident and committed to their students. They must deal with a wide range of students: different languages, different home situations, and different abilities and learning challenges. They must adapt instruction and assessment to students’ needs. They must make the most abstract concepts, such as ecosystems, real and understandable for their particular students. The whole time these experts are navigating through the academic material, they also are taking care of the emotional needs of their students, propping up sagging self-esteem, and encouraging responsibility. If we followed these teachers from the first day of class, we would see that they carefully plan and teach the basic procedures for living and learning in their classes. They can efficiently collect and correct homework, regroup students, give directions, distribute materials, and deal with disruptions—and do all of this while also making a mental note to find out why one of their students is so tired. Finally, they are reflective—they constantly think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.



MyLab Education



Video Example 1.2 Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be capable of inventing new strategies. In this video, the teacher knows her students and uses strategies that help each student learn. Observe how she supports students who are English language learners, and observe her method of grouping students to meet diverse needs.



SO WHAT IS GOOD TEACHING? Is good teaching science or art: the application of research-based theories or the creative invention of specific practices? Is a good teacher an expert explainer—“a sage on the stage” or a great coach—“a guide by the side”? These debates have raged for years. In your other education classes, you probably will encounter criticisms of the scientific, teacher-centered sages. You will be encouraged to be inventive, student-centered guides. But beware of either/or choices. Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be capable of inventing new strategies. They must have some basic research-based routines for managing classes, but they must also be willing and able to break from the routine when the situation calls for change. They must know the research on student development, and they also need to know their own particular students who are unique combinations of culture, gender, and geography. Personally, I hope you all become teachers who are both sages and guides, wherever you stand. Another answer to “What is good teaching?” involves considering what different models and frameworks for teaching have to offer. We look at this next. MODELS OF GOOD TEACHING: TEACHER OBSERVATION AND EVALUATION. In the last few years, educators, policy makers, government agencies, and philanthropists have spent millions of dollars identifying what works in teaching and specifically how to identify good teaching. These efforts have led to a number of models for teaching and teacher evaluation systems. We will briefly examine three to help answer the question, “What is good teaching?” Another reason to consider these models is that when you become a teacher, you may be evaluated based on one of these approaches, or something like them—teacher evaluation is a very hot topic these days! We will look at Charlotte Danielson’s Framework for Teaching, the high-leverage practices identified by TeachingWorks at the University of Michigan, and the Measures of Effective Teaching project sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Danielson’s Framework for Teaching. The Framework for Teaching was first published in 1996 and has been revised three times since then, the latest in 2013 (see danielsongroup.org for information about Charlotte Danielson and the Framework for Teaching). According to Charlotte Danielson (2013):



Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.



The Framework for Teaching identifies those aspects of a teacher’s responsibilities that have been documented through empirical studies and theoretical research as promoting improved student learning. While the Framework is not the only possible description of practice, these responsibilities seek to define what teachers should know and be able to do in the exercise of their profession. (p. 3)



Danielson’s Framework has 4 domains or areas of responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. Each domain is further divided into 5 or 6 components, making a total of 22 components for the



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entire framework. For example, Domain 1: Planning and Preparation, is divided into 6 components: 1a Demonstrating knowledge of content and pedagogy 1b Demonstrating knowledge of students 1c Setting instructional objectives 1d Demonstrating knowledge of resources 1e Designing coherent instruction 1f Designing student assessments When the Framework is used for teacher evaluation, each of these 22 components is further divided into elements (76 in all), and several indicators are specified for each component. For example, component 1b, demonstrating knowledge of students, includes the elements describing knowledge of • • • • •



child and adolescent development the learning process students’ skills, knowledge, and language proficiency students’ interests and cultural heritage students’ special needs



Indicators of this knowledge of students include the formal and informal information about students that the teacher gathers when planning instruction, the students’ interests and needs the teacher identifies, the teacher’s participation in community cultural events, opportunities the teacher has designed for families to share their cultural heritages, and any databases the teacher has for students with special needs (Danielson, 2013). The evaluation system further defines four levels of proficiency for each of the 22 components: unsatisfactory, basic, proficient, and distinguished, with a definition, critical attributes, and possible examples of what each level might look like in action. Two examples of distinguished knowledge of students are a teacher who plans lessons with three different follow-up activities designed to match different students’ abilities and a teacher who attends a local Mexican heritage event to meet members of her students’ extended families. Many other examples are possible, but these two give a sense of distinguished knowledge of students (component 1b). You can see that it would take extensive training to use this framework well for teacher evaluation. When you become a teacher, you may learn more about this conception of good teaching because your school district is using it. For now, be assured that you will gain knowledge and skills in all 22 components in this text. For example, you will gain knowledge of students (component 1b) in Chapters 2 through 6. TeachingWorks. TeachingWorks is a national project based at the University of Michigan and dedicated to improving teaching practice. Project members working with experienced teachers have identified 19 high-leverage teaching practices, defined as actions that are central to teaching and useful across most grade levels, academic subjects, and teaching situations. The TeachingWorks researchers call these practices “a set of ‘best bets,’ warranted by research evidence, wisdom of practice, and logic” (teachingworks.org/work-ofteaching/high-leverage-practices). These practices are specific enough to be taught and observed, so they can be a basis for teacher learning and evaluation. See Table 1.1 on the next page for these 19 practices. Again, you will develop skills and knowledge about all of these practices in this text. (For a more complete description of the 19 high-leverage practices, see teachingworks.org/work-of-teaching/high-leverage-practices.) When you compare the high-leverage practices in Table 1.1 with the Danielson components listed earlier, do you see similarities and overlaps? Measures of Teacher Effectiveness. In 2009, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Measures of Teaching Effectiveness (MET) Project, a research partnership between 3,000 teachers and research teams at dozens of institutions. The goal was clear from the title—to build and test measures of effective teaching. The Gates Foundation



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TABLE 1.1 • TeachingWorks 19 High-Leverage Teaching Practices These practices are based on research evidence, the wisdom of practice, and logic. 1. Making content (e.g., specific texts, problems, theories, processes) explicit through explanation, modeling, representations, and examples 2. Leading a whole-class discussion 3. Eliciting and interpreting individual students’ thinking 4. Establishing norms and routines for classroom discourse and work that are central to the subject-matter domain 5. Recognizing particular common patterns of student thinking and development in a subject-matter domain 6. Identifying and implementing an instructional response or strategy in response to common patterns of student thinking 7. Teaching a lesson or segment of instruction 8. Implementing organizational routines, procedures, and strategies to support a learning environment 9. Setting up and managing small group work 10. Engaging in strategic relationship-building conversations with student 11. Setting long- and short-term learning goals for students referenced to external benchmarks 12. Appraising, choosing, and modifying tasks and texts for a specific learning goal 13. Designing a sequence of lessons toward a specific learning goal 14. Selecting and using particular methods to check understanding and monitor student learning during and across lessons 15. Composing, selecting, and interpreting and using information from quizzes, tests and other methods of summative assessment 16. Providing oral and written feedback to students on their work 17. Communicating about a student with a parent or guardian 18. Analyzing instruction for the purpose of improving it 19. Communicating with other professionals Source: Reprinted with permission from TeachingWorks (2014), High-leverage practices. Retrieved from http:www. teachingworks.org/work-of-teaching/high-leverage-practices



tackled this problem because research shows that teachers matter; they matter more than technology or funding or school facilities. In pursuing the goal, the project members made a key assumption. Teaching is complex; multiple measures will be needed to capture effective teaching and provide useful feedback for personnel decisions and professional development. In addition to using student achievement gains on state tests, the MET researchers examined many established and newer measures of effectiveness and content knowledge. The final report of the project (MET Project, 2013) identified the following three measures that are used together as a valid and reliable way of assessing teaching that leads to student learning: 1. Student gains on state tests. 2. Surveys of student perceptions of their teachers based on the Tripod Student Perception Survey developed by Ron Ferguson at Harvard University (R. F. Ferguson, 2008). This survey asks students to agree or disagree with statements such as “My teacher takes time to help us remember what we learn” (for K–2 students); “In class we learn to correct our mistakes (upper elementary students); and “In this class, my teacher accepts nothing less than our full effort” (secondary students) (from Cambridge Education, Tripod Project, Student Survey System). 3. Classroom observations from the Danielson (2013) Framework for Teaching. Remember, teaching is complex. To capture effective teaching, these measures have to be used accurately and together. Also, in both state tests and tests of higher-level thinking, the best combination of reliability and prediction of student gains comes when gains on standardized tests are weighted between 33% and 50% in assessing effectiveness, with student perception and class observation results providing the rest of the information (MET Project, 2013). Are you surprised that evaluating a teacher’s content knowledge for the subject taught did not make the cut in measuring teacher effectiveness? So far, math seems to be the one area where teacher knowledge is related to student learning, but with better



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measures of teacher knowledge, we may find more relationships (Gess-Newsome, 2013; Goe, 2013; MET Project, 2013). Is all this talk about expert teachers and effective teaching making you a little nervous? Viviana, Ken, and Mia are experts at the science and art of teaching, but they have years of experience. What about you?



Beginning Teachers STOP & THINK Imagine walking into your first day of teaching. List the concerns, fears, and worries you have. What assets do you bring to the job? What would build your confidence to teach? • Beginning teachers everywhere share many concerns, including maintaining classroom discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences among students, evaluating students’ work, dealing with parents, and getting along with other teachers (Conway & Clark, 2003; Melnick & Meister, 2008; Veenman, 1984). Many teachers also experience what has been called “reality shock” when they take their first job because they really cannot ease into their responsibilities. On the first day of their first job, beginning teachers face the same tasks as teachers with years of experience. Student teaching, while a critical element, does not really prepare prospective teachers for starting off a school year with a new class. If you listed any of these concerns in your response to the Stop & Think question, you shouldn’t be troubled. They come with the job of being a beginning teacher (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Cooke & Pang, 1991). With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on the students’ needs and judge their success by their students’ accomplishments (Fuller, 1969; Pigge & Marso, 1997). One experienced teacher described the shift from concerns about yourself to concerns about your students in this way: “The difference between a beginning teacher and an experienced one is that the beginning teacher asks, ‘How am I doing?’ and the experienced teacher asks, ‘How are the children doing?’” (Codell, 2001, p. 191). My goal in writing this book is to give you the foundation for becoming an expert as you gain experience. One thing experts do is listen to their students. Table 1.2 shows some advice a first-grade class gave to their student teacher: It looks like the students know about good teaching, too. TABLE 1.2 • Advice for Student Teachers from Their Students The students in Ms. Amato’s first-grade class gave this advice as a gift to their student teacher on her last day. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.



Teach us as much as you can. Give us homework. Help us when we have problems with our work. Help us to do the right thing. Help us make a family in school. Read books to us. Teach us to read. Help us write about faraway places. Give us lots of compliments, like “Oh, that’s so beautiful.” Smile at us. Take us for walks and on trips. Respect us. Help us get our education.



Source: Nieto, Sonia, Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education, 4th ed., © 2004. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.



I began this chapter claiming that educational psychology is the one of the most important courses you will take. OK, maybe I am a bit biased—I have been teaching the subject for over four decades! So let me tell you more about my favorite topic. MyLab Education Self-Check 1.2



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher Professionalism (IV, A1) Your professional growth relies on your becoming a member of a community of practice. The national organizations listed here have hundreds of affiliations and chapters across the country with regular conferences, conventions, and meetings to advance instruction in their areas. Take a look at their Web sites to get a feel for their approaches to issues related to professionalism. • National Council of Teachers of English (ncte.org) • International Reading Association (reading.org) • National Science Teachers Association (nsta.org) • National Council for the Social Studies (ncss.org) • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (nctm.org)



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THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY For as long as the formal study of educational psychology has existed—over 100 years— there have been debates about what it really is. Some people believe educational psychology is simply knowledge gained from psychology and applied to the activities of the classroom. Others believe it involves applying the methods of psychology to study classroom and school life (Brophy, 2003). A quick look at history shows that educational psychology and teaching have been closely linked since the beginning.



In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching In one sense, educational psychology is very old. Issues Plato and Aristotle discussed— the role of the teacher, the relationship between teacher and student, methods of teaching, the nature and order of learning, the role of emotion in learning—are still topics in educational psychology today. But let’s fast forward to recent history. From the beginning, psychology in the United States was linked to teaching. At Harvard in 1890, William James founded the field of psychology and developed a lecture series for teachers entitled Talks to Teachers about Psychology. These lectures were given in summer schools for teachers around the country and then published in 1899. James’s student, G. Stanley Hall, founded the American Psychological Association. Teachers helped him collect data for his dissertation about children’s understandings of the world. Hall encouraged teachers to make detailed observations to study their students’ development—as his mother had done when she was a teacher. Hall’s student John Dewey founded the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago and is considered the father of the progressive education movement (Berliner, 2006; Hilgard, 1996; Pajares, 2003). Another of William James’s students, E. L. Thorndike, wrote the first educational psychology text in 1903 and founded the Journal of Educational Psychology in 1910.



Educational Psychology Today What is educational psychology today? The view generally accepted is that educational psychology is a distinct discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems, and techniques. Educational psychologists do research on learning and teaching and, at the same time, work to improve educational policy and practice (Anderman, 2011). To understand as much as possible about learning and teaching, educational psychologists examine what happens when someone (a teacher or parent or software designer) teaches something (math or weaving or dancing) to someone else (student or co-worker or team) in some setting (classroom or theater or gym) (Berliner, 2006; Schwab, 1973). So educational psychologists study child and adolescent development; learning and motivation—including how people learn different academic subjects such as reading or mathematics; social and cultural influences on learning; teaching and teachers; and assessment, including testing (Alexander & Winne, 2006). But even with all this research on so many topics, are the findings of educational psychologists really that helpful for teachers? After all, most teaching is just common sense, isn’t it? Let’s take a few minutes to examine these questions.



Is It Just Common Sense? In many cases, the principles set forth by educational psychologists—after spending much thought, time, and money for research—sound pathetically obvious. People are tempted to say, and usually do say, “Everyone knows that!” Consider these examples. Educational psychology The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well.



HELPING STUDENTS. When should teachers provide help for lower-achieving students as they do class work? Commonsense Answer. Teachers should offer help often. After all, these lower-achieving students may not know when they need help or they may be too embarrassed to ask for help.



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ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH. Sandra Graham (1996) found that when teachers provide help before students ask, the students and others watching are more likely to conclude that the student who was given assistance does not have the ability to succeed. The student is more likely to attribute failures to lack of ability instead of lack of effort, so motivation suffers. SKIPPING GRADES. Should a school encourage exceptionally bright students to skip grades or to enter college early? Commonsense Answer. No! Very intelligent students who are several years younger than their classmates are likely to be social misfits. They are neither physically nor emotionally ready for dealing with older students and would be miserable in the social situations that are so important in school, especially in the later grades. ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH. Maybe. The first two conclusions in the report A Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back America’s Brightest Children are: (1) Acceleration is the most effective curriculum intervention for children who are gifted, and (2) for students who are bright, acceleration has long-term beneficial effects, both academically and socially (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004). One example of positive long-term effects is that mathematically talented students who skipped grades in elementary or secondary school were more likely to go on to earn advanced degrees and publish widely cited articles in scientific journals (Park, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2013). Whether acceleration is the best solution for a student depends on many specific individual characteristics, including the intelligence and maturity of the student as well as the other available options. For some students, moving quickly through the material and working in advanced courses with older students can be a very positive experience (Kretschmann, Vock, & Lüdtke, 2014). See Chapter 4 for more on adapting teaching to students’ abilities. STUDENTS IN CONTROL. Does giving students more control over their own learning— more choices—help them learn? Commonsense Answer. Of course! Students who choose their own learning materials and tasks will be more engaged and thus learn more. ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH. Not so fast! Sometimes giving students more control and choice can support learning, but many times it does not. For example, giving lower-ability students choice in learning tasks sometimes means the students just keep practicing what they already do well instead of tackling tougher assignments. This happened when hairdressing students were given choices. The lower-ability students kept practicing easy tasks such as washing hair but were reluctant to try more difficult projects such as giving permanents. When they developed portfolios to monitor their progress and received regular coaching and advice from their teachers, the students made better choices—so guided choice and some teacher control may be useful in some situations (Kicken, Brand-Gruwel, van Merriënboer, & Slot, 2009). OBVIOUS ANSWERS? Years ago, Lily Wong (1987) demonstrated that just seeing research results in writing can make them seem obvious. She selected 12 findings from research on teaching. She presented 6 of the findings in their correct form and 6 in exactly the opposite form to both college students and experienced teachers. Both the college students and the teachers rated about half of the wrong findings as “obviously” correct. Recently, Paul Kirschner and Joren van Merriënboer (2013) made a similar point when they challenged several “urban legends” in education about the assertion that learners (like the hairdressing students just described) know best how to learn. These current, strongly held beliefs about students as self-educating digital natives who can multitask, have unique learning styles, and always make good choices about how to learn have no strong basis in research, but they are embraced nonetheless.



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You may have thought that educational psychologists spend their time discovering the obvious. The preceding examples point out the danger of this kind of thinking. When a principle is stated in simple terms, it can sound simplistic. A similar phenomenon takes place when we see a professional dancer or athlete perform; the well-trained performer makes it look easy. But we see only the results of the training, not all the work that went into mastering the individual movements. And bear in mind that any research finding— or its opposite—may sound like common sense. The issue is not what sounds sensible, but what is demonstrated when the principle is put to the test in research—our next topic (Gage, 1991).



Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning STOP & THINK Quickly, list all the different research methods you can think of. • Educational psychologists design and conduct many different kinds of research studies. Some of these are descriptive studies—their purpose is simply to describe events in a particular situation.



CORRELATIONS DO NOT SHOW CAUSATION When research shows that landscaped lawns and school achievement are correlated, it does not show causation. Community wealth, a third variable, may be the cause of both school achievement and landscaped lawns.



ion School achievement



ds



to



School achievement



Landscaped lawns



Correlation



Faulty Assumption



ti o n



lead to



r re l a



Landscaped lawns



Co



Correlation



s to



Negative correlation A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling.



Community wealth d lea



Positive correlation A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain.



lea



Correlations Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related.



FIGURE 1 .1



C o rrelat



Descriptive studies Studies that collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods.



CORRELATION STUDIES. Often, the results of descriptive studies include reports of correlations. You will encounter many correlations in the coming chapters, so let’s take a minute to examine this concept. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. Correlations range from +1.00 to –1.00. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. For example, the correlation between adult weight and height is about .70 (a strong relationship); the correlation between adult weight and number of languages spoken is about .00 (no relationship at all). The sign of the correlation tells the direction of the relationship. A positive correlation indicates that the two factors increase or decrease together. As one gets larger, so does the other. Weight and height are positively correlated because greater weight tends to be associated with greater height. A negative correlation means that increases in one factor are related to decreases in the other, for example, the less you pay for a theater or concert ticket, the greater your distance from the stage. It is important to note that correlations do not prove cause and effect (see Figure 1.1). For example, weight and



More Likely Assumption



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height are correlated—but gaining weight obviously does not cause you to grow taller. Knowing a person’s weight simply allows you to make a general prediction about that person’s height. Educational psychologists identify correlations so they can make predictions about important events in the classroom. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES. A second type of research—experimentation—allows educational psychologists to go beyond predictions and actually study cause and effect. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. First, a number of comparable groups of participants are created. In psychological research, the term participants (also called subjects) generally refers to the people being studied—such as teachers or ninth graders. One common way to make sure that groups of participants are essentially the same is to assign each person to a group using a random procedure. Random means each participant has an equal chance of being in any group. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In experiments or quasi-experiments, for one or more of the groups studied, the experimenters change some aspect of the situation to see if this change or “treatment” has an expected effect. The results in each group are then compared, often using statistics. When differences are described as statistically significant, it means that they probably did not happen simply by chance. For example, if you see p < .05 in a study, this indicates that the result reported could happen by chance less than 5 times out of 100, and p < .01 means less than 1 time in 100. A number of the studies we will examine attempt to identify cause-and-effect relationships by asking questions such as this: If some teachers receive training in how to teach spelling using word parts (cause), will their students become better spellers than students whose teachers did not receive training (effect)? This actually was a field experiment because it took place in real classrooms and not in a simulated laboratory situation. In addition, it was a quasi-experiment because the students were in existing classes and had not been randomly assigned to teachers, so we cannot be certain the experimental and control groups were the same before the teachers received their training. The researchers handled this by looking at improvement in spelling, not just final achievement level, and the results showed that the training worked (Hurry et al., 2005). ABAB EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS. The goal of ABAB designs is to determine the effects of a therapy, teaching method, or other intervention by first observing the participants for a baseline period (A) and assess the behavior of interest; then trying an intervention (B) and noting the results; then removing the intervention and go back to baseline conditions (A); and finally reinstating the intervention (B). This form of design can help establish a cause-and-effect relationship (Plavnick & Ferreri, 2013). For example, a teacher might record how much time students are out of their seats without permission during a weeklong baseline period (A). The teacher then tries ignoring those who are out of their seats, but praises those who are seated, again recording how many are wandering out of their seats for the week (B). Next, the teacher returns to baseline conditions (A) and records results, and then reinstates the praise-and-ignore strategy (B). When this intervention was first tested, the praise-and-ignore strategy proved effective in increasing the time students spent in their seats (C. H. Madsen, Becker, Thomas, Koser, & Plager, 1968). CLINICAL INTERVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES. Jean Piaget pioneered an approach called the clinical interview to understand children’s thinking. The clinical interview uses open-ended questioning to probe responses and to follow up on answers. Questions go wherever the child’s responses lead. Here is an example of a clinical interview with a 7-year-old. Piaget is trying to understand the child’s thinking about lies and truth, so he asks, “What is a lie?”



Experimentation Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded. Participants/subjects People or animals studied. Random Without any definite pattern; following no rule. Quasi-experimental studies Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. Statistically significant Not likely to be a chance occurrence.



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C H A PT E R O NE What is a lie?—What isn’t true. What they say that they haven’t done.—Guess how old I am.—Twenty. No, I’m thirty.—Was that a lie you told me?—I didn’t do it on purpose.— I know. But is it a lie all the same, or not?—Yes, it is the same, because I didn’t say how old you were.—Is it a lie?—Yes, because I didn’t speak the truth.—Ought you be punished?—No.—Was it naughty or not naughty?—Not so naughty.—Why?—Because I spoke the truth afterwards! (Piaget, 1965, p. 144)



Case study Intensive study of one person or one situation. Ethnography A descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Participant observation A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group. Microgenetic studies Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time. Qualitative research Exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation, and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth. Quantitative research Research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observations.



Researchers also may employ case studies. A case study investigates one person or situation in depth. For example, Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues conducted in-depth studies of highly accomplished concert pianists, sculptors, Olympic swimmers, tennis players, mathematicians, and neurologists to try to understand what factors supported the development of outstanding talent. The researchers interviewed family members, teachers, friends, and coaches to build an extensive case study of each of these highly accomplished individuals (B. S. Bloom et al., 1985). Some educators recommend case study methods to identify students for gifted programs because the information gathered is richer than just test scores. ETHNOGRAPHY. Ethnographic methods, borrowed from anthropology, involve studying the naturally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the meaning of these events to the people involved. In educational psychology research, ethnographies might study how students from different cultural groups are viewed by their peers or how teachers’ beliefs about students’ abilities affect classroom interactions. In some studies the researcher uses participant observation, actually participating in the group, to understand the actions from the perspectives of the people in the situation. Teachers can do their own informal ethnographies to understand life in their classrooms. THE ROLE OF TIME IN RESEARCH. Many things that psychologists want to study, such as cognitive development (Chapter 2), happen over several months or years. Ideally, researchers would study the development by observing their subjects over many years as changes occur. These are called longitudinal studies. They are informative, but time-consuming, expensive, and not always practical: Keeping up with participants over a number of years as they grow up and move can be impossible. As a consequence, much research is cross-sectional, focusing on groups of students at different ages. For example, to study how children’s conceptions of numbers change from ages 3 to 16, researchers can interview children of several different ages, rather than following the same children for 14 years. Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional research examine change over long periods of time. The goal of microgenetic studies is to intensively study cognitive processes while the change is actually occurring. For example, researchers might analyze how children learn a particular strategy for adding two-digit numbers over the course of several weeks. The microgenetic approach has three basic characteristics: The researchers (a) observe the entire period of the change—from when it starts to the time it is relatively stable; (b) make many observations, often using video recordings, interviews, and transcriptions of the exact words of the individuals being studied; and (c) put the observed behavior “under a microscope,” that is, they examine it moment by moment or trial by trial. The goal is to explain the underlying mechanisms of change—for example, what new knowledge or skills are developing to allow change to take place. This kind of research is expensive and time-consuming, so often only one or two children are studied. WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. There is a distinction you will encounter in your journey through educational psychology: the contrast between qualitative research and quantitative research. These are large categories, and like many categories, a bit fuzzy at the edges, but here are some simplified differences. Qualitative Research. Case studies and ethnographies are examples of qualitative research. This type of research uses words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data.



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Interviews, observations, and analysis of transcripts are key procedures. The goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story. Qualitative researchers assume that no process of understanding meaning can be completely objective. They are more interested in interpreting subjective, personal, or socially constructed meanings. Quantitative Research. Both correlational and experimental types of research generally are quantitative because measurements are taken and computations are made. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups. Quantitative researchers try to be as objective as possible in order to remove their own biases from their results. One advantage of good quantitative research is that results from one study can be generalized or applied to other similar situations or people. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH. Many researchers now are using mixed methods or complementary methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. These research designs are procedures for “collecting, analyzing, and ‘mixing’ both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies to understand a research problem” (Creswell, 2015, p. 537). There are three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. In the second approach, the researcher collects quantitative data first, for example, from surveys or observation instruments, and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative interviews of selected participants. Often the goal here is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions, then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation deeply (Creswell, 2015). Mixed methods research is becoming more common in educational psychology. SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES. A requirement of the landmark 2002 NCLB Act was that educational programs and practices receiving federal money had to be consistent with “scientifically based research,” that is, rigorous systematic research that gathers valid and reliable data and analyzes those data with appropriate statistical methods. The 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act that replaced NCLB also requires “evidence-based” interventions in failing schools—strategies grounded in rigorous scientifically based research. For example, the U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES) provides a series of Practice Guides that contain recommendations from experts about various challenges educators face—guides to action based on strong evidence from research (http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Publications_Reviews. aspx). In the upcoming chapters we will explore several of these guides, for example, Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning in Chapter 8 (Pashler et al., 2007). Scientifically based research and evidence-based practices fit the quantitative experimental approach described earlier better than qualitative methods such as ethnographic research or case studies, but there is continuing debate about what this means, as you will see in the Point/Counterpoint on the next page. In the final analysis, the methods used—quantitative, qualitative, or a mixture of both—should fit the questions asked. Different approaches to research can ask different questions and provide different kinds of answers, as you can see in Table 1.3, on page 21. TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS. Research also can be a way to improve teaching in one classroom or one school. The same kind of careful observation, intervention, data gathering, and analysis that occurs in large research projects can be applied in any classroom to answer questions such as “Which writing prompts seem to encourage the most creative writing in my class?” “When does Kenyon seem to have the greatest difficulty concentrating on academic tasks?” “Would assigning task roles in science groups lead to more equitable participation of girls and boys in the work?” This kind of problem-solving



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should



Guide Education?



POINT .



Yes, research should be scientific; educational reforms should be based on solid evidence.



According to Robert Slavin (2002), tremendous progress has taken place in fields such as medicine, agriculture, transportation, and technology because these fields base their practices on scientific evidence. Randomized clinical trials and replicated experiments are the sources of the evidence: These innovations have transformed the world. Yet education has failed to embrace this dynamic, and as a result, education moves from fad to fad. Educational practice does change over time, but the change process more resembles the pendulum swings of taste characteristic of art or fashion (think hemlines) rather than the progressive improvements characteristic of science and technology. (2002, p. 16)



In his Presidential Address to the First Conference of the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, Kurt Fischer (2009, pp. 3–4) made a similar point: What happened to education? If research produces useful knowledge for most of the industries and businesses of the world, then shouldn’t it be serving the same function for education? Somehow education has been mostly exempt from this grounding in research. . . . There is no infrastructure in education that routinely studies learning and teaching to assess effectiveness. If Revlon and Toyota can spend millions on research to create better products, how can schools continue to use alleged “best practices” without collecting evidence about what really works? An article in the New York Times suggests lack of evidence is still a problem. Most [educational] programs that had been sold as effective had no good evidence behind them. And when rigorous studies were done, as many as 90 percent of programs that seemed promising in small, unscientific studies had no effect on achievement or actually made achievement scores worse (Kolata, 2013, p. 3).



COUNTERPOINT .



During the past decade, policies in both health care and the treatment of psychological problems have emphasized evidence-based practices (McHugh & Barlow, 2010). Is this right for education?



Experiments and controlled studies are not the only or even the best source of evidence for education. David Olson (2004) disagrees strongly



with Slavin’s position. He claims that we cannot use medicine as an analogy to education. “Treatments” in education are much more complex and unpredictable than administering one drug or another in medicine. And every educational program is changed by classroom conditions and the way it is implemented. Patti Lather, a colleague of mine at Ohio State, says, “In improving the quality of practice, complexity and the messiness of practice-in-context cannot be fantasized away. To try to do so yields impoverishment rather than improvement. That loss is being borne by the children, teachers, and administrators in our schools” (Lather, 2004, p. 30). David Berliner (2002) makes a similar point: Doing science and implementing scientific findings are so difficult in education because humans in schools are embedded in complex and changing networks of social interaction. The participants in those networks have variable power to affect each other from day to day, and the ordinary events of life (a sick child, a messy divorce, . . . a birthday party, alcohol abuse, a new principal, a new child in the classroom, rain that keeps the children from a recess outside the school building) all affect doing science in school settings by limiting the generalizability of educational research findings. Compared to designing bridges and circuits or splitting either atoms or genes, the science to help change schools and classrooms is harder to do because context cannot be controlled. (p. 19)



Berliner concludes, “A single method is not what the government should be promoting for educational researchers” (Berliner, 2002, p. 20). Some current proponents of evidence-based interventions in education suggest that we benefit from the knowledge and wisdom of both practitioners and researchers. Design-based research does just that. Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice. Researchers then bring their time and talent to gather and analyze the data to address those problems (Scanlan, 2015). Beware Of Either/Or. Complex problems in education require a whole range of methods for study as well as input from both researchers and educators. Qualitative research tells us specifically what happened in one or a few situations. Conclusions can be applied deeply, but only to the issue that was studied. Quantitative research can tell us what generally happens under certain conditions. Conclusions can be applied more broadly. Educators must help researchers target the most important problems that need evidence-based solutions.



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TABLE 1.3 • What Can We Learn? Different approaches to research can ask and answer different questions.



RESEARCH METHOD



PURPOSES/QUESTIONS ADDRESSED



EXAMPLE



Correlational



To assess the strength and direction of the relation between two variables; to make predictions.



Is the average amount of homework completed weekly related to student performance on unit tests? If so, is the relation positive or negative?



Experimental



To identify cause-and-effect relations; to test possible explanations for effects.



Will giving more homework cause students to learn more in science class?



ABAB Experiment



To identify the effects of a treatment or intervention for one or more individuals.



When students record the number of pages they read each night, will they read more pages? If they stop recording, will their amount of reading return to the previous levels?



Case Studies



To understand one or a few individuals or situations in depth.



How does one boy make the transition from a small rural elementary school to a large middle school? What are his main problems, concerns, issues, accomplishments, fears, supports, etc.?



Ethnography



To understand experiences from the participants’ point of view: What is their meaning?



How do new teachers make sense of the norms, expectations, and culture of their new school, and how do they respond?



Mixed Methods



To ask complex questions involving causes, meanings, and relations among variables; to pursue both depth and breadth in research questions.



Based on a study of 20 classrooms using quantitative observational instruments, select the 5 classes with the fewest behavior problems and the 5 with the most problems late in the year. Next interview those teachers and their students and analyze videotapes made the first weeks of school to answer the question: Did the effective and ineffective teachers differ in how they established rules and procedures in their classes?



investigation is called action research. By focusing on a specific problem and making careful observations, teachers can learn a great deal about both their teaching and their students. You can find reports of the findings from all types of studies in journals that are referenced in this book. For years I was editor of the Theory Into Practice journal (tip.ehe. osu.edu). I think this is a terrific journal to inspire and guide action research in classrooms. For a great overview of the past 50 years in educational research and practice, see the Special 50th Anniversary issue of Theory Into Practice (Gaskill, 2013). MyLab Education Self-Check 1.3



Design-based research Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice, then researchers gather and analyze the data to address those problems. Action research Systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students.



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Theories for Teaching



MyLab Education Video Example 1.3



A Spanish teacher conducts research in her classroom and explains the results and the impact on her students. Notice the types of changes her students reported after the teacher implemented formative assessments.



As we saw earlier, the major goal of educational psychology is to understand what happens when someone teaches something to someone else in some setting (Berliner, 2006; Schwab, 1973). Reaching this goal is a slow process. There are very few landmark studies that answer a question once and for all. There are so many different kinds of students, teachers, tasks, and settings; and besides, human beings are pretty complicated. To deal with this complexity, research in educational psychology examines limited aspects of a situation—perhaps a few variables at a time or life in one or two classrooms. If enough studies are completed in a certain area and findings repeatedly point to the same conclusions, we eventually arrive at a principle. This is the term for an established relationship between two or more factors—between a certain teaching strategy, for example, and student achievement. Another tool for building a better understanding of the teaching and learning processes is theory. The commonsense notion of theory (as in “Oh well, it was only a theory”) is “a guess or hunch.” But the scientific meaning of theory is quite different. “A theory in science is an interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions about the results of future experiments” (Stanovich, 1992, p. 21). Educational psychologists have developed explanations for the relationships among many variables and even whole systems of relationships. There are theories to explain how language develops, why goals affect motivation, and, as noted earlier, how people learn. You will encounter many theories of development, learning, and motivation in this book. Theories are the beginning and ending points of the research cycle. In the beginning, theories provide the research hypotheses to be tested (predictions about what will happen) or the questions examined. For example, Piaget’s theory might suggest the hypothesis that instruction cannot teach young children to think more abstractly, whereas Vygotsky’s theory might suggest the competing hypothesis that instruction will be effective. Of course, at times, psychologists don’t know enough to state hypotheses, so they just ask research questions. An example question might be: “Is there a difference in the Internet usage of male and female adolescents from different ethnic groups?” Research is a continuing cycle that involves: • Clear specification of hypotheses, problems, or questions based on current theories • Systematic gathering and analysis of all kinds of information (data) about the questions from well-chosen research participants in carefully selected situations • Interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions. • Modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results of those analyses. • Formulation of new and better hypotheses based on the improved theories . . . and on and on.



Principle Established relationship between factors. Theory Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. Hypothesis/hypotheses A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. Empirical Based on systematically collected data.



This empirical process of collecting data to test and improve theories is repeated over and over. Empirical means “based on data.” When researchers say that identifying an effective antibiotic or choosing a successful way to teach reading is an “empirical question,” they mean that you need data and evidence to make the call. Constructing decisions from empirical analyses protects psychologists from developing theories based on personal biases, rumors, fears, faulty information, or preferences (Mertler & Charles, 2005). Good research is self-correcting. If predictions do not play out or if answers to carefully formulated questions do not support current best understandings (theories), then the theories have to be changed. You can use the same kind of systematic and self-correcting thinking in your work with students. Few theories explain and predict perfectly. In this book, you will see many examples of educational psychologists taking different theoretical positions and disagreeing on the overall explanations of such broad topics as learning and motivation. Because no one theory offers all the answers, it makes sense to consider what each has to offer. So why, you may ask, is it necessary to deal with theories? Why not just stick to principles? The answer is that both are useful. Principles of classroom management,



LE AR N I N G, TE A C H I NG , A ND E D U C AT I ON AL P SY CH OLOG Y



for example, will give you help with specific problems. A good theory of classroom management, on the other hand, will give you a new way of thinking about discipline problems; it will give you cognitive tools for creating solutions to many different problems and for predicting what might work in new situations. A major goal of this book is to provide you with the best and the most useful theories of development, learning, motivation, and teaching—those that have solid evidence behind them. Although you may prefer some theories to others, consider them all as ways of understanding the challenges teachers face. I began this chapter by asserting that Educational Psychology is my favorite topic, as well as a key source of knowledge and skills for teaching. I end this chapter with one more bit of evidence for my enthusiasm. Educational psychology will help you support student learning—the goal of all teaching.



Supporting Student Learning In an article in the Educational Psychologist, a major journal in our field, Jihyun Lee and Valerie Shute (2010) reported sifting through thousands of studies of student learning conducted over the course of 60 years, seeking to identify those that had direct measures of student achievement in reading and mathematics. Then they narrowed their focus to studies with strong effects. About 150 studies met all their rigorous criteria. Using the results from these studies, Lee and Shute identified about a dozen variables that were directly linked to K–12 student achievement. The researchers grouped these factors into two categories: student personal factors and school and social-contextual factors, as you can see in Table 1.4. When I read this article, I was pleased to see that my favorite subject, educational psychology, provides a base for developing knowledge and skills in virtually every area except principal leadership (for that subject you have to consult a book I wrote with my husband on principals as instructional leaders—Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 2013). As you can see in Table 1.4, this text should help you become a capable and confident teacher who can get students engaged in the classroom learning community—a community that respects its members. This book will guide you toward becoming a teacher who helps students develop into interested, motivated, self-regulated, and confident learners. As a consequence, you will be able to set high expectations for your students, rally the support of parents, and build your own sense of efficacy as a teacher. MyLab Education Self-Check 1.4



TABLE 1.4 • Research-Based Personal and Social-Contextual Factors That Support Student Achievement in K–12 Classrooms STUDENT PERSONAL FACTORS



EXAMPLES



WHERE IN THIS TEXT



Engaging Students’ Behavior



Make sure students attend classes, follow rules, and participate in school activities.



Chapters 5–7, 13



Engaging Students’ Minds and Motivations



Design challenging tasks, tap intrinsic motivation, support student investment in learning, and nurture student self-efficacy and other positive academic beliefs.



Chapters 2, 3, 10, 12



Engaging Students’ Emotions



Connect to student interest, pique curiosity, foster a sense of belonging and class connections, diminish anxiety, and increase enjoyment in learning.



Chapters 3, 5, 6, 10, 12



Student Engagement



continued



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TABLE 1.4 • Research-Based Personal and Social-Contextual Factors That Support Student Achievement in K–12 Classrooms (Continued) STUDENT PERSONAL FACTORS



EXAMPLES



WHERE IN THIS TEXT



Cognitive Strategies



Directly teach knowledge and skills that support student learning and deep processing of valuable information (e.g., summarizing, inferring, applying, and reasoning).



Chapters 7–9, 14



Metacognitive Strategies



Directly teach students to monitor, regulate, and evaluate their own cognitive processes, strengths, and weaknesses as learners; teach them about when, where, why, and how to use specific strategies.



Chapters 7–9, 11



Behavioral Strategies



Directly teach students strategies and tactics for managing, monitoring, and evaluating their action, motivation, affect, and environment, such as skills in:



Chapters 7–14



Learning Strategies



time management test taking help seeking note taking homework management SOCIAL-CONTEXTUAL FACTORS



EXAMPLES



WHERE IN THIS TEXT



Academic Emphasis



Set high expectations for your students, and encourage the whole school to do the same; emphasize positive relations with the school community.



Chapters 11–13



Teacher Variables



If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collective efficacy, teacher empowerment, and sense of affiliation.



Chapters 1, 11, 13



Principal Leadership



If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collegiality, high morale, and clearly conveyed goals.



See Woolfolk Hoy and Hoy (2013).



Parental Involvement



Support parents in supporting their children’s learning.



Chapters 3–6, 12



Peer Influences



Create class and school norms that honor achievement, encourage peer support, and discourage peer conflict.



Chapters 3, 10, 13, 15



School Climate



Social-Familial Influences



Source: Based on Lee, J., & Shute, V. J. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K–12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, 45, 185–202.



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. SUMMARY Learning and Teaching Today (pp. 4–8) What are classrooms like today? About 25% of U.S. children under 18 are living in immigrant families. It is likely that by 2060, nearly 20% of the U.S. population will be foreign born, and people of Hispanic origin will comprise almost 30% of that population. By 2044, there will be no majority race or ethnic group in the United States; every American will be a member of a minority group. Around 22% of American children currently live in poverty. Over half of school-age students with disabilities receive most of their education in general education classrooms. Even though students in classrooms are increasingly diverse in race, ethnicity, language, and economic level, teachers are much less diverse—the percentage of White teachers is increasing, while the percentage of Black teachers is falling. This book is about understanding the complex processes of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment so that you can become a capable and confident teacher with a high but authentic sense of efficacy. What are NCLB and ESSA?  The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002 required extensive standardized achievement testing in reading and mathematics in grades 3 through 8 (and once more in high school) and in science once in each grade span: elementary, middle, and high school. The law also required that all students in the schools reach full proficiency in these subjects by the end of the 2013–2014 school year; it didn’t happen. Largely because there were major penalties for schools that did not make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward full proficiency, a number of negative consequences followed in the wake of the tests—cheating, teaching to the test, narrowing the curriculum to a few subjects, driving teachers out of the classroom. In 2015, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) that replaced NCLB and returned most of the control to the states. There is still testing in the same grades and subjects, but states and local schools decide when and how to test and how to intervene in the lowest performing schools. ESSA also supports more access to early childhood education and the establishment of teacher education academies outside colleges and universities. What evidence is there that teachers make a difference?  Several studies speak to the power of teachers in the lives of students. The first found that the quality of the teacher– student relationship in kindergarten predicted several aspects of school success through the eighth grade. The second study found similar results for students from preschool through fifth grade, a finding confirmed by almost 100 students in countries around the world. The third study examined math achievement for students in two large school districts as they moved through third, fourth, and fifth grades. Again, the quality of the teacher made a difference: Students who had three high-quality teachers in a row were way ahead of peers who spent 1 or more years with less-competent teachers. In a study that followed children from third through fifth grade, two factors helped children with lower skills in mathematics



begin to close the achievement gap: higherlevel (not just basic skills) instruction and positive relationships with teachers. Similar findings hold for beginning teachers.



What Is Good Teaching? (pp. 9–13) Good teachers are committed to their students. They must deal with a wide range of student abilities and challenges: different languages, different home situations, and different abilities and disabilities. They must adapt instruction and assessment to students’ needs. The whole time these experts are navigating through the academic material, they also are taking care of the emotional needs of their students, propping up sagging self-esteem, and encouraging responsibility. From the first day of class, they carefully plan and teach the basic procedures for living and learning in their classes. What are some research-based models of effective teaching?  Charlotte Danielson describes a Framework for Teaching, which has 22 components organized into four domains or areas of teaching responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. This framework is the basis for a widely used system of teacher evaluation. TeachingWorks, a national project based at the University of Michigan and dedicated to improving teaching practice, has identified 19 high-leverage teaching practices, defined as actions that are central to teaching and useful across most grade levels, academic subjects, and teaching situations. Finally, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Measures of Teaching Effectiveness (MET) Project, a research partnership between 3,000 teachers and research teams at dozens of institutions, that has identified a three-part system for evaluating good teaching that includes gains on state achievement tests (weighted at about 33% to 50%), student perceptions of teachers, and classroom observations using the Danielson Framework for Teaching. The latter two make up the 66% to 50% of the weighting in the evaluations. What are the concerns of beginning teachers?  Learning to teach is a gradual process. The concerns and problems of teachers change as they grow in their ability. During the beginning years, attention tends to be focused on maintaining discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences among students, evaluating students’ work, dealing with parents, and getting along with other teachers. Even with these concerns, many beginning teachers bring creativity and energy to their teaching and improve every year. The more experienced teacher can move on to concerns about professional growth and effectiveness in teaching a wide range of students.



The Role of Educational Psychology (pp. 14–24) What is educational psychology? Educational psychology has been linked to teaching since it began in the United States over a century ago. The goals of educational psychology are



26



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to understand and to improve the teaching and learning processes. Educational psychologists develop knowledge and methods; they also use the knowledge and methods of psychology and other related disciplines to study learning and teaching in everyday situations. Educational psychologists examine what happens when someone/something (a teacher or parent or computer) teaches something (math or weaving or dancing) to someone else (student or co-worker or team) in some setting (classroom or theater or gym). What are the research methods in educational psychology?  Correlational methods identify relationships and allow predictions. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. Experimental studies allow researchers to detect causes, not just make predictions. Experimental studies should help teachers implement useful changes. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception being that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In ABAB experimental designs, researchers examine the effects of treatments on one or more people, often by using a baseline/ intervention/-baseline/-intervention approach. Clinical interviews, case studies, and ethnographies look in detail at the experiences of a few individuals or groups. If participants are studied over time, the research is called longitudinal. If researchers intensively study cognitive processes in the midst of change—as the change is actually happening—over several sessions or weeks, then the research is microgenetic. No matter what method is used, results from the research are used to further develop and improve theories, so that even better hypotheses and questions can be developed to guide future research. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research? There is a general distinction between qualitative and quantitative research. These are large categories and, like many categories, a bit fuzzy at the edges. Qualitative methods such as case studies and ethnographies use words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. The goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups—correlational and experimental



research are examples. Different types of research can answer different questions. Today many researchers are using mixed methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. There are three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. Second, the researcher collects quantitative data first, for example, from surveys or observation instruments, and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative interviews of selected participants. Often the goal here is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions, then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation deeply. Scientifically-based research, which is more consistent with quantitative research, systematically uses observations or experiments to gather valid and reliable data; involves rigorous and appropriate procedures for gathering and analyzing the data; is clearly described so it can be repeated by others; and has been rigorously reviewed by appropriate, independent experts. Evidence-based practices, the kind that must be used to intervene in failing schools under the ESSA law, are grounded in results of systematic, rigorous research. When teachers or schools make systematic observations or test out methods to improve teaching and learning for their students, they are conducting action research. Distinguish between principles and theories.  A principle is an established relationship between two or more factors— between a certain teaching strategy, for example, and student achievement. A theory is an interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions. The principles from research offer a number of possible answers to specific problems, and the theories offer perspectives for analyzing almost any situation that may arise. Research is a continuing cycle that involves clear specification of hypotheses or questions based on good theory, systematic gathering and analyzing of data, interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions, modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results, and the formulation of new, better questions based on the improved theories. What key factors support student learning?  A synthesis of about 150 studies of student learning found two broad categories of influence: student personal factors and school and social-contextual factors. When I read this article, I was pleased to see that my favorite subject, educational psychology, provides a base for developing knowledge and skills in virtually every area except principal leadership.



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. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below.



Teacher–Student Relationships



Applying Danielson’s Framework



Identifying Research Methods and Drawing Conclusions from Data



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 1.1



Application Exercise 1.2



Application Exercise 1.3



. KEY TERMS Action research (p. 21) Case study (p. 18) Correlations (p. 16) Descriptive studies (p. 16) Design-based research (p. 20) Educational psychology (p. 14) Empirical (p. 22) Ethnography (p. 18) Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (p. 6)



Experimentation (p. 17) Hypothesis/hypotheses (p. 22) Microgenetic studies (p. 18) Negative correlation (p. 16) Participant observation (p. 18) Participants/subjects (p. 17) Positive correlation (p. 16) Principle (p. 22) Qualitative research (p. 18)



Quantitative research (p. 18) Quasi-experimental studies (p. 17) Random (p. 17) Reflective (p. 10) Statistically significant (p. 17) Teachers’ sense of efficacy (p. 5) Theory (p. 22)



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. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Novice teachers face numerous tasks and scenarios with which they have little prior experience. For teachers currently entering the field, which of the following is not a challenge they are apt to encounter? A. Students who may exhibit superior technology skills as compared to their teachers B. An increasingly diverse population of students and families C. Inadequate resources to ensure the safety of their students while using technology in the classroom D. Students who face the challenges associated with living in poverty 2. Both students and teachers work harder and persist longer when they have a high sense of efficacy. Which of the following does not enhance self-efficacy in both students and teachers? A. Formal school relationships that focus solely on skills B. Day-to-day success in achieving tasks C. High expectations from those in the environment D. Assistance from more knowledgeable partners 3. All the students in Ms. Clare’s third-grade class engage in weekly test reviews. Ms. Clare believes that these reviews will enhance student retention when standardized testing occurs in the spring. Which of Ms. Clare’s students under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) will have his or her scores reported separately? A. Susan Frasier, who was recently identified with a learning disability B. Brendan Kincaid, who must wear corrective lenses in order to read



C. Miranda Ruiz, whose English is excellent even though her parents moved to the United States from Mexico 10 years ago D. Lauren Stone, who is a member of the third grade’s cohort of students who are gifted and talented



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Sandra Chapman was determined to add to her repertoire of teaching skills as she entered her second year of teaching. Her first year as a high school teacher proved to be more of a challenge than she expected. Her school, located in the heart of the city, drew students from all walks of life and economic circumstances. Last year, she initially hoped that all of her students would master the history curriculum that she had inherited, but by midyear several of her students were not attending class on a regular basis. In an effort to increase attendance, she took points off students’ grades when they missed class and intentionally ignored them when they returned. She believed that by not taking an interest in where they were, she would not reinforce their “skipping” behavior. She also thought that by continually reminding students of how much they did not know, she would encourage them to study. Sadly, these methods did not work well, and attendance only further declined. She is now in the process of designing some new strategies. 4. Identify the methods Sandra Chapman uses to encourage attendance, and explain why these methods might have been unsuccessful. 5. What advice would you offer Sandra Chapman as she prepares to develop new methods?



MyLab Education Licensure Exam



LE AR N I N G, TE A C H I NG , A ND E D U C AT I ON AL P SY CH OLOG Y



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Leaving No Student Behind Here is how several expert teachers said they would prepare a highly diverse group of students for spring achievement tests and readiness for college and career. JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher: K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL



One of the advantages for teachers in this situation is that many of the strategies that are effective for students with learning disabilities are also effective for second-language learners. Even students who are meeting benchmarks will benefit from these supports. Some of these strategies include labeling items throughout the classroom for language/vocabulary acquisition, providing visual supports whenever possible, and using a variety of graphic organizers. Cooperative learning groups and the total physical response (TPR) method can also help in the development of both language skills and content knowledge. Activities can be tiered to match students’ levels of understanding, and, to demonstrate their learning, students can be offered multiple assignment options from which to choose. Exposing students to new vocabulary and content through auditory, visual, AND hands-on instruction will yield the best results. Broken down to its most basic level, this philosophy can be summarized by the proverb, “Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I’ll remember; involve me and I’ll understand.” Students should be active participants in the learning process, not spectators. JESSICA N. MAHTABAN • Eighth-Grade Math Teacher Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ



The first thing to address is survival. Each student must learn his/her name, address, and phone number. It is crucial for all students to know this information in case of any type of emergency. Afterward, the students will become familiar with the classroom routines and expectations. Once the students are comfortable with the routines and expectations, they will be able to focus on language. The intern, administration, parents, and I must meet frequently to work cooperatively on making projects and goals for each student. During any lesson I would provide visual cues (gestures, pictures, objects) with verbal instruction. I would speak to the students in short sentences and give clear examples of what is expected from them. The intern and I will interact with students as they work independently or cooperatively during an activity. We will also check comprehension frequently, so that we can help any student that does not understand.



PAUL DRAGIN • ESL Teacher, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH



Multiple obstacles are posed in this situation. The scenario presents two pieces of information that I would key in on. One is that problems in reading seem to be the most common. This is the challenge I would place as the number one priority due to its preeminence in terms of predicting future academic success. Scoring well on the achievement tests and doing well in college are not realistic expectations without reading success. The other piece of information that is advantageous is the student intern from the local college. With reading as the focus, I would instruct the intern on some basic reading diagnostics to get a clearer picture of each student’s reading level. From there, we could choose texts that would be appropriate to increase comprehension and fluency. With two instructors in the room, we would be better equipped for small-group instruction to target the various reading levels. This targeted reading instruction would be a benefit to the intern as well as the students, because the intern’s services would be vital to instruction and together we would assist the students in their reading comprehension and subsequent language acquisition. PAULA COLEMERE • Special Education Teacher–English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ



Before even beginning to teach this group of students, I would set my room up for success. Students can be distracted by too many things on the walls; therefore, everything I choose to display would be very deliberate. To do this, I would start with a blank slate and take everything off of the walls. I would label objects, such as the door, pencil sharpener, desks, and so on, with signs to help the students who are English language learners (ELLs) to build vocabulary. I would save an area to create a “word wall” for content area vocabulary; this will aid both the students who are ELLs and the students with special needs. It would be important to me to educate myself on the background of my students and where they come from. This would help me to make a personal connection with each student and it would help me to understand cultural differences when making contact with the family. It is also important to have an understanding of what is happening in their home countries to try to make connections to learning based on their experiences. Finally, graphic organizers would be a key part of my lesson planning because they help students to organize information.



chapter two



m



TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Symbols and Cymbals



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT The district curriculum guide calls for a unit on poetry, including lessons on symbolism in poems. You are concerned that many of your fourth-grade students may not be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters, you ask a few students what a symbol is. “It’s sorta like a big metal thing that you bang together.” Tracy waves her hands like a drum major. “Yeah,” Sean adds, “My sister plays one in the high school band.” You realize they are on the wrong track here, so you try again. “I was thinking of a different kind of symbol, like a ring as a symbol of marriage or a heart as a symbol of love, or. . . .” You are met with blank stares. Trevor ventures, “You mean like the Olympic torch?” “And what does that symbolize, Trevor?” you ask. “Like I said, a torch.” Trevor wonders how you could be so dense. CRITICAL THINKING • What do these students’ reactions tell you about children’s thinking? • How would you approach this unit? • What more would you do to “listen” to your students’ thinking so you could match your teaching to their level of thinking? • How would you give your students concrete experiences with symbolism? • How will you decide if the students are not developmentally ready for this material?



Rmshk/Shutterstock



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES What is going on with Trevor? In this chapter, you will find out. We begin with a definition of development and examine three basic questions. Psychologists have debated the answers to these questions for many years: nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and critical versus sensitive periods for development. Next we look at general principles of human development that most psychologists affirm. To understand cognitive development, we begin by studying how the brain works and then explore the ideas of two of the most influential cognitive developmental theorists, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget’s ideas have implications for teachers about how their students think and what they can learn. We will consider criticisms of his ideas as well. The work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, highlights the important role teachers and parents play in the cognitive development of the child. Vygotsky’s theory is becoming more and more influential in the field of child development. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 2.1



Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon principles and describe three continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions.



Objective 2.2



Summarize research on the physical development of the brain and possible implications for teaching.



Objective 2.3



Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory.



Objective 2.4



Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s theory of development, including criticisms of his theory.



Objective 2.5



Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky ‘s theories for teaching.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives A Definition of Development Three Questions Across the Theories General Principles of Development The Brain and Cognitive Development The Developing Brain: Neurons The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching Lessons for Teachers: General Principles Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development



A DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT In the next few chapters, as we explore how children develop, we will encounter some surprising situations. • Leah, a 5-year-old, is certain that rolling out a ball of clay into a snake creates more clay. • A 9-year-old child in Geneva, Switzerland, firmly insists that it is impossible to be Swiss and Genevan at the same time: “I’m already Swiss. I can’t also be Genevan.” • Jamal, a very bright elementary school student, cannot answer the question, “How would life be different if people did not sleep?” because he insists, “People HAVE TO SLEEP!” • A 2-year-old brings his own mother to comfort a friend who is crying, even though the friend’s mother is available, too.



What explains these interesting events? You will soon find out, because you are entering the world of child and adolesBasic Tendencies in Thinking cent development. Four Stages of Cognitive Development The term development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in human Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory beings (or animals) between conception and death. The Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and term is not applied to all changes, but rather to those that Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective period of time. A temporary change caused by a brief The Social Sources of Individual Thinking illness, for example, is not considered a part of development. Human development can be divided into a number of Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development different aspects. Physical development, as you might guess, The Role of Language and Private Speech deals with changes in the body. Personal development is the The Zone of Proximal Development term generally used for changes in an individual’s idenLimitations of Vygotsky’s Theory tity and personality. Social development refers to changes in the way an individual relates to others. And cognitive Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories development refers to changes in thinking, reasoning, and for Teachers decision making. Piaget: What Can We Learn? Many changes during development are simply matters Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? of growth and maturation. Maturation refers to changes that An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind occur naturally and spontaneously and that are, to a large extent, genetically programmed. Such changes emerge over Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic time and are relatively unaffected by environment, except in Middle” cases of malnutrition or severe illness. Much of a person’s Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers physical development falls into this category. Other changes Summary and Key Terms are brought about through learning, as individuals interact with their environment. Such changes make up a large part Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What of a person’s social development. But what about the develWould They Do? opment of thinking and personality? Most psychologists agree that in these areas, both maturation and interaction with the environment (or nature and nurture, as they are sometimes called) are important, but they disagree about the amount of emphasis to Development Orderly, place on each one. Nature versus nurture is one of three continuing discussions in theoadaptive changes we ries of development. Influences on Development



go through between conception and death; these developmental changes remain for a reasonably long period of time.



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Three Questions Across the Theories Because there are many different approaches to research and theory, there are some continuing debates about key questions surrounding development.



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WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE. Which is more important in development, the “nature” of an individual (heredity, genes, biological processes, maturation, etc.) or the “nurture” of environmental contexts (education, parenting, culture, social policies, etc.)? This debate has raged for at least 2,000 years and has accumulated many labels along the way, including “heredity versus environment,” “biology versus culture,” “maturation versus learning,” and “innate versus acquired abilities.” In earlier centuries, philosophers, poets, religious leaders, and politicians argued the question. Even in scientific explanations, the pendulum has swung back and forth between nature and nurture (Cairns & Cairns, 2006; Overton, 2006). Scientists now bring new tools to the discussion as they can map genes or trace the effects of drugs on brain activity, for example (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 2006). Today the environment is seen as critical to development, but so are biological factors and individual differences. In fact, some psychologists assert that behaviors are determined 100% by biology and 100% by environment—they can’t be separated (P. H. Miller, 2011). Current views emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. For example, a child born with a very easygoing, calm disposition will likely elicit different reactions from parents, playmates, and teachers than a child who is often upset and difficult to soothe; this shows that individuals are active in constructing their own environments. But environments shape individuals as well—if not, what good would education be? So today, the either/or debates about nature and nurture are of less interest to educational and developmental psychologists. As a pioneering developmental psychologist said over 100 years ago, the more exciting questions involve understanding how “both causes work together” (Baldwin, 1895, p. 77). WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF DEVELOPMENT? CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY. Is human development a continuous process of increasing abilities, or are there leaps to new stages when abilities actually change? A continuous process would be like gradual improvement in your running endurance through systematic exercise. A discontinuous change (also called qualitative) would be like many of the changes in humans during puberty, such as the ability to reproduce—an entirely different ability. You can think of continuous or quantitative change like walking up a ramp to go higher and higher: Progress is steady. A discontinuous or qualitative change is more like walking up stairs: There are level periods, and then you ascend the next step all at once. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, described in the next section, is an example of qualitative, discontinuous change in children’s thinking abilities. But other explanations of cognitive development based on learning theories emphasize gradual, continuous, quantitative change. TIMING: IS IT TOO LATE? CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE PERIODS. Are there critical periods during which certain abilities, such as language, need to develop? If those opportunities are missed, can the child still “catch up”? These are questions about timing and development. Many earlier psychologists, particularly those influenced by Freud, believed that early childhood experiences were critical, especially for emotional/social and cognitive development. But does early toilet training really set all of us on a particular life path? Probably not. More recent research shows that later experiences are powerful, too, and can change the direction of development. Most psychologists today talk about sensitive periods—not critical periods. There are “windows of opportunity”—times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences (Scalise & Felds, 2017). BEWARE OF EITHER/OR. As you might imagine, these debates about development proved too complicated to be settled by splitting alternatives into either/or possibilities (Griffins & Gray, 2005). Today, most psychologists view human development, learning, and motivation as a set of interacting and coacting contexts, from the inner biological structures and processes that influence development such as genes, cells, nutrition, and disease, to the external factors of families, neighborhoods, social relationships, educational and health institutions, public policies, time periods, historical events, and so on.



Physical development Changes in body structure and function over time. Personal development Changes in personality that take place as one grows. Social development Changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Cognitive development Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Maturation Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time. Coactions Joint actions of individual biology and the environment—each shapes and influences the other. Sensitive periods Times when a person is especially ready to learn certain things or responsive to certain experiences.



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So the effects of a childhood disease on the cognitive development of a child born in the sixteenth century to a poor family and treated by bloodletting or leeches will be quite different than the effect of the same disease on a child born in 2018 to a wealthy family and given the best treatment available for that time period. Throughout the rest of this book, we will try to make sense of development, learning, motivation, and teaching without falling into the either/or trap.



General Principles of Development Although there is disagreement about exactly how development takes place, there are a few general principles almost all theorists would support.



Computerized axial tomography (CAT) A technique that uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the part of the body scanned. Positron emission tomography (PET) A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-assisted motion pictures of the brain. Electroencephalograph (EEG) A technique that measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. Event-related potential (ERP) Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses the MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity.



1. People develop at different rates. In your own classroom, you will have a broad range of examples of different developmental rates. Some students will be larger, better coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social relationships. Others will be much slower to mature in these areas. Except in rare cases of very rapid or very slow development, such differences are normal and should be expected in any large group of students. 2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop abilities in a logical order. In infancy, they sit before they walk, babble before they talk, and see the world through their own eyes before they can begin to imagine how others see it. In school, they will master addition before algebra, Harry Potter before Shakespeare, and so on. But “orderly” does not necessarily mean linear or predictable—people might advance, stay the same for a period of time, or even go backward. 3. Development takes place gradually. Very rarely do changes appear overnight. A student who cannot manipulate a pencil or answer a hypothetical question may well develop this ability, but the change is likely to take time. MyLab Education Self-Check 2.1



THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT If you have taken an introductory psychology class, you have read about the brain and nervous system. You probably remember that there are several different areas of the brain and that certain areas are involved in particular processes. For example, the brain stem handles basic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure as well as levels of arousal such as sleeping and wakeful attention. The feathery looking cerebellum coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movements—from the graceful gestures of the dancer to the everyday action of eating without stabbing yourself in the nose with a fork. The cerebellum may also play a role in higher cognitive functions such as learning. The hippocampus is critical in recalling new information and recent experiences, while the amygdala directs emotions and aggression. The thalamus is involved in our ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal. The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain to allow communication between them for complex mental processing. The frontal lobe is the area that sets humans apart by enabling us to process information for planning, remembering, making decisions, solving problems, and thinking creatively (Schunk, 2016). Figure 2.1 shows the various regions of the brain. Advances in brain imaging techniques have allowed scientists remarkable access to the functioning brain. For example, computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans give three-dimensional images of the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans can track brain activity under different conditions. An electroencephalograph (EEG) measures electrical patterns in the brain, and event-related potential (ERP) uses EEG data to study the brain as people perform activities such as reading or learning vocabulary words. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) shows how blood flows within the brain when children or adults do different cognitive tasks. Finally, a new approach,



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FIG URE 2.1 REGIONS OF THE BRAIN Cerebrum Parietal lobe



Corpus callosum



Basal ganglia



Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Amygdala



Thalamus Occipital lobe Hippocampus Pons



Cerebellum



ulla oblongata Medulla Brain stem



near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) uses infrared light through the scalp to assess brain activity. Table 2.1 on the next page summarizes what each of the techniques can and cannot do. Let’s begin our look at the brain by examining its tiny components: neurons, synapses, and glial cells.



The Developing Brain: Neurons A newborn baby’s brain weighs about 1 pound, barely one-third of the weight of an adult brain. But this infant brain has billions of neurons, the specialized nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of electrical activity) in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurons are a grayish color, so they sometimes are called the gray matter of the brain. One neuron has the information processing capacity of a small computer. That means the processing power of one 3-pound human brain is likely greater than all the computers in the world. Of course, computers do many things, like calculate square roots of large numbers, much faster than humans can ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). These incredibly important neuron cells are tiny; about 30,000 could fit on the head of a pin (Sprenger, 2010). Scientists once believed that all the neurons a person would ever possess were present at birth, but now we know that the production of new neurons, neurogenesis, continues into adulthood, especially in the hippocampus region (Koehl & Abrous, 2011; Scalise & Felde, 2017). Neuron cells send out long arm- and branch-like fibers called axons and dendrites to connect with other neuron cells. The fiber ends from different neurons don’t actually touch; there are tiny spaces between them, about one billionth of a meter in length, called synapses. Neurons share information by using electrical signals and by releasing chemicals that jump across the synapses. Axons transmit information out to muscles, glands, or other neurons; dendrites receive information and transmit it to the neuron cells themselves. Connections between neurons by these synaptic transmissions become stronger with use or practice and weaker when not used. The neural pathways reinforced by use form memory traces that are the end result of learning (Scalise & Felde, 2017; Schunk, 2016). So the strength of these synaptic connections is dynamic—always changing as learning occurs. This is called synaptic plasticity, or just plasticity, a very important concept for educators, as you will see soon. Researchers have found that physical exercise plays a critical role in maintaining a healthy, plastic brain (Doidge, 2015; Dubinsky, Roehrig, & Varma, 2013). Figure 2.2 on page 37 shows these components of the neuron system ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). At birth, each of the child’s approximately 100 to 200 billion neurons has about 2,500 synapses. However, the fibers that reach out from the neurons and the synapses



Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) A technique that uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood that reveal brain activity. Neurons Nerve cells that store and transfer information. Neurogenesis The production of new neurons. Synapses The tiny space between neurons— chemical messages are sent across these gaps. Synaptic plasticity The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. Plasticity The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible.



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TABLE 2.1 • Brain Imaging Techniques Advances in brain imaging have led to greater understanding of how the brain functions. Each technique can give some kinds of information, but not others. LIMITATIONS/ WHAT IT CAN’T DO



COMMON NAME



WHAT IT DOES



EXAMPLE USES



CAT Scan Computerized Axial Tomography



Uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the brain.



Locating and studying tumors or lesions in the brain.



Cannot use too often because of radiation exposure; does not give detailed information about brain activity.



PET Scan Positron Emission Tomography



Shows the extent of activity in different parts of the brain. A small amount of radioactive glucose is injected into the body and carried to the brain. Greater brain activity in various areas uses more glucose and shows up as brighter colors on computerized brain maps.



Studying how the brain works and which areas are more or less involved in different cognitive activities such as reading; diagnosing brain disease such as tumors, strokes, and dementia.



Because radioactive injections are needed, cannot do many sessions; because there is a brief lag, does not capture fast-paced neural activity; tells more about where in general the activity takes place than when it does.



EEG Electroencephalograph



Measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. No drugs or radiation are required.



Studying sleep disorders, epilepsy, language disorders, and cognitive load (Chapter 8).



Does not provide either 2- or 3-dimensional pictures of the brain; reflects activity for the whole brain and cannot show specifically where activity is occurring.



ERP Event-Related Potentials



Provides a calculation based on EEG data that reflects the brain’s response to a stimulus or event.



Studying sensory and cognitive activity, especially language, as well as visual problems and brain disorders.



Is good at assessing speed of neural activity but not at identifying location.



fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging



Shows moment-by-moment blood flow within the brain associated with neural activity when children or adults do different cognitive tasks, revealing the amount of work done in certain areas. No radiation or injections are necessary.



Studying brain processes and structures related to perception, emotion, thinking, and action; diagnosing when to use chemicals to treat strokes; mapping patients’ brains before surgery.



Has few limitations and has largely replaced PET scans, but there is a brief lag between changes in brain activity and the changes in blood flow picked up by the fMRI.



NIR-OT Near-infrared Optical Tomography



Uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood that reveal brain activity.



Studying brain processes and changes during particular activities, social interactions, classroom learning. Not invasive, no chemicals or radiation are used; can be mobile and used over longer periods of time.



Has few limitations except it can only detect activity a few centimeters into the brain where the light can penetrate.



between the fiber ends increase during the first years of life, perhaps into adolescence or longer. By ages 2 to 3, each neuron has around 15,000 synapses; children this age have many more synapses than they will have as adults. In fact, they are oversupplied with the neurons and synapses they will need to adapt to their environments. However, only those neurons that are used will survive, and unused neurons will be “pruned.” This pruning is



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FIG URE 2.2 A SINGLE NEURON Each neuron (nerve cell) includes dendrites that bring in messages and an axon that sends out messages. This is a single neuron, but each neuron is in a network with many others. Axon sends messages to other cells Neuron



Myelin cover on the axon accelerates transmission of impulses



Dendrites receive messages from other neurons Axon



Synapse



Dendrite



In the synapse, neurotransmitters carry information between neurons Neurotransmitters



necessary and supports cognitive development. Researchers have found that some developmental disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with pruning (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Broderick & Blewitt, 2015). Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place. One is called experience-expectant because synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific developmental periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation. For example, during the first months of life, the brain expects visual and auditory stimulation. If a normal range of sights and sounds occurs, then the visual and auditory areas of the brain develop. But children who are born completely deaf receive no auditory stimulation and, as a result, the auditory processing area of their brains becomes devoted to processing visual information. Similarly, the visual processing area of the brain for children blind from birth becomes devoted to auditory processing (C. A. Nelson, 2001; Neville, 2007). Experience-expectant overproduction and pruning processes are responsible for general development in large areas of the brain and may explain why adults have difficulty with pronunciations that are not part of their native language. For example, the distinction between the sounds of r and l is important in English but not in Japanese, so by about 10 months of age, Japanese infants lose the ability to discriminate between r and l; those neurons are pruned away. As a result, Japanese adults learning these sounds require intense instruction and practice. Just think about the cognitive advantages and extra capacities of an infant growing up learning two languages (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008). The second kind of synaptic overproduction and pruning is called experiencedependent. Here, synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences. New synapses are formed in response to neural activity in very localized areas of the brain. Examples are learning to ride a bike or use a spreadsheet. The brain does not “expect” these behaviors, so new synapses form in response to these experiences. Again, more



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synapses are produced than will be kept after “pruning.” Experience-dependent processes are involved in individual learning, such as mastering unfamiliar sound pronunciations in a second language you are studying. Stimulating environments may help in the pruning process in early life (experienceexpectant period) and also may support increased synapse development in adulthood (experience-dependent period) (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; J. L. Cook & Cook, 2014). In fact, animal studies have shown that rats raised in stimulating environments (with toys, tasks for learning, other rats, and human handling) develop and retain 25% more synapses than rats who are raised with little stimulation. Even though the research with rats may not apply directly to humans, it is clear that extreme deprivation can have negative effects on human brain development. But extra stimulation will not necessarily improve development for young children who are already getting adequate or typical amounts (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Byrnes & Fox, 1998). So spending money on expensive toys or baby education programs probably offers more stimulation than is necessary, and might be harmful. Pots and pans, blocks and books, sand and water all provide excellent, appropriate stimulation—especially if accompanied by caring conversations with parents or teachers. Look back at Figure 2.2. It appears that there is nothing between the neurons but air. Actually, that is incorrect. The spaces are filled with glial cells, the white matter of the brain. There are trillions of these cells; they greatly outnumber neurons. Glial cells appear to have many functions, such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating (see Figure 2.2) around axon fibers. Myelination, the coating of axon neuron fibers with an insulating fatty glial covering, influences thinking and learning. This process is something like coating bare electrical wires with rubber or plastic. This myelin coating makes message transmission faster and more efficient. Myelination happens quickly in the early years but continues gradually into adolescence, with the child’s brain doubling in volume in the first year of life and doubling again around puberty ( J. R. Anderson, 2015; Ormrod, 2016).



The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex



Glial cells The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers. Myelination The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient. Lateralization The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides) of the brain cortex.



Let’s move from the neuron level to the brain itself, which amazingly is almost 80% water, with the rest being fat and protein (Schunk, 2016). The outer 1/8-inch-thick covering is the cerebral cortex—the largest area of the brain. It is a thin sheet of neurons, but it is almost 3 square feet in area for adults. To get all that area in your head, the sheet is crumpled together with many folds and wrinkles ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). In humans, this area of the brain is much larger than it is in lower animals. The cerebral cortex accounts for about 85% of the brain’s weight in adulthood and contains the greatest number of neurons. The cerebral cortex allows the greatest human accomplishments, such as complex problem solving and language. The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is believed to be more susceptible to environmental influences than other areas of the brain (Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2016). Parts of the cortex mature at different rates. The region of the cortex that controls physical motor movement matures first, then the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal lobe that controls higher-order thinking processes. The temporal lobes of the cortex that play major roles in emotions, judgment, and language do not develop fully until the high school years and maybe later. Different areas of the cortex seem to have distinct functions, as shown in Figure 2.3. Even though different functions are found in particular areas of the brain, these specialized functions are quite specific and elementary. To accomplish more complex functions such as speaking or reading, the various areas of the cortex must communicate and work together ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for cognitive development is lateralization, or the specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain. We know that each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. Damage to the right side of the brain will affect movement of the left side of the body and vice versa. In addition, certain areas of the brain affect particular behaviors. For most of us, the left hemisphere of the brain is a major factor in language processing, and the right hemisphere handles



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FIG URE 2.3 A VIEW OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX This is a simple representation of the left side of the human brain, showing the cerebral cortex. The cortex is divided into different areas, or lobes, each having a variety of regions with different functions. A few of the major functions are indicated here. Body movement and coordination



Body sensation



Frontal lobe



Auditory cortex Temporal lobe



Parietal lobe Visual cortex



Occipital lobe



much of our spatial-visual information and emotions (nonverbal information). For some left-handed people, the relationship may be reversed, but for most left-handers, and for females on average, there is less hemispheric specialization altogether ( J. R. Anderson, 2015; Ormrod, 2016). The brains of young children show more plasticity (adaptability) because they are not as specialized or lateralized as the brains of older children and adults. Young children with damage to the left side of the brain are somewhat able to overcome the damage, which allows language development to proceed. Different areas of the brain take over the functions of the damaged area. But in older children and adults, this compensation is less likely to occur after damage to the left hemisphere. These differences in performance by the brain’s hemispheres, however, are more relative than absolute; one hemisphere is just more efficient than the other in performing certain functions. Language is processed “differently, but simultaneously” by the left and right hemispheres (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010, p. 44). Nearly any task, particularly the complex skills and abilities that concern teachers, requires simultaneous participation of many different areas of the brain in constant communication with each other. For example, the left side of the brain is where grammar and syntax are understood, but the right side is better at figuring out the meaning of a story or interpreting sarcasm, irony, metaphors, or puns, so both sides of the brain have to work together in reading or making sense of literature, films, and jokes. Remember, no mental activity is exclusively the work of a single part of the brain, so there is no such thing as a “rightbrained student” unless that individual has had the left hemisphere removed—a rare and radical treatment for some forms of epilepsy (Ormrod, 2016).



Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence The brain continues to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. In infancy, children identify patterns in their world and in the language(s) spoken by the people who care for them. Infants learn—form neural connections and networks—by exploring, acting, and observing. They are self-directed in this adventure—a good thing because they have so much to learn. During this time a stimulating, responsive, and safe environment is a much better “teacher” than flashcards or structured lessons because young children follow their own interests and curiosities.



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In the elementary school years, children’s brains continue to grow. The different parts of the brain that support various processes such as perception, memory, and emotion become more networked and connected. These interconnections enable children to reflect on their feelings and thoughts—to think about their own thinking. Children also can add to their store of knowledge and hold more information in memory at one time. At this age they are ready to learn more vocabulary and grammar in their first language and also to learn a second language. But they still have limited attention spans, so longer lessons, activities, or directions should be divided into manageable and memorable pieces (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2016). In addition, all of the ideas in Chapter 11 for developing self-regulated learning can support elementary school students as their growing brains open new possibilities for understanding and controlling their own cognitive processes. During adolescence, changes in the brain increase individuals’ abilities to control their behavior in both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful and organized, and to inhibit impulsive behavior (Wigfield et al., 2006). But these abilities are not fully developed until the early twenties, so adolescents may “seem” like adults, at least in low-stress situations, but their brains are not mature. They often have trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses. This is why adolescents’ brains have been described as “high horse power, poor steering” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2007, p. 6). One explanation for this problem with avoiding risks and impulsive behavior looks to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brain—the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008). The limbic system develops earlier; it is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/ risk-taking/sensation-seeking behaviors. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop; it is involved with judgment and decision making. As the limbic system matures, adolescents become more responsive to pleasure seeking and emotional stimulation. In fact, adolescents appear to need more intense emotional stimulation than either children or adults, so these young people are set up for taking risks and seeking thrills. Risk taking and novelty seeking can be positive factors for adolescent development as young people courageously try new ideas and behaviors—and learning is stimulated (Luna, Paulsen, Padmanabhan, & Geier, 2013). But their less mature prefrontal lobe is not yet good at saying, “Whoa—that thrill is too risky!” So in emotional situations, thrill seeking wins out over caution, at least until the prefrontal lobe catches up and becomes more integrated with the limbic system toward the end of adolescence. Then risks can be evaluated in terms of long-term consequences, not immediate thrills (Casey et al., 2008; D. G. Smith, Xiao, & Bechara, 2012). In addition, there are individual differences: Some adolescents are more prone than others to engage in risky behaviors. Teachers can take advantage of their adolescent students’ intensity by helping them devote their energy and passion to areas such as politics, the environment, public service, or social causes (L. F. Price, 2005) or by guiding them to explore emotional connections with characters in history or literature. Connections to family, school, community, and positive belief systems help adolescents “put the brakes” on reckless and dangerous behaviors (McAnarney, 2008). Other changes in the neurological system during adolescence affect sleep; teenagers need about 9 hours of sleep per night, but many students’ biological clocks are reset, making it difficult for them to fall asleep before midnight. Some experts interviewed by Sumathi Reddy (2014) have recommended that ideally high school should start at 9:00 or even 10:00 in the morning—sounds good to me! Yet in many school districts, high school begins by 7:30, which makes 9 hours of sleep impossible to get, so students are continually sleep deprived. Research in neuroscience shows that sleep deprivation impairs the initial formation of memories for facts, so learning suffers. This means that losing sleep to cram for tests actually interferes with learning by shutting down the very parts of the brain needed to remember what you are studying (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Classes that keep students in their seats taking notes for the full period may literally “put the students to sleep.” With no time for breakfast and little for lunch, these students’ nutritional needs are often deprived as well (Sprenger, 2005).



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TABLE 2.2 • Myths About the Brain COMMON MYTHS 1. You use only 10% of your brain. 2. Listening to Mozart will make children smarter. 3. Some people are more “right brained,” and others are more “left brained.” 4. A young child’s brain can only manage to learn one language at a time. 5. You can’t change your brain. 6. Damage to the brain is permanent. 7. Playing games like Sudoku keeps your brain from aging. 8. The human brain is the biggest brain. 9. Alcoholic beverages kill brain cells. 10. The adolescent’s brain is the same as that of an adult.



TRUTH 1. You use all your brain. That is why strokes are so devastating. 2. Listening won’t, but learning to play a musical instrument is associated with increased cognitive achievement. 3. It takes both sides of your brain to do most things. 4. Children all over the world can and do learn two languages at once. 5. Our brains are changing all the time. 6. Most people recover well from minor brain injuries. 7. Playing Sudoku makes you better at playing Sudoku and similar games. Physical exercise is a better bet to prevent decline. 8. Sperm whales have brains five times heavier than those of humans. 9. Heavy drinking does not kill brain cells, but it can damage the nerve ends called dendrites, and this causes problems with communicating messages in the brain. This damage is mostly reversible. 10. There are critical differences between adolescents’ and adults’ brains, especially in the areas of judgment and risk assessment.



Source: Based on Aamodt & Wang (2008); K. W. Fischer (2009); Freeman (2011); OECD (2007).



Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works What is your conception of the brain? Is the brain a culture-free container that holds knowledge the same way for everyone? Is the brain like a library of facts or a computer filled with information? Do you wake up in the morning, download what you need for the day, and then go merrily on your way? Is the brain like a pipe that transfers information from one person to another—a teacher to a student, for example? Kurt Fischer—a developmental psychologist and Harvard professor—offers a different view, based on neuroscience research. Knowing is actively constructing understandings and actions. Knowledge is based in our activities, and the brain is constantly changing. Experience “sculpts the way that our brains work, changing neurons, synapses, and brain activity” (Fischer, 2009, p. 5). See Table 2.2 for some other myths and truths about the brain. CULTURE AND BRAIN PLASTICITY. All experiences sculpt the brain—play and deliberate practice, formal and informal learning (Dubinsky et al., 2013). You encountered the term earlier that describes the brain’s capacity for constant change in neurons, synapses, and activity—plasticity. Cultural differences in brain activity provide examples of how interactions in the world shape the brain through plasticity. For example, in one study, when Chinese speakers added and compared Arabic numbers, they showed brain activity in the motor (movement) areas of their brains, whereas English speakers performing the same tasks had activity in the language areas of their brains (Tang et al., 2006). One explanation is that Chinese children are taught arithmetic using an abacus—a calculation tool that involves movement and spatial positions. As adults, these children retain a kind of visual-motor sense of numbers (Varma, McCandliss, & Schwartz, 2008). There also are cultural differences in how languages affect reading. For example, when they read, native Chinese speakers activate additional parts of their brain associated with spatial information processing, probably because the language characters used in written Chinese are pictures. But Chinese speakers also activate these spatial areas of the brain when they read English, demonstrating that reading proficiency can be reached through different neural pathways (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008). So thanks to plasticity, the brain is ever changing, shaped by activity, culture, and context. We build knowledge as we do things, as we manipulate objects and ideas mentally and physically. As you can imagine, educators have looked for applications of neuroscience research for their instruction. We turn to this next.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education



POINT .



Educators are hearing more and more about brain-based education. Are there clear educational implications from the neuroscience research on the brain?



No, the implications are not clear.  John Bruer,



president of the James S. McDonnell Foundation, has written articles that are critical of the brain-based education craze (Bruer, 1999, 2002). He notes that many so-called applications of brain research begin with solid science, but then move to unwarranted speculation, and end in a sort of appealing folk tale about the brain and learning. He suggests that for each claim, the educator should ask, “Where does the science end and the speculation begin?” One claim that Bruer questions is the notion of right-brain, left-brain learning, a popular idea that has been around for over 30 years, even though neuroscientists keep debunking the claims. For example, in his book for educators, How the Brain Learns, David Sousa suggests that teachers have students engage their “right brains” by generating and using mental imagery. Even though different brain areas are specialized for different tasks, this specialization occurs at very fine levels of analysis, and forming visual images involves many parts of the brain. As we will see later in this book, imagery can be a good learning strategy but not because it enlists the “underutilized” right brain in learning (Bruer, 1999). Kurt Fischer (2009), president of



the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, has lamented that many neuromyths like those in Table 2.2— blatantly wrong beliefs about how the brain and body work—still are widely accepted. No teacher doubts that the brain is important in learning. As Steven Pinker (2002), professor of psychology at Harvard University, observed, does anyone really think learning takes place somewhere else, like the pancreas? But knowing that learning affects the brain does not tell us how to teach. All learning affects the brain; “this should be obvious, but nowadays any banality about learning can be dressed up in neurospeak and treated like a great revelation of science” (Pinker, 2002, p. 86). Virtually all of the so-called best practices for brain-based education are simple restatements of good teaching based on understandings of how people learn, not how their brains work. For example, we have known for over 100 years that it is more effective to learn in many shorter practice sessions as opposed to one long cramming session. To tie that fact to building more dendrites may give one reason why the strategy works, but it does not offer teachers new strategies (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010).



Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching There has been vigorous debate between the enthusiastic educational advocates of brain-based education and the skeptical neuroscience researchers who caution that studies of the brain do not really address major educational questions yet. See the Point/ Counterpoint for a slice of this debate.



MyLab Education



Podcast 2.1 Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about brain-based education. What does this mean? Are there some clear implications for teachers or is it still too early to say?



DOES INSTRUCTION AFFECT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT? There are differences in brain activity associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction and practice provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them regain functioning by forming new connections and using new areas of the brain (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; McKinley, 2011). In a dramatic example of how teaching can affect brain development, K. W. Fischer (2009) describes two children who each had one brain hemisphere removed as a treatment for severe epilepsy. Nico’s right hemisphere was removed when he was 3, and his parents were told he would never have good visual-spatial skills. With strong and constant support and teaching, Nico grew up to be a skilled artist! Brooke’s left hemisphere was removed when he was 11. His parents were told he would lose his ability to talk. Again, with strong support, he regained enough speaking and reading ability to finish high school and attend community college. THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ. Brain imaging research is revealing interesting differences among skilled and less-skilled readers as they learn new vocabulary. For example, one imaging study showed that less-skilled readers had trouble establishing high-quality representations of new vocabulary words in their brains, as indicated by



COUNTERPOINT .



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Yes, teaching should be brain-based.  Articles in



popular magazines such as Newsweek assert, “ . . . it’s naive to say that brain discoveries have no consequences for understanding how humans learn” (Begley, 2007). Do scientists agree? In their article on “Applying Cognitive Neuroscience Research to Education” in the Educational Psychologist, Tami Katzir and Juliana Paré-Blagoev (2006) concluded, “When applied correctly, brain science may serve as a vehicle for advancing the application of our understanding of learning and development. . . . Brain research can challenge common-sense views about teaching and learning by suggesting additional systems that are involved in particular tasks and activities” (p. 70). If we are to guard against overstating the links between brain research and education, then we should not ask whether to teach neuroscience to preservice teachers, but instead, how best to do that teaching (Dubinsky et al., 2013). A number of universities, including Harvard, Cambridge, Dartmouth, the University of Texas at Arlington, University of Minnesota, University of Southern California, Beijing Normal University, Southeast University in Nanjing, and Johns Hopkins are pioneering this process. They have established training programs for educators in brain-education studies (Dubinsky et al., 2013; K. Fischer, 2009; Wolfe, 2010). Other educational psychologists have called for a new professional specialty— neuro-educators (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). A reading improvement product called FastForword was developed by two neuroscientists, Dr. Michael Merzenich and Dr. Paula Tallal, and is already in use today in classrooms around the country (see www.scilearn.com/results/success-stories/



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case-studies). It specifically uses discoveries in neural plasticity to change the brain’s ability to read the printed word (Tallal & Miller, 2003). In his presidential address for the First Conference of the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, Kurt Fischer (2009) also noted that the primary goal of that organization is to ground education in solid research from biology, cognitive science, development, and education while avoiding myths and popular misconceptions. Fischer makes the point that we can go from understanding how the brain works to understanding cognitive processes, and then to developing educational practices. But jumping directly from knowledge about the brain to educational practices probably involves too much speculation. Beware of Either/Or.  The application of neuroscience to education actually has been plagued by misapplications because educators and neuroscience researchers have different meanings for the concept of learning; few educators have a background in neurobiology and most neuroscientists can’t create concrete and useful applications of research on the brain because they just don’t know enough about the specifics of teaching in kindergarten to high school classrooms (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). However, to ignore what we do know about the brain would be irresponsible. Brain-based learning offers some direction for educators who want more purposeful, informed teaching. At the very least, the neuroscience research is helping us to understand why effective teaching strategies, such as distributed practice, work. The person in the best position to create, invent, and apply strategies is a teacher who understands both the way the brain works and how children learn (Scalise & Felde, 2017).



Resources: Podcast on understanding the brain: http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/understandingthebrainthebirthofalearningscience.htm



ERP measurements of electrical activity of the brain. When they encountered one of the new words later, less-skilled readers’ brains often didn’t recognize that they had seen the word before, even though they had learned it in an earlier lesson. If words you have learned previously seem unfamiliar later, you can see how it would be hard to understand what you read (Balass, Nelson, & Perfetti, 2010). Reading is not innate or automatic—every brain has to be taught to read (Frey & Fisher, 2010). Reading is a complex integration of the systems in the brain that recognize sounds, written symbols, meanings, and sequences, and then connect with what the reader already knows. This has to happen quickly and automatically (Wolf et al., 2009). What are some strategies suggested? Use multiple approaches that teach sounds, spelling, meanings, sequencing, and vocabulary through reading, writing, discussing, explaining, drawing, and modeling. Different students may learn in different ways, but all need practice in literacy. EMOTIONS, LEARNING, AND THE BRAIN. Finally, another clear connection between the brain and classroom learning is in the area of emotions and stress. Let’s step inside a high school math classroom described by Hinton, Miyamoto, and Della-Chiesa (2008, p. 91) for an example: Patricia, a high school student, struggles with mathematics. The last few times she answered a mathematics question she got it wrong and felt terribly embarrassed, which formed an association between mathematics . . . and negative emotions. . . . Her teacher had just asked her to come to the blackboard to solve a problem. This caused an immediate transfer of this emotionally-charged association to the amygdala, which elicits fear. Meanwhile, a slower, cortically-driven cognitive appraisal of the situation



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C H A PT E R T W O is occurring: she remembers her difficulty completing her mathematics homework last night, notices the problem on the board contains complicated graphs, and realizes that the boy she has a crush on is watching her from a front-row seat. These various thoughts converge to a cognitive confirmation that this is a threatening situation, which reinforces her progressing fear response and disrupts her ability to concentrate on solving the mathematics problem.



In Chapter 7 you will learn about how emotions can become paired with particular situations; and in Chapter 12, you will see that anxiety interferes with learning, whereas challenge, interest, and curiosity can support learning. If students feel unsafe and anxious, they are not likely to be able to focus attention on academics (Sylvester, 2003). But if students are not challenged or interested, learning suffers too. Keeping the level of challenge and support “just right” is a challenge for teachers. And helping students learn to regulate their own emotions and motivation is an important goal for education (see Chapter 11). Simply put, learning will be more effective “if educators help to minimize stress and fear at school, teach students emotional regulation strategies, and provide a positive learning environment that is motivating to students” (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008). STOP & THINK As a teacher, you don’t want to fall for overly simplistic “brain-based” teaching slogans. But obviously, the brain and learning are intimately related—this is not a surprise. So how can you be a savvy, “neuroscientific” teacher (Murphy & Benton, 2010)? •



Lessons for Teachers: General Principles What can we learn from neuroscience? One overarching idea is that teachers and students should transform the notion of learning from “using your brain” to “changing your brain”—embrace the amazing plasticity of the brain (Dubinsky et al., 2013). Here are some general teaching implications drawn from Brown, Roedinger, and McDaniel (2014), Driscoll (2005), Dubinsky and colleagues (2013), Murphy and Benton (2010), Sprenger (2010), Scalise and Felde (2017), and Wolfe (2010): 1. Human capabilities—intelligence, communication, problem solving, and so on— emerge from each person’s unique synaptic activity overlaid on his or her genetically endowed brain anatomy; nature and nurture are in constant activity together. The brain can place some limits on learning in the form of genetic brain anomalies in neural wiring or structure, but learning can occur through alternate pathways in the brain (as Nico and Brooke demonstrate). So, there are multiple ways both to teach and to learn a skill, depending on the student. 2. Many cognitive functions are differentiated; they are associated with different parts of the brain. Using a range of modalities for instruction and activities that draw on different senses may support learning—for example, using maps and songs to teach geography. Using different modalities also helps students stay focused and engaged. Assessment should be differentiated, too. 3. The brain is relatively plastic, so enriched, active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and learning in adults. The brain is constantly changing at many levels from cells to connections to remapping skills in new areas in response to an injury—think plasticity! 4. Changing the brain takes time, so teachers must be consistent, patient, and compassionate in teaching and reteaching in different ways, as Nico’s and Brooke’s parents and teachers could tell you. Don’t overwhelm the brain with a heavy cognitive load (see Chapter 8) that presents too much too fast. Give students ways of managing the cognitive load using graphic organizers, visuals, tables, glossaries, notes, and other “external brain” tools. 5. Some learning disorders may have a neurological basis; neurological testing may assist in diagnosing and treating these disorders, as well as in evaluating the effects of various treatments. 6. Learning from real-life problems and concrete experiences helps students construct knowledge and also gives them multiple pathways for learning and retrieving



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7.



8. 9.



10. 11.



12.



13.



information. Knowledge learned should be clearly connected with situations in which it is useful. “Inert” knowledge that is memorized but not used is quickly forgotten. The brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks, so teachers should tie new information to what students already understand and help them form new connections. Use both concrete and abstract examples where possible and ask students to think of their own examples. Information that is not linked to existing knowledge will be easily forgotten. Help students recognize patterns by pointing out similarities and differences and teaching how to detect patterns. Because the brain naturally looks for patterns and makes predictions about what to expect, feedback is critical, because feedback is a form of evidence to help the brain correct and improve its predictions. It takes a long time and extensive practice to build and consolidate knowledge. Numerous visits and practice in different contexts and distributed over time (not all at once) help to form strong, multiple connections. Changing the brain (learning) benefits from elaborating, extending, and applying concepts in different situations and subjects over time. Probing questions, worked out examples, annotated and carefully labeled charts and graphs, reflection, and asking students to explain new learning to themselves and each other all help. Large, general concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts so students can build enduring, useful knowledge categories and associations that are not constantly changing. Stories should be used in teaching. Stories engage many areas of the brain— memories, experiences, feelings, and beliefs. Stories also are organized and have a sequence—beginning, middle, end—so they are easier to remember than unrelated or unorganized information. Emotions and health affect learning—positive emotions can support learning and memory, whereas negative emotions can interfere. Emotions also are related to motivation, as you will see in Chapter 12. Stress, lack of sleep, poor nutrition, and lack of exercise all can affect the brain’s ability to learn. Helping students understand how activity (distributed practice, problem solving, making connections, inquiry, etc.) changes their brain and how emotions and stress affect attention and memory can be motivating, leading to greater self-efficacy and self-regulated learning (we talk more about this in Chapter 11). One important message to students is that they are responsible for doing what it takes to change their own brains; they have to work (and play) to learn.



For the rest of the chapter, we turn from the brain and cognitive development to examine several major theories of cognitive development, the first offered by a biologist turned psychologist, Jean Piaget. MyLab Education Self-Check 2.2



PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a real prodigy. In fact, in his teens, he published so many scientific papers on mollusks (marine animals such as oysters, clams, octopuses, snails, and squid) that he was offered a job as the curator of the mollusk collection at the Museum of Natural History in Geneva. He told the museum officials that he wanted to finish high school first. For a while, Piaget worked in Alfred Binet’s laboratory in Paris developing intelligence tests for children. The reasons children gave for their wrong answers fascinated him, and this prompted him to study the thinking behind their answers. This question intrigued him for the rest of his life (Green & Piel, 2010). He continued to write until his death at the age of 84 (P. H. Miller, 2016). During his long career, Piaget devised a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information (Piaget, 1954,



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1963, 1970a, 1970b). We will examine Piaget’s ideas closely, because they provide an explanation of the development of thinking from infancy to adulthood. PUT YOURSELF IN A CHILD’S PLACE Can you be in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and in the United States at the same time? Is this a difficult question for you? How long did it take you to answer? •



According to Piaget (1954), certain ways of thinking that are quite simple for an adult, such as the Pittsburgh question in Stop & Think, are not so straightforward for a child. For example, do you remember the 9-year-old child at the beginning of the chapter who was asked if he could be a Genevan? He answered, “No, that’s not possible. I’m already Swiss. I can’t also be Genevan” (Piaget, 1965/1995, p. 252). Imagine teaching this student geography. He has trouble with classifying one concept (Geneva) as a subset of another (Switzerland). There are other differences between adult and child thinking, too. Children’s concepts of time may be different from your own. They may think, for example, that they will some day catch up to a sibling in age, or they may confuse the past and the future. Let’s examine why.



Influences on Development Cognitive development is much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information. According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world. Piaget identified four factors—biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration—that interact to influence changes in thinking (Piaget, 1970a). Maturation is the unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed. Parents and teachers have little impact on this aspect of cognitive development, except to be sure that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy. With physical maturation comes the increasing ability to act on the environment and learn from it. When a young child’s coordination is reasonably developed, for example, the child can discover principles about balance by walking on a low balance beam. Thus, activity—exploring, testing, observing, and eventually organizing information— changes our thinking processes. Our cognitive development also is influenced by social transmission, or learning from others. Without social transmission, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered by our culture. The amount people can learn from social transmission varies according to their stage of cognitive development. We’ll return to a discussion of the fourth influence on thinking, equilibration, in the next section. Maturation, activity, and social transmission all work together to influence cognitive development. How do we respond to these influences?



Basic Tendencies in Thinking



Organization Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations. Adaptation Adjustment to the environment.



As a result of his early research in biology, Piaget concluded that all species inherit two basic tendencies, or “invariant functions.” The first of these tendencies is toward organization—the combining, arranging, recombining, and rearranging of behaviors and thoughts into coherent systems. The second tendency is toward adaptation, or adjusting to the environment. ORGANIZATION. People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into psychological structures—systems for understanding and interacting with the world. Simple structures are continually combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus more effective. Very young infants, for example, can either look at an object or grasp it when it comes in contact with their hands. They cannot coordinate looking and grasping at the same time. As they develop, however, infants organize these two separate behavioral structures into a coordinated higher-level structure of looking



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at, reaching for, and grasping the object. They can, of course, still use each structure separately (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002; P. H. Miller, 2016). Piaget gave a special name to these psychological structures: schemes. In his theory, schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or thought that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our world. Schemes can be very small and specific—for example, the sucking-througha-straw scheme or the recognizing-a-rose scheme. Or they can be larger and more general—for example, the drinking scheme or the gardening scheme. ADAPTATION. In addition to the tendency to organize psychological structures, people also inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic processes are involved in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know—by using our existing schemes. At times, we may have to distort the new information to make it fit. For example, the first time many children see a raccoon, they call it a “kitty.” They try to match the new experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals. Accommodation occurs when we must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation. If we cannot make new data fit any existing schemes, then we must develop more appropriate structures. We adjust our thinking to fit the new information, instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. Children demonstrate accommodation when they add the scheme for recognizing raccoons to their other systems for identifying animals. People adapt to their increasingly complex environments by using existing schemes whenever these schemes work (assimilation) and by modifying and adding to their schemes when something new is needed (accommodation). In fact, both processes are required most of the time. Even using an established pattern such as sucking through a straw requires some accommodation if the straw is of a different size or length than the type you are used to. If you have tried drinking juice from box packages, you know that you have to add a new skill to your sucking-through-a-straw scheme: Don’t squeeze the box or you will shoot juice through the straw, straight up into the air and into your lap. Whenever new experiences are assimilated into an existing scheme, the scheme is enlarged and changed somewhat, so assimilation involves some accommodation (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005). There are also times when neither assimilation nor accommodation is used. If people encounter something that is too unfamiliar, they may ignore it. Experience is filtered to fit the kind of thinking a person is doing at a given time. For example, if you overhear a conversation in a foreign language, you probably will not try to make sense of the exchange unless you have some knowledge of the language. EQUILIBRATION. According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be viewed as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration—the act of searching for a balance. Piaget assumed that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to achieve that balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level of disequilibrium must be just right or optimal—too little and we aren’t interested in changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change.



Four Stages of Cognitive Development Now we turn to the actual differences that Piaget hypothesized for children as they grow. Piaget believed that all people pass through the same four stages in exactly the same order. The stages are generally associated with specific ages, but these are only general guidelines, not labels for all children of a certain age. Piaget noted that individuals may go through long periods of transition between stages and that a person may show



MyLab Education



Video Example 2.1 The children in this video are learning something new about growth by observing a tadpole as it changes from day to day. They can assimilate the idea that the tadpole grows legs, but they need to accommodate their concept of growth to understand why the tadpole’s tail gets smaller.



Schemes Mental systems or categories of perception and experience. Assimilation Fitting new information into existing schemes. Accommodation Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information. Equilibration Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment. Disequilibrium In Piaget’s theory, the “out-ofbalance” state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation.



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TABLE 2.3 • Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development STAGE



APPROXIMATE AGE



Sensorimotor



0–2 years



Learns through reflexes, senses, and movement— actions on the environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight— object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity.



Preoperational



Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about 7 years old



Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future—thinks in the present. Can think through operations logically in one direction. Has difficulties understanding the point of view of another person.



Concrete Operational



Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old



Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands conservation and organizes things into categories and in series. Can reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions. Understands past, present, and future.



Formal Operational



Adolescence to adulthood



Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes more scientific. Solves abstract problems in logical fashion. Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social issues, personal identity, and justice.



CHARACTERISTICS



characteristics of one stage in one situation, but traits of a higher or lower stage in other situations. Therefore, remember that knowing a student’s age is never a guarantee you will know how the child thinks (Orlando & Machado, 1996). Table 2.3 summarizes the stages.



Sensorimotor Involving the senses and motor activity. Object permanence The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence. Goal-directed actions Deliberate actions toward a goal.



INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE. The earliest period is called the sensorimotor stage, because the child’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, moving and so on. During this period, infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects exist in the environment whether they perceive them or not. This is the beginning of the important ability to construct a mental representation. As most parents discover, before infants develop object permanence, it is relatively easy to take something away from them. The trick is to distract them and remove the object while they are not looking—“out of sight, out of mind.” The older infant who searches for the ball that has rolled out of sight is indicating an understanding that objects still exist even when they are not in view (M. K. Moore & Meltzoff, 2004). A second major accomplishment in the sensorimotor period is the beginning of logical, goal-directed actions. Think of the familiar clear plastic container baby toy with a lid and several colorful items inside that can be dumped out and replaced. A 6-month-old baby is likely to become frustrated trying to get to the toys inside. An older child who has mastered the basics of the sensorimotor stage will probably be able to deal with the toy in an orderly fashion by building a “container toy” scheme: (1) get the lid off, (2) turn the container upside down, (3) shake if the items jam, and (4) watch the items fall. Separate lower-level schemes have been organized into a higher-level scheme to achieve a goal. The child is soon able to reverse this action by refilling the container. Learning to reverse actions is a basic accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage. As we will soon see, however, learning to reverse thinking—that is, learning to imagine the reverse of a sequence of actions—takes much longer.



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EARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE. By the end of the sensorimotor stage, the child can use many action schemes. However, as long as these schemes remain tied to physical actions, they are of no use in recalling the past, keeping track of information, or planning. For this, children need what Piaget called operations, or actions that are carried out and reversed mentally rather than physically. At the preoperational stage the child is moving toward mastery, but has not yet mastered these mental operations (so thinking is preoperational). According to Piaget, the first type of thinking that is separate from action involves making action schemes symbolic. The ability to form and use symbols—words, gestures, signs, images, and so on—is thus a major accomplishment of the preoperational period and moves children closer to mastering the mental operations of the next stage. This ability to work with symbols to represent an object that is not present, such as using the word horse or a picture of a horse or even pretending to ride a broomstick horse, is called the semiotic function. In fact, the child’s earliest use of symbols is in pretending— pretending to drink from an empty cup, showing that they know what the object is for. This behavior also shows that their schemes are becoming more general and less tied to specific actions. The drinking scheme, for example, can be used in playing house. During the preoperational stage, there is also rapid development of that very important symbol system, language. Between the ages of 2 and 4, most children enlarge their vocabulary from about 200 to 2,000 words. As the child moves through the preoperational stage, the developing ability to think about objects in symbolic form remains somewhat limited to thinking in one direction only, or using one-way logic. It is very difficult for the child to “think backward,” or imagine how to reverse the steps in a task. Reversible thinking is involved in many tasks that are difficult for the preoperational child, such as the conservation of matter. Conservation is the principle that the amount or number of something remains the same even if the arrangement or appearance is changed, as long as nothing is added and nothing is taken away. You know that if you tear a piece of paper into several pieces, you will still have the same amount of paper. To prove this, you know that you can reverse the process by taping the pieces back together, but a child using preoperational thinking can’t think that way. Here is a classic example of difficulty with conservation. Leah, a 5-year-old, is shown two identical glasses, both short and wide in shape. Both have exactly the same amount of colored water in them. She agrees that the amounts are “the same.” The experimenter then pours the water from one of the glasses into a taller, narrower glass and asks, “Now, does one glass have more water, or are they the same?” Leah responds that the tall glass has more because “It goes up more here” (she points to the higher level on the taller glass). Piaget’s explanation for Leah’s answer is that she is focusing, or centering, attention on the dimension of height. She has difficulty considering more than one aspect of the situation at a time (height and width), or decentering. Thus, children at the preoperational stage have trouble freeing themselves from their own immediate perceptions of how the world appears. This brings us to another important characteristic of the preoperational stage. Preoperational children, according to Piaget, have a tendency to be egocentric, to see the world and the experiences of others from their own viewpoint. This is one reason it is difficult for preoperational children to understand that your right hand is not on the same side as theirs when you are facing them. The concept of egocentrism, as Piaget intended it, does not mean selfish; it simply means children often assume that everyone else shares their feelings, reactions, and perspectives. For example, the 2-year-old at the beginning of this chapter who brought his own mother to comfort a distressed friend— even though the friend’s mother was available—was simply seeing the situation through his own eyes and providing what he would want for his friend. Research has shown that young children are not totally egocentric in every situation, however. Children as young as age 2 describe more details about a situation to a parent who was not present than they provide to a parent who experienced the situation with them. So young children do seem quite able to take the needs and different perspectives of others into account, at least in certain situations (Flavell et al., 2002). And in fairness to



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MyLab Education



Video Example 2.2 In this video, children participate in tasks that show their understanding of conservation of volume and conservation of number. Compare the responses, and identify each child’s stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget’s theory.



Operations Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions. Preoperational The stage before a child masters logical mental operations. Semiotic function The ability to use symbols— language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Reversible thinking Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning. Conservation Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance. Decentering Focusing on more than one aspect at a time. Egocentric Assuming that others experience the world the way you do.



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GUIDELINES



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS



Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children Encourage families to use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible. Examples 1. When family members use words such as part, whole, or one half, encourage them to demonstrate using objects in the house such as cutting an apple or pizza into parts. 2. Let children add and subtract with sticks, rocks, or colored chips. This technique also is helpful for early concreteoperational students. Make instructions relatively short—not too many steps at once. Use actions as well as words. Examples 1. When giving instructions such as how to feed a pet, first model the process, then ask the child to try it. 2. Explain a game by acting out one of the parts. Help children develop their ability to see the world from someone else’s point of view. Examples 1. Ask children to imagine “how your sister felt when you broke her toy.”



Concrete operations Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations. Identity Principle that a person or object remains the same over time. Compensation The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another. Reversibility A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations—the ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point; also called reversible thinking. Classification Grouping objects into categories.



2. Be clear about rules for sharing or use of material. Help children understand the value of the rules, and work with them to develop empathy by asking them to think about how they would like to be treated. Avoid long lectures on “sharing” or being “nice.” Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills such as reading comprehension or collaboration. Examples 1. Provide cut-out letters or letter magnets for the refrigerator to build words. 2. Do activities that require measuring and simple calculations—cooking, dividing a batch of popcorn equally. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language. Examples 1. Take trips to zoos, gardens, theaters, and concerts; encourage storytelling. 2. Give children words to describe what they are doing, hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling.



young children, even adults can make assumptions that others feel or think like they do— think about all the politicians who believe “the people agree with me!” The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give ideas for working with preoperational thinkers and for guiding families in supporting the cognitive development of their children. LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CONCRETEOPERATIONAL STAGE. Piaget coined the term concrete operations to describe this stage of “hands-on” thinking. The basic characteristics of the stage are the recognition of the logical stability of the physical world; the realization that elements can be changed or transformed and still conserve many of their original characteristics; and the understanding that these changes can be reversed. Look at Figure 2.4 to see examples of the different tasks given to children to assess conservation. According to Piaget, the ability to solve conservation problems depends on having an understanding of three basic aspects of reasoning: identity, compensation, and reversibility. With a complete mastery of identity, the student knows that if nothing is added or taken away, the material remains the same. With an understanding of compensation, the student knows that an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction. That is, if the glass is narrower, the liquid will rise higher in the glass. And with an understanding of reversibility, the student can mentally cancel out the change that has been made. Leah apparently knew it was the same water (identity), but she lacked compensation and reversibility, so she was still moving toward conservation. Another important operation mastered at this stage is classification. This operation depends on a student’s abilities to focus on a single characteristic of objects in a set (e.g., color) and group the objects according to that characteristic. More advanced classification at this stage involves recognizing that one class fits into another. A city can be in a particular state or province and also in a particular country, as you probably



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FIG U RE 2. 4 SOME PIAGETIAN CONSERVATION TASKS In addition to the tasks shown here, other tasks involve the conservation of number, length, weight, and volume. These tasks are all achieved over the concrete-operational period. Suppose you start with this



(a) conservation of mass



Then you change the situation to this



Roll out clay ball B



A



Which is bigger, A or B?



A



B



(b) conservation of weight



A



B



B



B



B



A



A



B



C



B



A



Which beaker has more liquid, B or C? A



A



Break candy bar B into B pieces



Which will weigh more, A or B?



When I put the clay back into the water beakers, in which beaker will the water be higher?



Pour water in beaker A into beaker C



(d) conservation of continuous quantity



(e) conservation of number



Roll out clay ball B



Take clay ball out of water and roll out clay ball B



(c) conservation of volume A



The question you would ask a child is



B



C



A B



Which is more candy? A or B



Source: Woolfolk, A., & Perry, N. E., Child Development (2nd ed.), © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.



knew when I asked you earlier about Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. As children apply this advanced classification to locations, they often become fascinated with “complete” addresses such as Lee Jary, 5116 Forest Hill Drive, Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada, North America, Northern Hemisphere, Earth, Solar System, Milky Way, Universe. Classification is also related to reversibility. The ability to reverse a process mentally allows the concrete-operational student to see that there is more than one way to classify a group of objects. The student understands, for example, that shapes can be classified by color, and then reclassified by size or by the number of sides. Seriation is the process of making an arrangement of items in order from large to small or vice versa. This understanding of sequential relationships permits a student to construct a logical series in which A < B < C (A is less than B is less than C) and so on. Unlike the preoperational child, the concrete-operational child can grasp the notion that B can be larger than A but still smaller than C.



Seriation Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.



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GUIDELINES Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated material. Examples 1. Use timelines in history and three-dimensional models in science. 2. Use diagrams to illustrate hierarchical relationships such as branches of government and the agencies under each branch.



Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas. Examples 1. Compare students’ lives with those of characters in a story. After reading Island of the Blue Dolphins (the true story of a girl who grew up alone on a deserted island), ask, “Have you ever had to stay alone for a long time? How did you feel?” 2. Teach the concept of area by having students measure two schoolrooms that are different sizes.



Continue to give students a chance to manipulate and test objects. Examples 1. Set up simple scientific experiments such as the following involving the relationship between fire and oxygen. What happens to a flame when you blow on it from a distance? (If you don’t blow it out, the flame gets larger briefly, because it has more oxygen to burn.) What happens when you cover the flame with a jar? 2. Have students make candles by dipping wicks in wax, weave cloth on a simple loom, bake bread, set type by hand, or do other craft work that illustrates the daily occupations of people in the colonial period.



Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels. Examples 1. Give students slips of paper with individual sentences written on each paper, and ask the students to group the sentences into paragraphs. 2. Compare the systems of the human body to other kinds of systems: the brain to a computer, the heart to a pump. Break down stories into components, from the broad to the specific: author, story, characters, plot, theme, place, time.



Make sure presentations and readings are brief and well organized. Examples 1. Assign stories or books with short, logical chapters, moving to longer reading assignments only when students are ready. 2. Break up a presentation, giving students an opportunity to practice the first steps before introducing the next steps.



Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking. Examples 1. Discuss open-ended questions that stimulate thinking: “Are the brain and the mind the same thing?” “How should the city deal with stray animals?” “What is the largest number?” 2. Use sports photos or pictures of crisis situations (Red Cross helping in disasters, victims of poverty or war, senior citizens who need assistance) to stimulate problemsolving discussions.



In any grade you teach, knowledge of concrete-operational thinking will be helpful (see Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child ). In the early grades, the students are moving toward this logical system of thought. In the middle grades, it is in full flower, ready to be applied and extended by your teaching. Students in high school and even adults still commonly use concrete-operational thinking, especially in areas that are new or unfamiliar.



Formal operations Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables.



HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE: FORMAL OPERATIONS. With the abilities to handle operations such as conservation, classification, and seriation, the student at the concrete-operational stage has finally developed a complete and very logical system of thinking, but this thinking is still tied to physical reality and the way things actually are. The child is not yet able to reason about hypothetical, abstract problems that involve the coordination of many factors at once. Such coordination is part of Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, formal operations. At this stage the focus of thinking can shift from what is to what might be. Situations do not have to be experienced to be imagined. You met Jamal at the beginning of this chapter. Even though he is a bright elementary school student, he could not answer the question, “How would life be different if



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people did not have to sleep?” because he insisted, “People HAVE TO SLEEP!” In contrast, the adolescent who has mastered formal operations can consider contrary-to-fact questions. In answering, the adolescent demonstrates the hallmark of formal operations— hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The formal-operational thinker can consider a hypothetical situation (people do not sleep) and reason deductively (from the general assumption to specific implications, such as longer workdays, more money spent on energy and lighting, smaller houses without bedrooms, or new entertainment industries). Formal operations also include inductive reasoning, or using specific observations to identify general principles. For example, the economist observes many specific changes in the stock market and attempts to identify general principles about economic cycles from this information. Using formal operations is a new way of reasoning that involves “thinking about thinking” or “mental operations on mental operations” (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). For example, the child using concrete operations can categorize animals by their physical characteristics or by their habitats, but a child using formal operations can perform “second-order” operations on these category operations to infer relationships between habitat and physical characteristics—such as understanding that the physical characteristic of thick fur on animals is related to their arctic habitats (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Abstract formal-operational thinking is necessary for success in many advanced high school and college courses. Most math is concerned with hypothetical situations, assumptions, and givens: “Let x = 10,” or “Assume x2 + y2 = z2,” or “Given two sides and an adjacent angle. . . .” Work in social studies and literature requires abstract thinking, too: “What did Wilson mean when he called World War I the ‘war to end all wars’?” “What are some metaphors for hope and despair in Shakespeare’s sonnets?” “What symbols of old age does T. S. Eliot use in The Waste Land ?” “How do animals symbolize human character traits in Aesop’s fables?”



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Reasoning (II, A1) Be able to distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Explain the role that each plays in the learning of concepts.



STOP & THINK You are packing for a long trip, but want to pack light. How many different three-piece outfits (slacks, shirt, jacket) will you have if you include three shirts, three pairs of slacks, and three jackets (assuming of course that they all go together in fashion perfection)? Time yourself to see how long it takes to arrive at the answer. •



The organized, scientific thinking of formal operations requires that students systematically generate all possibilities for a given situation. If asked the Stop & Think question above, the child using formal operations can identify all 27 possible combinations. (Did you get it right?) A concrete-operational thinker might name just a few combinations, using each piece of clothing only once. Another characteristic of this stage is adolescent egocentrism. Unlike egocentric young children, adolescents do not deny that other people may have different perceptions and beliefs; the adolescents just become very focused on their own ideas and thoughts. This leads to what Elkind (1981) calls the sense of an imaginary audience—the feeling that everyone is watching: “Everyone noticed that I wore this shirt twice this week.” “The whole class thought my answer was dumb!” You can see that social blunders or imperfections in appearance can be devastating if “everybody is watching.” Luckily, this feeling of being “on stage” seems to peak in early adolescence by age 14 or 15, although in unfamiliar situations we all may feel our mistakes are being broadcast for everyone to see. The ability to think hypothetically, consider alternatives, identify all possible combinations, and analyze their own thinking has some interesting consequences for adolescents. Because they can think about worlds that do not exist, they often become interested in science fiction. Because they can reason from general principles to specific actions, they often are critical of people whose actions seem to contradict their principles. Adolescents can deduce the set of “best” possibilities and imagine ideal worlds (or ideal parents and teachers, for that matter). This explains why many students at this age develop interests in utopias, political causes, and social issues. Adolescents also can imagine many possible futures for themselves and may try to decide which is best. Feelings about any of these ideals may be strong.



Hypothetico-deductive reasoning A formaloperations problemsolving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions. Adolescent egocentrism Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns.



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DO WE ALL REACH THE FOURTH STAGE? Most psychologists agree that there is a level of thinking more sophisticated than concrete operations, but do we all reach that level? The first three stages of Piaget’s theory are forced on most people by physical realities. Objects really are permanent. The amount of water doesn’t change when it is poured into another glass. Formal operations, however, are not so closely tied to the physical environment. Being able to use formal operations may be the result of practice in solving hypothetical problems and using formal scientific reasoning—abilities that are valued and taught in literate cultures in high school and college. But even in these cultures, not all high school students or adults can perform Piaget’s formal-operational tasks (Shayer, 2003). Formal thinking might develop only in areas where adolescents and adults have experience or interest or take advanced classes (Lehman & Nisbett, 1990; Piaget, 1974). So expect many students in your middle school or high school classes to have trouble thinking hypothetically, especially when they are learning something new. Students sometimes find shortcuts for dealing with problems that are beyond their grasp; they may memorize formulas or lists of steps. These systems may be helpful for passing tests, but real understanding will take place only if students can go beyond this superficial use of memorization. The Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations will help you support the development of formal operations in your students.



Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory Although most psychologists agree with Piaget’s insightful descriptions of how children think, many disagree with his explanations of why thinking develops as it does. THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES. Some psychologists have questioned the existence of four separate stages of thinking, even though they agree that children do go through the changes that Piaget described (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005; P. H. Miller, 2016). One problem with the stage model is the lack of consistency in children’s thinking. For example, children can conserve number (the number of blocks does not change when they are rearranged) a



GUIDELINES Helping Students to Use Formal Operations Continue to use concrete-operational teaching strategies and materials. Examples 1. Use visual aids such as charts and illustrations as well as somewhat more sophisticated graphs and diagrams, especially when the material is new. 2. Compare the experiences of characters in stories to students’ experiences. Give students the opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions. Examples 1. Have students write position papers, then exchange these papers with the opposing side and debate topical social issues such as the environment, the economy, and national health insurance. 2. Ask students to write about their personal vision of a utopia; write a description of a universe that has no sex differences; write a description of Earth after humans are extinct.



Give students opportunities to solve problems and reason scientifically. Examples 1. Set up group discussions in which students design experiments to answer questions. 2. Ask students to justify two different positions on animal rights, with logical arguments for each position. Whenever possible, teach broad concepts, not just facts, using materials and ideas relevant to the students’ lives (Delpit, 1995). Examples 1. When discussing the Civil War, consider racism or other issues that have divided the United States since then. 2. When teaching about poetry, let students find lyrics from popular songs that illustrate poetic devices, and talk about how these devices do or don’t work well to communicate the meanings and feelings the songwriters intended.



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year or two before they can conserve weight (the weight of a ball of clay does not change when you flatten it). Why can’t they use conservation consistently in every situation? Another problem with the idea of separate stages is that the processes may be more continuous than they seem. Changes may seem like discontinuous, qualitative leaps when we look across longer time periods. The 3-year-old persistently searching for a lost toy seems qualitatively different from the infant who doesn’t miss a toy or search when the toy rolls under a sofa. But if we watched a developing child very closely and observed moment-to-moment or hour-to-hour changes, we might see that indeed there are gradual, continuous changes. Rather than appearing all at once, the knowledge that a hidden toy still exists may be a product of the older child’s more fully developed memory: He knows that the toy is under the sofa because he remembers seeing it roll there, whereas the infant can’t hold on to that memory. The longer you require children to wait before searching—the longer you make them remember the object—the older they have to be to succeed (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). Change can be both continuous and discontinuous, as described by a branch of mathematics called catastrophe theory. Changes that appear suddenly, like the collapse of a bridge, are preceded by many slowly developing changes such as gradual, continuous corrosion of the metal structures. Similarly, gradually developing changes in children can lead to large changes in abilities that seem abrupt (Bjorklund, 2012; Dawson-Tunik, Fischer, & Stein, 2004; Siegler & Alibali, 2005). In fairness, we should note that in his later work, even Piaget put less emphasis on stages of cognitive development and gave more attention to how thinking changes through equilibration (P. H. Miller, 2016). UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES. It now appears that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of children, particularly younger ones. The problems he gave young children may have been too difficult and the directions too confusing. His subjects may have understood more than they could demonstrate when solving these problems. For example, work by Gelman and her colleagues (Gelman, 2000; Gelman & Cordes, 2001) shows that preschool children know much more about the concept of number than Piaget thought, even if they sometimes make mistakes or get confused. As long as preschoolers work with only 3 or 4 objects at a time, they can tell that the number remains the same, even if the objects are spread far apart or clumped close together. Mirjam Ebersbach (2009) demonstrated that most of the German kindergartners in her study considered all three dimensions—width, height, and length—when they estimated the volume of a wooden block (actually, how many small cubes it would take to make bigger blocks of different sizes). In other words, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than Piaget suggested. Some basic understandings or core knowledge, such as the permanence of objects or the sense of number, may be part of our evolutionary equipment, ready for use in our cognitive development (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Woodward & Needham, 2009). Finally, Piaget argued that the development of cognitive operations such as conservation or abstract thinking cannot be accelerated. He believed that children had to be developmentally ready to learn. Quite a bit of research, however, has shown that with effective instruction, children can learn to perform cognitive operations such as conservation. They do not have to naturally discover these ways of thinking on their own. Knowledge and experience in a situation affect the kind of thinking that students can do (Brainerd, 2003). COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURE. One final criticism of Piaget’s theory is that it overlooks the important effects of the child’s cultural and social group. Research across different cultures has generally confirmed that although Piaget was accurate about the sequence of the stages in children’s thinking, the age ranges for the stages vary. Western children typically move to the next stage about 2 to 3 years earlier than children in non-Western societies. But careful research has shown that these differences across cultures depend on the subject or domain tested and whether the culture values and teaches knowledge in that domain. For example, children in Brazil who sell candy in the streets instead of attending school appear to fail a certain kind of Piagetian task—class inclusion



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(Are there more daisies, more tulips, or more flowers in the picture?). But when the tasks are phrased within concepts they understand—selling candy—then these children perform better than Brazilian children the same age who attend school (Saxe, 1999). When a culture or context emphasizes a cognitive ability, children growing up in that culture tend to acquire that ability sooner. In a study that compared Chinese first-, third-, and fifthgrade students to American students in the same grades, the Chinese students mastered a Piagetian task that involved distance, time, and speed relationships about 2 years ahead of American students, most likely because the Chinese education system puts more emphasis on math and science in the early grades (Zhou, Peverly, Beohm, & Chongde, 2001). Even concrete operations such as classification may develop differently in different cultures. For example, when individuals from the Kpelle people of Africa were asked to sort 20 objects, they created groups that made sense to them—a hoe with a potato, a knife with an orange. The experimenter could not get the Kpelle to change their categories; they said this way of sorting is how a wise man would do it. Finally, the experimenter asked in desperation, “Well, how would a fool do it?” The subjects promptly created the four neat classification piles the experimenter had expected—food, tools, and so on (Rogoff & Morelli, 1989).



Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development



Executive functioning All those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions, including focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information. Neo-Piagetian theories More recent theories that integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of knowledge.



As you will see in Chapter 8, there are explanations for why children have trouble with conservation and other Piagetian tasks. These explanations focus on the development of information processing skills, such as attention, memory capacity, and learning strategies. As children mature and their brains develop, they are better able to focus their attention, process information more quickly, hold more information in memory, and use thinking strategies more easily and flexibly (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Siegler, 2000, 2004). One critical development is improvement in executive functioning. Executive functioning involves all those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions. Executive functioning skills include focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information (Best & Miller, 2010; Raj & Bell, 2010). As children develop more sophisticated and effective executive functioning skills, they are active in advancing their own development; they are constructing, organizing, and improving their own knowledge and strategies (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). For example, one classic Piagetian task is to show children 10 daisies and 2 roses, then ask if there are more daisies or more flowers. Young children see more daisies and jump to the answer, “daisies.” As they mature, children are better at resisting (inhibiting) that first response based on appearances and can answer based on the fact that both daisies and roses are flowers. But even adults have to take a fraction of a second to resist the obvious, so inhibiting impulsive responses is important for developing complex knowledge throughout life (Borst, Poirel, Pineau, Cassotti, & Houdé, 2013). Some developmental psychologists have formulated neo-Piagetian theories that retain Piaget’s insights about children’s construction of knowledge and the general trends in children’s thinking but add findings from information processing theories about the role of attention, memory, and strategies (Croker, 2012). Perhaps the bestknown neo-Piagetian theory was developed by Robbie Case (1992, 1998). He devised an explanation of cognitive development suggesting that children develop in stages within specific domains such as numerical concepts, spatial concepts, social tasks, storytelling, reasoning about physical objects, and motor development. As children practice using the schemes in a particular domain (e.g., using counting schemes in the number concept area), accomplishing the schemes requires less attention and working memory space. The schemes become more automatic because the child does not have to “think so hard.” This frees up mental resources and memory to do more, so the child can combine simple schemes into more complex ones and invent new schemes when needed (assimilation and accommodation in action). Kurt Fischer (2009) connected cognitive development in different domains to research on the brain. Even though children may follow different pathways as they



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master skills in speaking, reading, and mathematics, their growth patterns show a similar series of spurts and they go through predictable levels of development. When learning a new skill, children move through three tiers—from actions to representations to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern is moving from accomplishing a single action to mapping or coordinating two actions together, such as coordinating addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems of understanding. At the level of abstractions, children finally move to constructing explanatory principles. This may remind you of sensorimotor, concrete operations, and formal operations in Piaget’s theory. For each skill level, the brain reorganizes itself, too. In this process, skills develop sooner at each level with the chance to practice and quality support. Support and practice are keys in another explanation of cognitive development we will discuss next—Vygotsky’s theory. MyLab Education Self-Check 2.3



VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Psychologists today recognize that culture shapes cognitive development by determining what and how the child will learn about the world—the content and processes of thinking. For example, cultures that prize cooperation and sharing teach these abilities early, whereas cultures that encourage competition nurture competitive skills in their children. The stages observed by Piaget are not necessarily “natural” for all children because to some extent they reflect the expectations and activities of Western cultures, as the Kpelle people described earlier have taught us (Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; Rogoff, 2003). A major spokesperson for this sociocultural theory (also called sociohistoric) was a Russian Jewish psychologist who was born the same year as Piaget—1896. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was only 37 when he died of tuberculosis, but during his brief life he produced over 100 books and articles. Some of the translations are now available (e.g., Vygotsky, 1978, 1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1993, 1997). Vygotsky began studying learning and development to improve his own teaching. He went on to write about language and thought, the psychology of art, learning and development, and educating students with special needs. His work was banned in Russia for many years because he referenced Western psychologists. But in the past 50 plus years, with the rediscovery of his writings, Vygotsky’s ideas have become major influences in psychology and education and have provided alternatives to many of Piaget’s theories (Gredler, 2009a, 2009b, 2012; Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; Moll, 2014; Van Der Veer, 2007; Wink & Putney, 2002). Vygotsky believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and that they cannot be understood apart from these settings. One of his key ideas was that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others. These social interactions are more than simple influences on cognitive development—they actually create our cognitive structures and thinking processes (Palincsar, 1998). In fact, “Vygotsky conceptualized development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes” ( John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192). We will examine three themes in Vygotsky’s writings that explain how social processes form learning and thinking: the social sources of individual thinking; the role of cultural tools in learning and development, especially the tool of language; and the zone of proximal development (Driscoll, 2005; Gredler, 2012; P. H. Miller, 2016).



The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Vygotsky assumed that Every function in a child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and later on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57)



Sociocultural theory Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions.



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In other words, higher mental processes, such as directing your own attention and thinking through problems, first are co-constructed during shared activities between the child and another person. Then these co-constructed processes are internalized by the child and become part of that child’s cognitive development (Gredler, 2009a, 2009b; Mercer, 2013). For example, children first use language in activities with others to try to regulate their behavior (“No nap!” or “I wanna cookie.”). Later, however, the child can regulate her own behavior using private speech (“careful—don’t spill”), as you will see in a later section. So, for Vygotsky, social interaction was more than influence; it was the origin of higher mental processes such as problem solving. Consider this example: A six-year-old has lost a toy and asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy; the child says “I can’t remember.” He asks a series of questions—did you have it in your room? Outside? Next door? To each question, the child answers, “no.” When he says “in the car?” she says “I think so” and goes to retrieve the toy. (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 14)



Co-constructed process A social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants. Cultural tools The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge.



Who remembered? The answer is really neither the father nor the daughter, but the two together. The remembering and problem solving were co-constructed—between people—in the interaction. But the child (and the father) may have internalized strategies to use the next time something is lost. At some point, the child will be able to function independently to solve this kind of problem. So, like the strategy for finding the toy, higher functions appear first between a child and a “teacher” before they exist within the individual child (Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; P. H. Miller, 2016). Here is another example of the social sources of individual thinking. Richard Anderson and his colleagues (2001) studied how fourth graders in small-group classroom discussions appropriate (take for themselves and use) argument stratagems that occur in the discussions. An argument stratagem is a particular form such as “I think [POSITION] because [REASON],” where the student fills in the position and the reason. For example, a student might say, “I think that the wolves should be left alone because they are not hurting anyone.” Another strategy form is “If [ACTION], then [BAD CONSEQUENCE],” as in “If they don’t trap the wolves, then the wolves will eat the cows.” Other forms manage participation, for example, “What do you think [NAME]?” or “Let [NAME] talk.” Anderson’s research identified 13 forms of talk and argument that helped to manage the discussion, get everyone to participate, present and defend positions, and handle confusion. The use of these different forms of talking and thinking snowballed: Once a useful argument was employed by one student, it spread to other students, and the argument stratagem form appeared more and more in the discussions. Open discussions—students asking and answering each other’s questions—were better than teacher-dominated discussion for the development of these argument forms. Over time, these ways of presenting, attacking, and defending positions could be internalized as mental reasoning and decision making for the individual students. Both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cognitive development, but Piaget saw a different role for interaction. He believed that interaction encouraged development by creating disequilibrium—that is, cognitive conflict motivated change. Thus, Piaget believed that the most helpful interactions were those between peers, because peers are on an equal basis and can challenge each other’s thinking. Vygotsky, on the other hand, suggested that children’s cognitive development is fostered by interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking—people such as parents and teachers. Of course, students can learn from both adults and peers, and today, computers can play a role in supporting communication across distances or in different languages.



Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including technical tools (e.g., printing plows, rulers, abacuses, graph paper—today, we would add mobile devices, ers, the Internet, real-time translators for mobile devices and chats, search digital organizers and calendars, assistive technologies for students with



presses, computengines, learning



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challenges, etc.) and psychological tools (signs and symbol systems such as numbers and mathematical systems, Braille and sign language, maps, works of art, codes, and language) play very important roles in cognitive development. For example, as long as the culture provides only Roman numerals for representing quantity, certain ways of thinking mathematically—from long division to calculus—are difficult or impossible. But if a number system has a zero, fractions, positive and negative values, and an infinite quantity of numbers, then much more is possible. The number system is a psychological tool that supports learning and cognitive development—it changes the thinking process. This symbol system is passed from adult to child and from child to child through formal and informal interactions and teachings. TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE. The use of technical tools such as calculators and spell checkers has been somewhat controversial in education. Technology is increasingly “checking up” on us. I rely on the spell checker in my word processing program to protect me from embarrassment. But I also read student papers with spelling replacements that must have come from decisions made by the word processing program—without a “sense check” by the writer. Is student learning harmed or helped by these technology supports? Just because students learned mathematics in the past with paper-and-pencil procedures does not mean that this is the best way to learn. In fact, the research on calculators has found that rather than eroding basic skills, calculator use has positive effects on students’ problem-solving skills and attitudes toward math (Ellington, 2003, 2013; Waits & Demana, 2000). There is a catch, however. On simple math problems it probably is better to attempt recalling or calculating the answer first before turning to a calculator. Math fact learning and fluency in arithmetic are supported when students self-generate answers before resorting to calculators (Pyke & LeFevre, 2011). PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS. Vygotsky believed that all higher-order mental processes such as reasoning and problem solving are mediated by (accomplished through and with the help of) psychological tools. These tools allow children to transform their thinking by enabling them to gain greater and greater mastery of their own cognitive processes; they advance their own development as they use the tools. Vygotsky believed the essence of cognitive development is mastering the use of psychological tools such as language to accomplish the kind of advanced thinking and problem solving that could not be accomplished without those tools (Gredler, 2012; Karpov & Haywood, 1998). The process is something like this: As children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts— drawing maps, for example, as a way to represent spaces and places. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating or “taking for themselves” the ways of acting and thinking provided by both their culture and other members of their group (Wertsch, 2007). In this exchange of signs and symbols and explanations, children begin to develop a “cultural tool kit” to make sense of and learn about their world (Wertsch, 1991). The kit is filled with technical tools such as graphing calculators or rulers directed toward the external world and psychological tools for acting mentally such as concepts, problem-solving strategies, and (as we saw earlier) argument strategems. Children do not just receive the tools, however. They transform the tools as they construct their own representations, symbols, patterns, and understandings. These understandings gradually change as the children continue to engage in social activities and try to make sense of their world ( John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996; Wertsch, 1991). In Vygotsky’s theory, language is the most important symbol system in the tool kit, and it is the one that helps to fill the kit with other tools.



The Role of Language and Private Speech Language is critical for cognitive development because it provides a way to express ideas and ask questions, the categories and concepts for thinking, and the links between the past and the future. Language frees us from the immediate situation so we can think



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about what was and what might be (Driscoll, 2005; Mercer, 2013). Vygotsky thought that: the specifically human capacity for language enables children to provide for auxiliary tools in the solution of difficult tasks, to overcome impulsive action, to plan a solution to a problem prior to its execution, and to master their own behavior. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 28)



Vygotsky placed more emphasis than Piaget on the role of learning and language in cognitive development. And Vygotsky believed that language in the form of private speech (talking to yourself) guides cognitive development.



Collective monologue Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate. Private speech Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech.



PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED. If you have spent much time around young children, you know that they often talk to themselves as they play. This can happen when the child is alone or, even more often, in a group of children—each child talks enthusiastically, without any real interaction or conversation. Piaget called this the collective monologue, and he labeled all of the children’s self-directed talk “egocentric speech.” He assumed that this egocentric speech is another indication that young children can’t see the world through the eyes of others, so they chat away without taking into account the needs or interests of their listeners. As they mature, and especially as they have disagreements with peers, Piaget believed, children develop socialized speech. They learn to listen and exchange (or argue) ideas. Vygotsky had very different ideas about young children’s private speech. He suggested that rather than being a sign of cognitive immaturity, these mutterings play an important role in cognitive development because they move children in stages toward self-regulation: the ability to plan, monitor, and guide your own thinking and problem solving. First the child’s behavior is regulated by others using language and other signs such as gestures. For example, the parent says, “No!” when the child reaches toward a candle flame. Next, the child learns to regulate the behavior of others using the same language tools. The child says “No!” to another child who is trying to take away a toy, often even imitating the parent’s voice tone. The child also begins to use private speech to regulate her own behavior, saying “no” quietly to herself as she is tempted to touch the flame. Finally, the child learns to regulate her own behavior by using silent inner speech (Karpov & Haywood, 1998). For example, in any preschool room you might hear 4- or 5-year-olds saying, “No, it won’t fit. Try it here. Turn. Turn. Maybe this one!” while they do puzzles. Around the age of 7, children’s self-directed speech goes underground, changing from spoken to whispered speech and then to silent lip movements. Finally, the children just “think” the guiding words. The use of private speech peaks at around age 9 and then decreases, although one study found that some students from ages 11 to 17 still spontaneously muttered to themselves during problem solving (McCafferty, 2004; Winsler, Carlton, & Barry, 2000; Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). Vygotsky called this inner speech “an internal plane of verbal thinking” (Vygotsky, 1934/1987c, p. 279)—a critical accomplishment on the road to higher-order thinking. This series of steps from spoken words to silent inner speech is another example of how higher mental functions first appear between people as they communicate and regulate each other’s behavior, and then emerge again within the individual as cognitive processes. Through this fundamental process, the child is using language to accomplish important cognitive activities such as directing attention, solving problems, planning, forming concepts, and gaining self-control. Research supports Vygotsky’s ideas (Berk & Spuhl, 1995; Emerson & Miyake, 2003). Children and adults tend to use more private speech when they are confused, having difficulties, or making mistakes (R. M. Duncan & Cheyne, 1999). Have you ever thought to yourself something like, “Let’s see, the first step is” or “Where did I use my glasses last?” or “If I read to the end of this page, then I can . . .”? You were using inner speech to remind, cue, encourage, or guide yourself. This internal verbal thinking is not stable until about age 12, so children in elementary school may need to continue talking through problems and explaining their



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reasoning in order to develop their abilities to control their thinking (Gredler, 2012). Because private speech helps students regulate their thinking, it makes sense to allow, and even encourage, students to use private speech in school. Teachers’ insisting on total silence when young students are working on difficult problems may make the work even harder for them. Take note when muttering increases in your class—this could be a sign that students need help. Table 2.4 contrasts Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of private speech. We should note that Piaget accepted many of Vygotsky’s arguments and came to agree that language could be used in both egocentric and problem-solving ways (Piaget, 1962).



The Zone of Proximal Development According to Vygotsky, at any given point in development, a child is on the verge of solving certain problems—“processes that have not matured at the time but are in a period of maturation” (Vygotsky, 1930–1931/1998, p. 201). The child just needs some structure, demonstrations, clues, reminders, help with remembering details or steps, encouragement to keep trying, and so on. Some problems, of course, are beyond the child’s capabilities, even if every step is explained clearly. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area between the child’s current performance (the problems the child can solve independently without any support) and the level of performance that the child could achieve with adult guidance or by working with “a more fully developed child” (p. 202). It is a dynamic and changing space as student and teacher interact and understandings are exchanged. This is the area where instruction can succeed. Kathleen Berger (2015; 2016) called this area the “magic middle”—somewhere between what the student already knows and what the student isn’t ready to understand or learn yet. PRIVATE SPEECH AND THE ZONE. We can see how Vygotsky’s beliefs about the role of private speech in cognitive development fit with the notion of the ZPD. Often, an adult uses verbal prompts and structuring to help a child solve a problem or accomplish a task. We will see later that this type of support has been called scaffolding. This support can be gradually reduced as the child takes over the guidance, perhaps first by giving the prompts as private speech and finally as inner speech. As an example, think of the young girl described earlier who had lost her toy. Let’s move forward several years



MyLab Education



Video Example 2.3 In this video, one teacher guides young children in putting together puzzles and another guides a boy to create a pattern by organizing toy trucks based on color. Is the process of organizing toys in a pattern based on color a skill that is in the boy’s zone of proximal development, or is it still too advanced for a child at his developmental level?



Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support.



TABLE 2.4 • Differences Between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories of Egocentric, or Private, Speech PIAGET



VYGOTSKY



Meaning and Purpose



Represents an inability to take the perspective of another and engage in reciprocal communication.



Represents externalized thought; its function is to communicate with the self for the purpose of self-guidance and self-direction.



Course of Development



Declines with age.



Increases at younger ages and then gradually loses its audible quality to become internal verbal thought.



Relationship to Social Speech



Negative; the least socially and cognitively mature children use more egocentric speech.



Positive; private speech develops out of social interaction with others.



Relationship to Environmental Contexts



No relationship



Increases with task difficulty. Private speech serves a helpful self-guiding function in situations where more cognitive effort is needed to reach a solution.



Source: From “Development of Private Speech among Low-Income Appalachian Children,” by L. E. Berk and R. A. Garvin, 1984, Developmental Psychology, 20, p. 272. Copyright © 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.



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in her life and listen to her thoughts as an older student when she realizes that a schoolbook is missing. They might sound something like this: “Where’s my math book? Used it in class. Thought I put it in my book bag after class. Dropped my bag on the bus. That dope Larry kicked my stuff, so maybe. . . .”



The girl can now systematically search for ideas about the lost book without help from anyone. THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT. Piaget defined development as the active construction of knowledge and learning as the passive formation of associations (Siegler, 2000). He was interested in knowledge construction and believed that cognitive development has to come before learning—the child had to be cognitively “ready” to learn. Students can memorize, for example, that Geneva is in Switzerland, but still insist that they cannot be Genevan and Swiss at the same time. True understanding will take place only when the child has developed the operation of class inclusion—that one category can be included within another. But as we saw earlier, research has not supported Piaget’s position on the need for cognitive development to precede learning (Brainerd, 2003). In contrast, Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process that does not have to wait for readiness. He saw learning as a tool in development; learning pulls development up to higher levels, and social interaction is a key in learning. In other words, what develops next is what is affected by learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2012; Gredler, 2012; Wink & Putney, 2002). This means that other people, including teachers, play a significant role in cognitive development. It does not mean that Vygotsky believed memorization is learning. When teachers try to directly communicate their understanding, the result can be a “meaningless acquisition of words” and “mere verbalization” (Vygotsky 1934/1987b, p. 356) that actually hides an understanding vacuum (Gredler, 2012). In Vygotsky’s words, the teacher “explains, informs, inquires, corrects, and forces the child to explain” (p. 216).



Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s theory added important considerations by highlighting the role of culture and social processes in cognitive development, but he may have gone too far. As you have seen in this chapter, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than either Piaget or Vygotsky suggested. Some basic understandings, such as the idea that adding increases quantity, may be part of our biological predispositions, ready for use to guide our cognitive development. Young children appear to figure out much about the world before they have the chance to learn from either their culture or their teachers (Schunk, 2016; Woodward & Needham, 2009). The major limitation of Vygotsky’s theory, however, is that it consists mostly of general ideas; Vygotsky died before he could expand and elaborate on his ideas and pursue his research. His students continued to investigate his ideas, but much of that work was suppressed by Stalin’s regime until the 1950s and 1960s (Gredler, 2005, 2009b; Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003). A final limitation might be that Vygotsky did not have time to detail the applications of his theories for teaching, even though he was very interested in instruction. As a result, most of the applications described today have been created by others—and we don’t even know if Vygotsky would agree with them. It is clear that some of his concepts, like ZPD, have been misrepresented at times (Gredler, 2012). MyLab Education Self-Check 2.4



IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET’S AND VYGOTSKY’S THEORIES FOR TEACHERS Piaget did not make specific educational recommendations, and Vygotsky did not have enough time to develop a complete set of applications. But we can glean some guidance from both men.



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Piaget: What Can We Learn? Piaget was more interested in understanding children’s thinking than in guiding teachers. He did express some general ideas about educational philosophy, however. He believed that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn, and that education should “form not furnish” the minds of students (Piaget, 1969, p. 70). Piaget has taught us that we can learn a great deal about how children think by listening carefully and by paying close attention to their ways of solving problems. If we understand children’s thinking, we will be better able to match teaching methods to children’s current knowledge and abilities; in other words, we will be better able to differentiate instruction. Even though Piaget did not design programs of education based on his ideas, his influence on current educational practice is huge (Hindi & Perry, 2007). For example, the National Association for the Education of Young Children has guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) that incorporate Piaget’s findings (Bredekamp, 2017; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING. The students in any class will vary greatly in both their level of cognitive development and their academic knowledge. As a teacher, how can you determine whether students are having trouble because they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because they simply have not learned the basic facts? To do this, Case (1985) suggests you observe your students carefully as they try to solve the problems you have presented. What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation? Are they fooled by appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or by guessing and forgetting what they have already tried? Ask your students how they tried to solve the problem. Listen to their strategies. What kind of thinking is behind repeated mistakes or problems? Students are the best sources of information about their own thinking (Confrey, 1990). An important implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is what J. Hunt years ago (1961) called, “the problem of the match.” Students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be kept “just right” to encourage growth. Setting up situations that lead to unexpected results can help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. When students experience some conflict between what they think should happen (a piece of wood should sink because it is big) and what actually happens (it floats!), they may rethink the situation, and new knowledge may develop. Many materials and lessons can be understood at several levels and can be “just right” for a range of cognitive abilities. Classics such as Alice in Wonderland, myths, and fairy tales can be enjoyed at both concrete and symbolic levels. It is also possible for a group of students to be introduced to a topic together, and then work individually on follow-up activities matched to their learning needs. Using multilevel lessons is called differentiated instruction (Gipe, 2014; Tomlinson, 2005b). We will look at this approach more closely in Chapter 14. ACTIVITY AND CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGE. Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding; learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, you will also want to see that students are actively engaged in the learning process. In Piaget’s words: Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an object, to know an event, is not simply to look at it and make a mental copy or image of it. To know an object is to act on it. To know is to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed. (Piaget, 1964, p. 8)



For example, research in teaching mathematics indicates that students from kindergarten to college remember basic facts better when they have learned using manipulative materials such as counting sticks, pattern blocks, fraction strips, or blocks, versus using abstract symbols only (Carbonneau, Marley, & Selig, 2013). Beware, however, of assuming that you can just give students manipulatives to work with and they will learn



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Implications of Piaget’s Theory (I, A2) The music, physical education, and art teachers in a rural, pre-K-to-8 school district work with students who characterize several of Piaget’s stages. How should these three teachers adjust their teaching from level to level over the course of a week?



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automatically. In one study, middle school students learned more science when teachers accompanied manipulatives with strong guidance about how to use them. Research in other subject areas has found similar results (Hushman & Marley, 2015; Marley & Carbonneau, 2014). This active experience, even at the earliest school levels, should not be limited to the physical manipulation of objects. It should also include mental manipulation of ideas that arise out of class projects or experiments (Gredler, 2005, 2012). For example, after a social studies lesson on different jobs, a primary-grade teacher might show students a picture of a woman and ask, “What could this person be?” After answers such as “teacher,” “doctor,” “secretary,” “lawyer,” “saleswoman,” and so on, the teacher could suggest, “How about a daughter?” Answers such as “sister,” “mother,” “aunt,” and “granddaughter” may follow. This should help the children switch dimensions in their classification and center on another aspect of the situation. Next, the teacher might suggest “American,” “jogger,” or “blonde.” With older children, hierarchical classification might be involved: It is a picture of a woman, who is a human being; a human being is a primate, which is a mammal, which is an animal, which is a life form. All students need to interact with teachers and peers in order to test their thinking, to be challenged, to receive feedback, and to watch how others work out problems. Disequilibrium is often set in motion quite naturally when the teacher or another student suggests a new way of thinking about something. As a general rule, students should act on, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about (to the teacher and each other) what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking strategies. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory (I, A2) Make a list of scaffolding techniques that would be appropriate with different instructional levels and content areas. Think of scaffolding techniques that others have used when you learned things outside of school (e.g., sports, hobbies).



Scaffolding Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more.



Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that the main goal of education was the development of higher mental functions, not simply filling students’ memories with facts. So Vygotsky probably would oppose educational curricula that are an inch deep and a mile wide or seem like “trivial pursuit.” As an example of this trivial pursuit curriculum, Margaret Gredler (2009a) described a set of materials for a 9-week science unit that had 61 glossary terms such as aqueous solution, hydrogen bonding, and fractional crystallization— many terms described with only one or two sentences. There are at least three ways that higher mental functions can be developed through cultural tools and passed from one individual to another: imitative learning (one person tries to imitate the other), instructed learning (learners internalize the instructions of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate), and collaborative learning (a group of peers strives to understand each other and learning occurs in the process) (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993). Vygotsky was most concerned with the second type, instructed learning through direct teaching or by structuring experiences that encourage another’s learning, but his theory supports learning through imitation or collaboration as well. Thus, Vygotsky’s ideas are relevant for educators who teach directly, intentionally use modeling to teach, or create collaborative learning environments (Das, 1995; P. H. Miller, 2016; Wink & Putney, 2002). That pretty much includes all of us. THE ROLE OF ADULTS AND PEERS. Vygotsky believed the child is not alone in the world “discovering” the cognitive operations of conservation or classification. This discovery is assisted or mediated by family members, teachers, peers, and even software tools (Puntambekar & Hubscher, 2005). Most of this guidance is communicated through language, at least in Western cultures. In some cultures, observing a skilled performance, not talking about it, guides the child’s learning (Rogoff, 1990). Some people have called this adult assistance scaffolding, taken from Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976). The idea is that children use the help for support while they build a firm understanding that will eventually allow them to solve the problems on their own. Actually, when Wood and his colleagues introduced the term scaffolding, they were talking about how teachers set up or structure learning environments, but Vygotsky’s theory implies more dynamic exchanges that allow the teacher to support students in the parts of the task they cannot do alone—the interactions of assisted learning, as you will see next (Schunk, 2016).



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TABLE 2.5 • Strategies to Provide Scaffolding and Assisted Learning • • • • • • • • •



Model the thought process for the students: Think out loud as you solve the problem or outline an essay, for example. Provide organizers or starters such as who, what, why, how, what next? Do part of the problem. Give hints and cues. Encourage students to set short-term goals and take small steps. Connect new learning to students’ interests or prior learning. Use graphic organizers: timelines, charts, tables, categories, checklists, and graphs. Simplify the task, clarify the purpose, and give clear directions. Teach key vocabulary and provide examples.



ASSISTED LEARNING. Vygotsky’s theory suggests that teachers need to do more than just arrange the environment so that students can discover on their own. Children cannot and should not be expected to reinvent or rediscover knowledge already available in their cultures. Rather, they should be guided and assisted in their learning (Karpov & Haywood, 1998). Assisted learning, or guided participation, requires first learning from the student what is needed; then giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts; and gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to students’ current levels; demonstrating skills or thought processes; walking students through the steps of a complicated problem; doing part of the problem (e.g., in algebra, the students set up the equation and the teacher does the calculations or vice versa); giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions; or asking questions that refocus students’ attention (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992). Cognitive apprenticeships (Chapter 10) are examples. Look at Table 2.5 for examples of strategies that can be used in any lesson.



MyLab Education



Video Example 2.4 The children in this class are learning about earthworms. How does the teacher guide the students to encourage them to make their own discoveries?



An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind Deborah Leong and Elena Bodrova (2012) worked for years to develop a curriculum for preschool through second-grade children based on Vygotsky’s theory. In Russia, Dr. Bodrova had studied with students and colleagues of Vygotsky and wanted to bring his ideas to teachers. The result is the Tools of the Mind project that includes curriculum ideas for preschool, kindergarten, and special needs students (see toolsofthemind. org). One key idea taken from Vygotsky is that as children develop mental tools such as strategies for focusing attention, they cease being prisoners of their environment— having their attention “grabbed away” by any new sight or sound. They learn to control their attention. A second key idea is that play, particularly dramatic pretend play, is the most important activity supporting the development of young children. Through dramatic play children learn to focus attention, control impulses, follow rules, use symbols, regulate their own behaviors, and cooperate with others. So a key element of the Tools of the Mind curriculum for young children is play plans, created by the students themselves. Children draw a picture of how they plan to play that day, and then describe it to the teacher, who may make notes on the page and thus model literacy activities. Plans become more complex and detailed as children become better planners. Figure 2.5 on the next page shows Brandon’s simple play plan at the beginning of age 3 and then another plan at the end of age 4. His later plan shows better fine motor control, more mature drawing, increased imagination, and greater use of language.



Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” Both Piaget and Vygotsky probably would agree that students should be taught in the magic middle (Berger, 2015, 2016), or the place of the “match” ( J. Hunt, 1961)—where they are neither bored nor frustrated. Students should be put in situations where they have to reach to understand but where support from other students, learning materials,



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Distinctions Between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories (I, A2) Consider how two teachers— one based in Vygotskian theory and one based in Piagetian theory—might differ in their concepts of learning and teaching and the instructional techniques that they might prefer.



Assisted learning Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing as students gain independence.



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FIGURE 2 .5 BRANDON’S PLAY PLANS At the beginning of age 3, Brandon’s play plans show that he wants to go to the art center. By the end of age 4, Brandon plans to pretend to be a king. He is beginning to use sounds in writing.



End of age 4



Beginning of age 3 Source: “Brandon’s Plan, Beginning Age 3 Preschool”. Tools of the Mind. http://www.toolsofthemind.org/curriculum/preschool. Used by permission.



or the teacher is also available. Sometimes the best teacher is another student who has just figured out how to solve the problem, because this student is probably operating in the learner’s ZPD. Having a student work with someone who is just a bit better at the activity would be a good idea because both students benefit in the exchange of explanations, elaborations, and questions. In addition, students should be encouraged to use language to organize their thinking and to talk about what they are trying to accomplish, as in Figure 2.5. Dialogue and discussion are important avenues to learning (Karpov & Bransford, 1995; Kozulin & Presseisen, 1995; Wink & Putney, 2002). The Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching give more ideas for applying Vygotsky’s insights.



Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers In spite of cross-cultural differences in cognitive development and the different theories of development, there are some convergences. Piaget, Vygotsky, and more recent researchers studying cognitive development and the brain probably would agree with the following big ideas: 1. Cognitive development requires both physical and social stimulation. 2. To develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active. They need to experiment with, talk about, describe, reflect on, write about, and solve problems. But they also benefit from teaching, guidance, questions, explanations, demonstrations, and challenges to their thinking. 3. Teaching students what they already know is boring. Trying to teach what the student isn’t ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective. 4. Challenge with support will keep students engaged but not fearful.



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GUIDELINES Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Tailor scaffolding to the needs of students. Examples 1. When students are beginning new tasks or topics, provide models, prompts, sentence starters, coaching, and feedback. As the students grow in competence, give less support and more opportunities for independent work. 2. Give students choices about the level of difficulty or degree of independence in projects; encourage them to challenge themselves but to seek help when they are really stuck.



Build on the students’ cultural funds of knowledge (N. Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Moll et al., 1992). Examples 1. Identify family knowledge by having students interview each other’s families about their work and home knowledge (agriculture, economics, manufacturing, household management, medicine and illness, religion, child care, cooking, etc.). 2. Tie assignments to these funds of knowledge, and use community experts to evaluate assignments.



Make sure students have access to powerful tools that support thinking. Examples 1. Teach students to use learning and organizational strategies, research tools, language tools (wikis, dictionaries, or computer searches), spreadsheets, and word-processing programs. 2. Model the use of tools; show students how you use an appointment book or calendar app on your smartphone to make plans and manage time, for example.



Capitalize on dialogue and group learning. Examples 1. Experiment with peer tutoring; teach students how to ask good questions and give helpful explanations. 2. Experiment with cooperative learning strategies described in Chapter 10. Source: For more information about Vygotsky and his theories, see tip. psychology.org/vygotsky.html



MyLab Education Self-Check 2.5



. SUMMARY A Definition of Development (pp. 32–34) What are the different kinds of development? Human development can be divided into physical development (changes in the body), personal development (changes in an individual’s personality), social development (changes in the way an individual relates to others), and cognitive development (changes in thinking). What are three questions about development and three general principles? For decades, psychologists and the public have debated whether development is shaped more by nature or nurture, whether change is a continuous process or involves qualitative differences or stages, and whether there are critical times for the development of certain abilities. We know today that these simple either/or distinctions cannot capture the complexities of human development where coactions and interactions are the rule. Theorists generally agree that people develop at different rates, that development is an orderly process, and that development takes place gradually.



The Brain and Cognitive Development (pp. 34–45) What part of the brain is associated with higher mental functions?  The cortex is a crumpled sheet of neurons that serves three major functions: receiving signals from sense organs (such as visual or auditory signals), controlling voluntary movement,



and forming connections. The part of the cortex that controls physical motor movement develops or matures first, then the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal lobe, which controls higher-order thinking processes. What is lateralization, and why is it important?  Lateralization is the specialization of the two sides, or hemispheres, of the brain. For most people, the left hemisphere is the major factor in language, and the right hemisphere is prominent in spatial and visual processing. Even though certain functions are associated with particular parts of the brain, the various parts and systems of the brain work together to learn and perform complex activities such as reading and constructing understanding. What are some implications for teachers?  Recent advances in both teaching methods and discoveries in the neurosciences provide exciting information about brain activity during learning and brain activity differences among people with varying abilities and challenges and from different cultures. These findings have some basic implications for teaching, but many of the strategies offered by “brain-based” advocates are simply good teaching. Perhaps we now know more about why these strategies work.



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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (pp. 45–57)



Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective (pp. 57–62)



What are the main influences on cognitive development?  Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is based on the assumption that people try to make sense of the world and actively create knowledge through direct experiences with objects, people, and ideas. Maturation, activity, social transmission, and the need for equilibrium all influence cognitive development. In response to these influences, thinking processes and knowledge develop through changes in the organization of thought (the development of schemes) and through adaptation—including the complementary processes of assimilation (incorporating into existing schemes) and accommodation (changing existing schemes).



According to Vygotsky, what are three main influences on cognitive development? Vygotsky believed that human activities must be understood in their cultural settings. He believed that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others; that the tools of the culture, especially the tool of language, are key factors in development; and that the ZPD is where learning and development are possible.



What is a scheme? Schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or thought that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our world. Schemes may be very small and specific (grasping, recognizing a square), or they may be larger and more general (using a map in a new city). People adapt to their environment as they increase and organize their schemes. As children move from sensorimotor to formal-operational thinking, what are the major changes? Piaget believed that young people pass through four stages as they develop: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational, and formaloperational. In the sensorimotor stage, infants explore the world through their senses and motor activity, and they work toward mastering object permanence and performing goaldirected activities. In the preoperational stage, symbolic thinking and logical operations begin. Children in the stage of concrete operations can think logically about tangible situations and can demonstrate conservation, reversibility, classification, and seriation. The ability to perform hypothetico-deductive reasoning, coordinate a set of variables, and imagine other worlds marks the stage of formal operations. How do neo-Piagetian and information processing views explain changes in children’s thinking over time?  Information processing theories focus on attention, memory capacity, learning strategies, and other processing skills to explain how children develop rules and strategies for making sense of the world and solving problems. Neo-Piagetian approaches also look at attention, memory, and strategies and at how thinking develops in different domains such as numbers or spatial relations. Research in neuroscience suggests that when learning a new skill, children move through three tiers—from actions to representations to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern is moving from accomplishing a single action to mapping or coordinating two actions together such as coordinating addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems of understanding. What are some limitations of Piaget’s theory? Piaget’s theory has been criticized because children and adults often think in ways that are inconsistent with the notion of invariant stages. It also appears that Piaget underestimated children’s cognitive abilities; he insisted that children could not be taught the operations of the next stage but had to develop them on their own. Alternative explanations place greater emphasis on students’ developing information processing skills and ways teachers can enhance their development. Piaget’s work is also criticized for overlooking cultural factors in child development.



What are psychological tools and why are they important?  Psychological tools are signs and symbol systems such as numbers and mathematical systems, codes, and language that support learning and cognitive development. They change the thinking process by enabling and shaping thinking. Many of these tools are passed from adult to child through formal and informal interactions and teachings. Explain how interpsychological development becomes intrapsychological development.  Higher mental processes appear first between people as they are co-constructed during shared activities. As children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating, or “taking for themselves,” the ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture and by the more capable members of their group. What are the differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s perspectives on private speech and its role in development?  Vygotsky’s sociocultural view asserts that cognitive development hinges on social interaction and the development of language. As an example, Vygotsky describes the role of children’s self-directed talk in guiding and monitoring thinking and problem solving, whereas Piaget suggests that private speech is an indication of the child’s egocentrism. Vygotsky, more than Piaget, emphasized the significant role played by adults and more-able peers in children’s learning. This adult assistance provides early support while students build the understanding necessary to solve problems on their own later. What is a student’s ZPD?  At any given point in development, there are certain problems that a child is on the verge of being able to solve and others that are beyond the child’s capabilities. The ZPD (zone of proximal development) is the place where the child cannot solve a problem alone but can succeed under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more advanced peer. What are two criticisms or limitations of Vygotsky’s theory?  Vygotsky may have overemphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development; children figure out quite a bit on their own. Also, because he died so young, Vygotsky was not able to develop and elaborate on his ideas. His students and others since have taken up that work.



Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers (pp. 62–67) What is the “problem of the match” described by Hunt? The “problem of the match” is that students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they



C O GN I T I V E D EVELOP MEN T cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be carefully balanced to encourage growth. Situations that lead to unexpected results can help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. What is active learning? Why is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development consistent with active learning? Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding; learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, students must be able to incorporate information into their own schemes. To do this, they must act on the information in some way. This active experience, even at the earliest school levels, should include both physical manipulation of objects and mental manipulation of ideas. As a general rule, students should act, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about what they have experienced.



Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking abilities. What is assisted learning, and what role does scaffolding play?  Assisted learning, or guided participation in the classroom, requires scaffolding—understanding the students’ needs; giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts; and then gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to students’ current levels, demonstrating skills or thought processes, walking students through the steps of a complicated problem, doing part of the problem, giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions, or asking questions that refocus students’ attention.



. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Scheme, Assimilation, and Accommodation



Piagetian Concepts in a First Grade Lesson



Using Cultural Tools To Guide Learning



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 2.1



Application Exercise 2.2



Application Exercise 2.3



. KEY TERMS Accommodation (p. 47) Adaptation (p. 46) Adolescent egocentrism (p. 53) Assimilation (p. 47) Assisted learning (p. 65) Classification (p. 50) Coactions (p. 33) Co-constructed process (p. 58) Cognitive development (p. 33) Collective monologue (p. 60) Compensation (p. 50) Computerized axial tomography (CAT) (p. 34) Concrete operations (p. 50) Conservation (p. 49) Cultural tools (p. 58) Decentering (p. 49) Development (p. 32) Disequilibrium (p. 47) Egocentric (p. 49) Electroencephalograph (EEG) (p. 34)



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Equilibration (p. 47) Event-related potential (ERP) (p. 34) Executive functioning (p. 56) Formal operations (p. 52) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (p. 34) Glial cells (p. 38) Goal-directed actions (p. 48) Hypothetico-deductive reasoning (p. 53) Identity (p. 50) Lateralization (p. 38) Maturation (p. 33) Myelination (p. 38) Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) (p. 35) Neo-Piagetian theories (p. 56) Neurogenesis (p. 35) Neurons (p. 35) Object permanence (p. 48) Operations (p. 49) Organization (p. 46)



Personal development (p. 33) Physical development (p. 33) Plasticity (p. 35) Positron emission tomography (PET) (p. 34) Preoperational (p. 49) Private speech (p. 60) Reversibility (p. 50) Reversible thinking (p. 49) Scaffolding (p. 64) Schemes (p. 47) Semiotic function (p. 49) Sensitive periods (p. 33) Sensorimotor (p. 48) Seriation (p. 51) Social development (p. 33) Sociocultural theory (p. 57) Synapses (p. 35) Synaptic plasticity (p. 35) Zone of proximal development (ZPD) (p. 61)



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. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Mr. Winstel was worried about his former star student, Ramon. As the seventh-grade year progressed, Ramon was frequently being called into the principal’s office for skateboard stunts that broke school rules and bordered on dangerous. Recently, Ramon’s parents contacted Mr. Winstel to alert him to the fact that Ramon had been skipping school to hang out with some older boys in the neighborhood. Which of the following answers would typically best describe what is happening with Ramon? A. Ramon’s culture demands that boys of his age begin to engage in behaviors that reflect fearlessness. B. Ramon’s limbic system is maturing, but his prefrontal lobe has not yet caught up. C. Ramon is engaging in deviant behaviors as a cry for attention from his parents. D. Ramon is undergoing a period of synaptic pruning, which causes adolescents to engage in risk-taking behavior. 2. Miss McClintock discovered that five of the children in her class were developmentally advanced. All of the students’ language skills were exploding! Although many of the students still had trouble sharing, a few appeared to understand that by sharing, everyone could be happy. Finally, there was even one child who could solve conservation problems. According to Piagetian theory, in what stage are the students in Miss McClintock’s class? A. Formal operations B. Concrete operations C. Preoperational D. Sensorimotor 3. In introducing students to persuasive advertising methods, which of the following approaches would be most apt to lead to student retention? A. Determine what students already know about the topic, and connect new information to their prior knowledge. B. Have students initially watch several commercials and take notes.



C. Lecture students on the major persuasive techniques, and have a quiz to assess learning. D. Have students form groups to research persuasive techniques. 4. Research studies involving the brain and learning indicate that all but which one of the following statements is true? A. There is no such thing as “left-brain” and “right-brain” thinking. B. The production of new neurons continues into adulthood. C. Using different modalities for instruction and activities that draw on different senses may support learning. D. Pruning can damage heavily used cognitive pathways.



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case When planning for instruction, Mr. Gething remembered that students should be neither bored nor frustrated. Although this made sense to him, he was unsure how he would compensate for the diverse group of students he had in his second-period language arts class. Some students had difficulty with the English language, and other students planned to participate in the school’s annual Shakespearean play. He knew that by grouping students of mixed ability, he could occasionally draw on the talents of his knowledgeable students to assist the less-advanced students. He also understood that without guidelines, students might not accomplish anything. 5. Explain the theory of learning Mr. Gething is initially drawing on, and identify the individual credited with it. 6. What is the term for the assistance that the more knowledgeable class members may provide to the less-advanced students in order to help them succeed? List some strategies these students might use to assist their peers.



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Symbols and Cymbals Here is how several expert teachers said they would help their students understand abstract concepts. LINDA GLISSON AND SUE MIDDLETON • Fifth-Grade Team Teachers St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA



To begin the lesson, I would have the students use a dictionary to define the word symbolism (root word—symbol) to discover that it means “something that stands for or represents something else.” I would then give them a brief “across the curriculum” exercise in ways they incorporate symbols and symbolism into their thinking every day. Examples follow. Social studies, American history: The American flag is just a piece of cloth. Why then do we recite a pledge to it? Stand at attention when it passes in a parade? What does it stand for? English, literature— fables and fairy tales: What does the wolf usually represent (stand for)? The lion? The lamb? Art: What color stands for a glorious summer day? Evil? Goodness and purity? I would continue with math symbols, scientific symbols, and music symbols and lead the students toward contributing other examples such as symbols representing holidays. I would then tell them about their own examples of symbolism that I had recorded. The students’ participation in and enthusiasm for the exercises would serve to determine whether they were ready for the material. DR. NANCY SHEEHAN-MELZACK • Art and Music Teacher Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA



Even very young children can recognize symbols if the symbol is presented first and the explanation required second. A drawing of an octagon on a pole has always elicited the answer, “A stop sign,” whenever I have shown it. Children recognize symbols, but the teacher needs to work from their concrete knowledge to the more abstract concept, and there are a great many symbols in their daily life on which one can draw. Children as young as first-graders can recognize traffic sign shapes, letters



of the alphabet, and numbers, and further can recognize that they stand for directions, sounds, and how many. When they talk about these very common symbols, they can also realize they all use them for the same meaning. VALERIE A. CHILCOAT • Fifth/Sixth-Grade Advanced Academics Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD



Concrete examples of symbolism must come from the students’ own world. Street signs, especially those with pictures and not words, are a great example. These concrete symbols, however, are not exactly the same as symbolism used in poetry. The link has to be made from the concrete to the abstract. Silly poetry is one way to do this. It is motivating to the students to read or listen to, and it can provide many examples of one thing acting as another. This strategy can also be used in lower grades to simply expose children to poetry containing symbolism. KAREN BOYARSKY • Fifth-Grade Teacher Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ



You can tell a lot about students’ thinking simply by interpreting their reactions. Knowing how to interpret students’ reactions is just as important as any other assessment tool you might use. In this case, it is clear that the students are confused about the concept of symbolism. This is a difficult concept even for many fifth-graders to understand and should be approached slowly. One approach to this topic would be to present students with pictures of familiar symbols, such as McDonald’s Golden Arches, the Nike Swoosh, or the Target logo. Students could attempt to explain what each of these symbols mean. A discussion about why manufacturers choose to use symbols instead of words would follow. Another approach would be to have the students interpret comparisons that use like or as. For example, “Sue is as pretty as a flower.” The teacher would guide the student to see that the author is using a flower to symbolize Sue’s looks.



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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Mean Girls



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



THE SELF, SOCIAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT You have seen it before, but this year the situation in your middle school classroom seems especially vicious. A clique of popular girls has made life miserable for several of their former friends—who are now “rejects.” The discarded friends have committed the social sins of not fitting in—they wear the wrong clothes or aren’t “pretty” enough or aren’t interested in boys yet. To keep the status distinctions clear between themselves and “the others,” the popular girls spread gossip about their former friends, often disclosing the intimate secrets revealed when the “out” girls and the “in” girls were best friends—only a few months ago. Today, you discover that Stephanie, one of the rejected girls, has written a long, heart-baring e-mail to her former best friend, Alison, asking why Alison is “acting so mean.” The now-popular Alison forwarded the e-mail to the entire school, and Stephanie is humiliated. She has been absent for 3 days since the incident. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you respond to each of the girls? • What—if anything—would you say to your other students? • Are there ways you can address the issues raised by this situation in your classes? • Reflecting on your years in school, were your experiences more like those of Alison or Stephanie?



Agsandrew/Shutterstock



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Schooling involves more than cognitive development. As you think back on your years in school, what stands out—highlights of academic knowledge or memories of feelings, friendships, and fears? In this chapter, we examine the latter, which comprise personal, social, and moral development. We begin by looking at a basic aspect of development that affects all the others—physical changes as students mature. Then we explore Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory and use it as a framework for examining three major influences on children’s personal and social development: families, peers, and teachers. Families today have gone through many transitions, and these changes affect the roles of teachers. Next, we explore ideas about how we come to understand ourselves by looking at self-concept and identity, including racial-ethnic identity. Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a lens for viewing these developments. Finally, we consider moral development. What factors determine our views about morality? What can teachers do to foster such personal qualities as honesty and cooperation? Why do students cheat in their academic work, and what can be done? By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 3.1



Describe general trends, group differences, and challenges in physical development through childhood and adolescence.



Objective 3.2



Discuss how the components of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model influence development, especially the impact of families, parenting styles, peers, and teachers.



Objective 3.3



Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept.



Objective 3.4



Explain theories of moral development including those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students—cheating.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Physical Development Physical and Motor Development Play, Recess, and Physical Activity Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics Challenges in Physical Development Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model



PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT This chapter is about personal and social development, but we begin with a kind of development that is a basic concern of all individuals and families—physical development. PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE  How tall are you? What grade were you in when you reached that height? Were you one of the tallest or shortest students in your middle or high school, or were you about average? Did you know students who were teased because of something about their physical appearance? How important was your physical development to your feelings about yourself? •



Families Peers Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support Teachers and Child Abuse Society and Media Identity and Self-Concept



Physical and Motor Development For most children, at least in the early years, growing up means getting bigger and stronger, and becoming more coordinated. It also can be a frightening, disappointing, exciting, and puzzling time.



YOUNG CHILDREN. Preschool children are very active. Their gross-motor (large muscle) skills improve greatly durRacial and Ethnic Identity ing these early years. Between ages 2 and about 4 or 5, Self-Concept preschoolers’ muscles grow stronger, their brains develop Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic to better integrate information about movements, their balCompetence ance improves, and their center of gravity moves lower, so they are able to run, jump, climb, and hop. By age 2, most Self-Esteem children stop “toddling.” Their awkward, wide-legged gait Understanding Others and Moral Development becomes smooth and rhythmic; they have perfected walkTheory of Mind and Intention ing. During their third year, most children learn to run, Moral Development throw, and jump, but these activities are not well controlled until age 4 or 5. Most of these movements develop naturally Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and if the child has normal physical abilities and the opportuPersonal Choices nity to play. Children with physical problems, however, may Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist need special training to develop these skills. And because Model of Moral Psychology they can’t always judge when to stop, many preschoolers Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating need interludes of rest scheduled after periods of physical exertion (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Thomas & Thomas, 2008). Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers Fine-motor skills such as tying shoes or fastening butSummary and Key Terms tons, which require the coordination of small movements, Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would also improve greatly during the preschool years. Children They Do? should be given the chance to work with large paintbrushes, fat pencils and crayons, big pieces of drawing paper, oversized Legos, and soft clay or play dough to accommodate their current skills. During this time, children will begin to develop a lifelong preference for their right or left hand. By age 5, about 90% of students prefer their right hand for most skilled work, and 10% or so prefer their left hand, with more boys than girls being left-handed (R. S. Feldman, 2004; E. L. Hill & Khanem, 2009). Handedness is a genetically based preference, so don’t try to make children switch. Some research even indicates that left-handed children are more likely than their right-handed peers to develop advanced verbal and mathematical skills (Berk & Meyers, 2016). Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development



ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS. During the elementary school years, physical development is fairly steady for most children. They become taller, leaner, and stronger, so they are better able to master sports and games. There is tremendous variation among



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children, however. A particular child can be much larger or smaller than average and still be perfectly healthy. Because children at this age are very aware of physical differences but are not the most tactful people, you may overhear comments such as “You’re too little to be in third grade. What’s wrong with you?” or “How come you’re so fat?” Throughout elementary school, many of the girls are likely to be as large as or larger than the boys in their classes. Between the ages of 11 and 14, girls are, on average, taller and heavier than boys of the same age. This size discrepancy can give girls an advantage in physical activities, but some girls may feel conflict over this and, as a result, downplay their physical abilities (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). THE ADOLESCENT YEARS. Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity. It is not a single event, but a series of changes involving almost every part of the body. The sex differences in physical development observed during the later elementary years become even more pronounced at the beginning of puberty. But these changes take time. The earliest visible signs of puberty in girls are the growth of nipples and budding of breasts at around age 9 for African American girls and 10 for European American and Canadian girls. At about the same time, boys’ testes and scrotums begin to grow larger. On average, between ages 12 and 13, girls have their first menstrual period (called menarche), but the range is from age 10 to 16½, with African American girls experiencing menarche about six months earlier on average than European American and Canadian girls. Boys have their first sperm ejaculation (called spermarche) between the ages of 12 to 14. Boys develop facial hair over the next several years, reaching their final beard potential by about age 18 or 19—with some exceptions who take longer to develop their final facial hair. Less-welcome changes in puberty are increases in skin oiliness, skin acne, and body odor. Girls reach their final height around ages 14 to 16, several years ahead of boys. So there is a time in middle school, as in late elementary school, when many girls are taller than their male classmates. Most boys continue growing until about age 19, but both boys and girls can continue to grow slightly until about age 25 (Thomas & Thomas, 2008; Wigfield, Byrnes, & Eccles, 2006). EARLY AND LATER MATURING. Psychologists have been particularly interested in the academic, social, and emotional differences between adolescents who mature early and those who mature later. For girls, maturing way ahead of classmates can be a definite disadvantage. Being larger and more “developed” than everyone else your age is not a valued characteristic for girls in many cultures (D. C. Jones, 2004; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012). Early maturation is associated with emotional difficulties such as depression, anxiety, lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol abuse, unplanned pregnancy, suicide, greater risk of breast cancer in later life, and eating disorders, especially in societies that define thinness as attractive, at least for European American girls. Researchers have found fewer problems for early-maturing African American girls, but studies of these girls are limited (DeRose, Shiyko, Foster, & Brooks-Gunn, 2011; Stattin, Kerr, & Skoog, 2011). The timing of maturation is not the only factor affecting girls; social influences are powerful too. In a study of Native American (United States) and First Nations (Canada) girls, Melissa Walls and Les Whitbeck (2011) found early maturating girls were more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs, but this association was influenced by social factors such as early dating and the attitudes of peers toward drugs. Maturing early can place girls in dating and friendship contexts where it is difficult to say no to drugs. Later maturing girls seem to have fewer problems, but they may worry that something is wrong with them, so adult reassurance and support are important. Early maturity in males is associated with popularity. The early maturing boy’s taller, broad-shouldered body type fits the cultural stereotype for the male ideal. Even so, recent research points to more disadvantages than advantages for early maturation in boys. Early maturing boys tend to engage in more delinquent behavior––and this is true for White, African American, and Mexican American boys. They also appear to be at



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Human Development (I, A2) Explain how development in one domain (e.g., physical, emotional) can affect development in other domains.



MyLab Education Video Example 3.1



Teenager Josh articulately describes some of the challenges that adolescents face, including his early maturation, a friend’s eating disorder, peer pressure, sexual relationships, and his after-school job.



Puberty The physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce. Menarche The first menstrual period in girls. Spermarche The first sperm ejaculation for boys.



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GUIDELINES Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom Address students’ physical differences in ways that do not call unnecessary attention to the variations. Examples 1. Try to seat smaller students so they can see and participate in class activities, but avoid seating arrangements that are obviously based on height. 2. Balance sports and games that rely on size and strength with games that reflect cognitive, artistic, social, or musical abilities, such as charades or drawing games. 3. Don’t use, and don’t allow students to use, nicknames based on physical traits. 4. In preschool classes, keep a good supply of left-handed scissors. Help students obtain factual information on differences in physical development. Examples 1. Set up science projects on sex differences in growth rates. 2. Have readings available that focus on differences between early and late maturers. Make sure that you present the positives and the negatives of each.



3. Find out the school policy on sex education and on informal guidance for students. Some schools, for example, encourage teachers to talk to girls who are upset about their first menstrual period, while other schools expect teachers to send the girls to talk to the school nurse (if your school still has one—budget cuts have eliminated many). 4. Give the students models in literature or in their community of accomplished and caring individuals who do not fit the culture’s ideal physical stereotypes. Accept that concerns about appearance and the opposite sex will occupy much time and energy for adolescents. Examples 1. Allow some time at the end of class for socializing. 2. Deal with some of these issues in curriculum-related materials. For more information about accommodations for physical differences in your classroom, see dos.claremontmckenna.edu/PhysicalLearningDiff.asp.



greater risk for depression, victimization by bullies, eating disorders, early sexual activity, and for abusing alcohol, illicit drugs, and cigarettes (Berk & Meyers, 2016; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012; Westling, Andrews, Hampson, & Peterson, 2008). Boys who mature late may have a more difficult time initially because they are smaller and less muscular than the “ideal” for men (Harter, 2006). However, some studies show that in adulthood, males who matured later tend to be more creative, tolerant, and perceptive. Perhaps the trials and anxieties of maturing late teach these boys to be better problem solvers (Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Steinberg, 2014). All adolescents can benefit from knowing that there is a very wide range for timing and rates in “normal” maturation and that there are challenges for both early and late maturers. See the Guidelines: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom.



Play, Recess, and Physical Activity Maria Montessori once noted, “Play is children’s work,” and Piaget and Vygotsky would agree. The brain develops with stimulation, and play provides some of that stimulation at every age. In fact, some neuroscientists suggest that play might help in the important process of pruning brain synapses during childhood (Pellis, 2006). Other psychologists believe play allows children to experiment safely as they learn about their environment, try out new behaviors, solve problems, and adapt to new situations (Pellegrini, Dupuis, & Smith, 2007). Babies in the sensorimotor stage learn by exploring, sucking, pounding, shaking, throwing—acting on their environments. Preoperational preschoolers are beginning to play simple games with predictable rules. They love make-believe play and use pretending to form symbols, explore language, and interact with others. Elementary school age children also like fantasy, but this fantasy play becomes more complex as children create characters and rules, for example, rules about how to bow to and obey the “Queen of everything.” They also are beginning to play more



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complex games and sports, and thus learn cooperation, fairness, negotiation, and winning and losing as well as developing more sophisticated language. As children head toward adolescence, play, games, and sports continue to be part of their physical and social development (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Play is particularly important for both children’s happiness and their social and cognitive development (Hopkins, Dore, & Lillard, 2015; Lillard et al., 2013). CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY. Consistent with so many other topics, there are cultural differences in play, as Vygotsky probably would emphasize. In some cultures, such as American or Turkish communities, adults, particularly mothers, often are play partners with their children. But in other cultures such as East Indian, Indonesian, or Mayan, adults are not seen as appropriate play partners for children; siblings and peers are the ones who teach younger children how to participate in play activities (Callaghan et al., 2011; Vandermass-Peler, 2002). In some families and cultures, children spend more time helping with chores and less time in solitary or group play. There are characteristic forms of play across cultures: Alaska Native children tell dream stories, Chinese children fly kites, Cameroonian children hunt for mice (Berger, 2015), and my Californian granddaughter went through a period when she was Elsa from Frozen and I always had to be Anna. Now we discuss our favorite ponies from My Little Pony and do experiments as she teaches me to be a “scientist.” Different materials and “toys” are used as available in different cultural groups—everything from expensive video games to sticks, rocks, and banana leaves. Children use what their culture provides to play. Also, teachers in the United States and Australia may place less emphasis on the value of play for children’s learning compared to teachers in other countries such as Norway, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan, where a “play pedagogy” may be part of the curriculum (Lillemyr, Søbstad, Marder, & Flowerday, 2011; Synodi, 2010). EXERCISE AND RECESS. Physical activity and participation in athletics have benefits for all students’ health, well-being, leadership skills, social relationships, brain development, and even learning. Because most of today’s children do not get much physical activity in their daily lives, schools have a role in promoting active play. There are good, academic reasons for recess and exercise. Exercise promotes blood flow and increased neurotransmitters in the brain, in addition to improving mood and helping students focus attention (Berger, 2015). Other researchers note that students in Asian countries, who consistently outperform U.S. students on international reading, science, and mathematics tests, have more frequent recess breaks throughout the school day. One study of 11,000 elementary students found that those who had daily recess of 15 minutes or longer every day were better behaved in class than students who had little or no recess. This was true even after controlling for student gender and ethnicity, public or private school setting, and class size (Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009). Unfortunately, physical education (PE) time in the United States is being cut to allow for more academic time focused on test preparation (Ginsburg, 2007; Zhu, Boiarskaia, Welk, & Meredith, 2010). One strong caution in the call for more physical activity in schools: Research on concussions related to sports injuries indicates that full-impact contact sports should be avoided, at least for students under age 12 or so, and protective equipment is critical (Berger, 2015).



Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics The sports participation of students with disabilities is limited in most schools. Recess breaks may be especially important for students with attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). If more breaks were provided, fewer students, especially boys, might be diagnosed with ADHD (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005). But this could change. Federal laws state that schools have the legal obligation “to provide students with disabilities an equal opportunity to participate alongside their peers in after-school athletics and clubs. . . . [S]chools may not exclude students who have an intellectual, developmental, physical, or



MyLab Education



Video Example 3.2 As this video suggests, recess, school sports, and lessons that include physical activity help to foster not only motor development but also social and cognitive skills. Physical activity and participation in athletics has benefits for all students’ health, well-being, academic success, leadership skills, and their social relationships.



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any other disability from trying out and playing on a team, if they are otherwise qualified” (Duncan, 2013). Schools are not expected to change their standards for making or staying on a team, but they are expected to make reasonable accommodations, such as using a visual starter instead of a starting gun in races where a participant is deaf. Also, some sports participation for students with disabilities such as wheelchair basketball could be added to the extracurricular options. One reason for concern about physical activity for children is the increase in childhood obesity, as you will see next.



Challenges in Physical Development Physical development is public. Everyone sees how tall, short, heavy, thin, muscular, or coordinated you are. As students move into adolescence, they feel “on stage,” as if everyone is evaluating them; and physical development is part of what is being evaluated. So physical development also has psychological consequences (Thomas & Thomas, 2008). OBESITY. If you have seen the news lately, you know that obesity is a growing problem in America, especially for children. In fact, between 1980 and 2012, the percentage of children ages 6 to 11 who were obese increased from 7% to 18%, while the percentage of 12- to 19-year-olds who were obese increased from 5% to 21% (Centers for Disease Control, 2015a). Obesity usually is defined as being more than 20% heavier than average compared to others of the same age, sex, and body build. Figure 3.1 shows some state-by-state rates of obesity for high school students in the United States. There is some good news, however. From 2004 to 2012, there was a significant decrease in obesity for preschool children (2 to 5 years old)—down from almost 14% to a little over 8% (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). The consequences of obesity are serious for children and adolescents: diabetes, strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and a greater chance of heart problems and obesity as adults. Obesity also has negative effects for children’s play with friends or participation in sports, as children with obesity often are the targets of cruel teasing. Like



FIGURE 3 .1 PERCENTAGE OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SELECTED STATES WHO HAD OBESITY, 2015



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Not available and the statements would still be true (but not equalities as specified in the problem above). Bill Wetta, a student at Ashland University, offered another solution that used both Arabic and Roman numerals. You can move one matchstick to make the first V an X. Then VI = II becomes XI = II, or eleven (in Roman numerals) equals 11 (in Arabic numerals). Just this morning I received another creative approach from Ray Partlow, an educational psychology student in Newark, Ohio. He noted, “Simply remove a matchstick from the V from the left-hand side, and place it directly on top of the I, getting II = II.” Covering one matchstick with another opens up a whole new set of possibilities! Can you come up with any other solutions? Be creative!



Functional fixedness Inability to use objects or tools in a new way. Response set Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way. Representativeness heuristic Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes—what you think is representative of the category.



SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS. We often apply heuristics automatically to make quick judgments; that saves us time in everyday problem solving. The mind can react automatically and instantaneously, but the price we often pay for this efficiency may be bad problem solving, which can be costly. Making judgments by invoking stereotypes leads even smart people to make dumb decisions. For example, we might use representativeness heuristics to make judgments about possibilities based on our prototypes—what we think is representative of a category. Consider this: If I ask you whether a slim, short stranger who enjoys poetry is more likely to be a truck driver or an Ivy League classics professor, what would you say?



You might be tempted to answer based on your prototypes of truck drivers or professors. But consider the odds. With about 10 Ivy League schools and 4 or so classics professors per school, we have 40 professors. Say 10 are both short and slim, and half of those like poetry—we are left with 5. But there are at least 3.5 million truck drivers in the United States. If only 1 in every 5,000 of those truck drivers were short, slim poetry lovers, we would have 700 truck drivers who fit the description. With 700 truck drivers versus 5 professors, it is 140 times more likely that our stranger is a truck driver (Myers, 2005).



C OM PLE X C OG N I TI V E P ROC ESSES



Teachers and students are busy people, and they often base their decisions on what they have in their minds at the time. When judgments are based on the availability of information in our memories, we are using the availability heuristic. If instances of events come to mind easily, we think they are common occurrences, but that is not necessarily the case; in fact, it is often wrong. People remember vivid stories and quickly come to believe that such events are the norm, but again, they often are wrong. For example, after you watch a few TV programs during “Shark Week” you may overestimate how many people actually are killed by sharks each year. Data may not support a judgment, but belief perseverance, or the tendency to hold on to our beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence, may make us resist change. The confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that confirms our ideas and beliefs: This arises from our eagerness to get a good solution. You have often heard the saying “Don’t confuse me with the facts.” This aphorism captures the essence of the confirmation bias. Most people seek evidence that supports their ideas more readily than they search for facts that might refute them. For example, once you decide to buy a certain car, you are likely to notice reports about the good features of the car you chose, not the good news about the cars you rejected. Our automatic use of heuristics to make judgments, our eagerness to confirm what we like to believe, and our tendency to explain away failure combine to generate overconfidence. Students usually are overconfident about how fast they can get their papers written; it typically takes twice as long as they estimate (Buehler, Griffin, & Ross, 1994). In spite of their underestimation of their completion time, they remain overly confident of their next prediction. The Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving give some ideas for helping students become good problem solvers.



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Availability heuristic Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common. Belief perseverance The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Confirmation bias Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence.



GUIDELINES Applying Problem Solving Ask students if they are sure they understand the problem. Examples 1. Can they separate relevant from irrelevant information? 2. Are they aware of the assumptions they are making? 3. Encourage them to visualize the problem by diagramming or drawing it. 4. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else. What would a good solution look like? Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Examples 1. Suggest several different possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. 2. Give students practice in taking and defending different points of view on an issue. Let students do the thinking; don’t just hand them solutions. Examples 1. Offer individual problems as well as group problems, so that each student has the chance to practice.



2. Give partial credit if students have good reasons for “wrong” solutions to problems. 3. If students are stuck, resist the temptation to give too many clues. Let them think about the problem overnight. Help students develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Examples 1. Think out loud as you solve problems. 2. Ask, “What would happen if?” 3. Keep a list of suggestions. Teach heuristics. Examples 1. Use analogies to solve the problem of limited parking in the downtown area. How are other “storage” problems solved? 2. Use the working-backward strategy to plan a party.



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Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving Most psychologists agree that effective problem solving is based on having an ample store of knowledge about the problem area (Belland, 2011; Schoenfeld, 2011). To solve the matchstick problem, for example, you had to understand Roman and Arabic numbers as well as the concept of square root. You also had to know that the square root of 1 is 1. Let’s take a moment to examine this expert knowledge. KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT. Experts know where to focus their attention. For example, knowledgeable baseball fans (I am told) pay attention to the moves of the shortstop to learn if the pitcher will throw a fastball, curveball, or slider. But those with little knowledge about baseball may never see the movements of the shortstop, unless a hit is headed toward that part of the field (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011). In general, experts know what to pay attention to when judging a performance or product such as an Olympic high dive or a prize-winning chocolate cake. To nonexperts, most good dives or cakes look about the same, unless of course they “flop”! MEMORY FOR PATTERNS AND ORGANIZATION. The modern study of expertise began with investigations of chess masters (De Groot, 1965; D. P. Simon & Chase, 1973). Results indicated that masters can quickly recognize about 50,000 different arrangements of chess pieces. They can look at one of these patterns for a few seconds and remember where every piece on the board was placed. It is as though they have a “vocabulary” of 50,000 patterns. Michelene Chi (1978) demonstrated that third- through eighth-grade chess experts had a similar ability to remember chess piece arrangements. For all the masters, patterns of pieces are like words. If you were shown any word from your vocabulary store for just a few seconds, you would be able to remember every letter in the word in the right order (assuming you could spell the word). But a series of letters arranged randomly is hard to remember, as you saw in Chapter 8. An analogous situation holds for chess masters. When chess pieces are placed on a board randomly, masters are no better than average players at remembering the positions of the pieces. The master’s memory is for patterns that make sense or could occur in a game. So expertise in chess is based on extensive domain-specific knowledge of possible patterns and moves stored in long-term memory. A similar phenomenon occurs in other fields. There may be an intuition about how to solve a problem based on recognizing patterns and knowing the “right moves” for those patterns. Experts in physics, for example, organize their knowledge around central principles (e.g., Boyle’s or Newton’s laws), whereas beginners organize their smaller amounts of physics knowledge around the specific details stated in the problems (e.g., levers or pulleys) (K. A. Ericsson, 1999; Fenton, 2007). PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE. In addition to representing a problem very quickly, experts know what to do next and can do it. They have a large store of productions or if–then schemas about what action to take in various situations. So, the steps of understanding the problem and choosing a solution happen simultaneously and fairly automatically (K. A. Ericsson & Charness, 1999). Of course, this means that experts must have many, many schemas available. A large part of becoming an expert is simply acquiring a great store of domain knowledge or knowledge that is particular to a field. To do this, you must encounter many different kinds of problems in that field, observe others solving problems, and practice solving many yourself. In fact, “expertise in any substantial domain requires years of practice with the intention of improving performance” (Tricot & Sweller, 2014, p. 275). Some estimates are that it takes 10 years or 10,000 hours of deliberate, focused, sustained practice to become an expert in most fields (A. Ericsson, 2011; K. A. Ericsson & Charness, 1994; H. A. Simon, 1995). Experts’ rich store of knowledge is elaborated and well practiced, so that it is easy to retrieve from long-term memory when needed ( J. R. Anderson, 2015). PLANNING AND MONITORING. Experts spend more time analyzing problems, drawing diagrams, breaking large problems down into subproblems, and making plans. A novice might begin immediately—writing equations for a physics problem or drafting the



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first paragraph of a paper—but experts plan out the whole solution and often make the task simpler in the process. As they work, experts monitor progress, so time is not lost pursuing dead ends or weak ideas (Schunk, 2016). We all can be experts in one area— studying. The Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student provide a ideas for you and your students. So what can we conclude? Experts (1) know where to focus their attention; (2) perceive large, meaningful patterns in given information and are not confused by surface features and details; (3) hold more information in working and long-term memories, in



GUIDELINES Becoming an Expert Student Be clear about your goals in studying. Examples 1. Target a specific number of pages to read and outline. 2. Write the introduction section of a paper. Make sure you have the necessary declarative knowledge (facts, concepts, ideas) to understand new information. Examples 1. Keep definitions of key vocabulary available as you study. 2. Use your general knowledge. Ask yourself, “What do I already know about ?” 3. Build your vocabulary by learning two or three new words a day using them in everyday conversation. Find out what type of test the teacher will give (essay, short answer), and study the material with that in mind. Examples 1. For a test with detailed questions, practice writing answers to possible questions. 2. For a multiple-choice test, use mnemonics to remember definitions of key terms. Make sure you are familiar with the organization of the materials to be learned. Examples 1. Preview the headings, introductions, topic sentences, and summaries of the text. 2. Be alert for words and phrases that signal relationships, such as on the other hand, because, first, second, however, since. Know your own cognitive skills, and use them deliberately. Examples 1. Use examples and analogies to relate new material to something you care about and understand well, such as sports, hobbies, or films. 2. If one study technique is not working, try another—the goal is to stay involved, not to use any particular strategy. 3. If you start to daydream, stand up from your desk and face away from your books, but don’t leave. Then sit back down and study.



Study the right information in the right way. Examples 1. Be sure you know exactly what topics and readings the test will cover. 2. Spend your time on the important, difficult, and unfamiliar material that will be required for the test or assignment. Resist the temptation to go over what you already know well, even if that feels good. 3. Keep a list of the parts of the text that give you trouble, and spend more time on those pages. 4. Process the important information thoroughly by using mnemonics, forming images, creating examples, answering questions, making notes in your own words, and elaborating on the text. Do not try to memorize the author’s words—use your own. Monitor your own comprehension. Examples 1. Use questioning to check your understanding. 2. When reading speed slows down, decide if the information in the passage is important. If it is, note the problem so you can reread or get help to understand. If it is not important, ignore it. 3. Check your understanding by working with a friend and quizzing one another. Manage your time. Examples 1. When is your best time for studying? Morning, late night? Study your most difficult subjects then. 2. Study in shorter rather than longer blocks, unless you are really engaged and making great progress. 3. Eliminate time wasters and distractions. Study in a room without a television or your roommate, then turn off your phone and stay off social media—maybe even off the Internet altogether. 4. Use bonus time—take your educational psychology notes to the doctor’s office waiting room or laundry room. You will use time well and avoid reading old magazines. Based on ideas from: ucc.vt.edu/ study skills resources and Wong, L. (2015). Essential Study Skills (8th ed.) Stamford, CT: Cengage.



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part because they have organized the information into meaningful and interconnected schemas and procedures; (4) take a great deal of time to analyze a given problem; (5) have automatic procedures for accomplishing pieces of the problem; and (6) are better at monitoring their performance (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). One consequence of developing expertise is that experts forget how difficult it was to learn something and how long it took. As a teacher, you will have to be sensitive about what it means for students to not understand. Sometimes the best teacher is another student who has just mastered the material, not an expert who cannot remember what it was like not to know. When the area of problem solving is fairly well defined, such as chess or physics or computer programming, then these skills of expert problem solvers hold fairly consistently. In these kinds of domains, even if students do not have the extensive background knowledge of experts, they can learn to approach the problem like an expert by taking time to analyze the problem, focusing on key features, using the right schema, and not trying to force old but inappropriate solutions on new problems (Belland, 2011). But when the problem-solving area is less well defined and has fewer clear underlying principles, such as problem solving in economics or psychology, then the differences between experts and novices are not as clear-cut (Alexander, 1992). MyLab Education Self-Check 9.3



CRITICAL THINKING AND ARGUMENTATION



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Thinking Skills (II, A1) A nearly universal goal of educational programs across the country is the development of thinking skills. Describe what a teacher can do to cultivate these skills in the classroom. Search for Teaching Thinking Skills at edutopia.org for more ideas.



Critical thinking Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.



Virtually every article I read before writing this section began with a claim about how essential critical thinking is today. Critical thinking skills are useful in almost every life situation—even in evaluating the media and political ads that constantly bombard us (Huber & Kuncel, 2016). When you see a group of gorgeous people extolling the virtues of a particular brand of orange juice as they frolic in skimpy bathing suits, you must decide if sex appeal is a relevant factor in choosing a fruit drink (remember Pavlovian advertising from Chapter 7). Critical thinking is “an effortful and deliberate cognitive process that entails reflection on and evaluation of available evidence” (Wentzel, 2014, p. 579). The goal of critical thinking is to influence beliefs and guide actions. But what if you have the cognitive skills to make reasoned judgments and still don’t use these skills in a given situation to evaluate claims by politicians or Web sites? You need the disposition to act and bring your critical thinking cognitive skills to those specific issues. The Delphi Report, written by a panel of experts who study critical thinking, addressed this by listing three categories of skills necessary for critical thinking: cognitive skills (interpretation, analysis, evaluation of claims and arguments, self regulation, etc.); affective dispositions (inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, honesty in facing your own biases, ability to understand the views of others, willingness to reconsider and revise your views, etc.); and approaches to specific problems (diligence in seeking and focusing on relevant information, clarity in stating the questions, reasonableness in selecting and applying criteria, etc.) (Abrami et al., 2015). So critical thinking involves intentionally bringing your clearest thinking to shape your beliefs and direct your actions.



What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder Model Richard Paul and Linda Elder (2014; Elder & Paul, 2012) suggest the model in Figure 9.8 as a way of describing what critical thinkers actually do. As you can see, at the center of critical thinking are the elements of reasoning, which entail drawing conclusions based on reasons. But to reason well—to think critically—we should apply the standards such as clarity, accuracy, logic, and fairness, as indicated in Figure 9.8. With practice in clear, accurate, logical (etc.) reasoning, we develop intellectual traits such as humility, integrity, perseverance, and confidence. Research results are clear: Critical thinking skills and the dispositions to apply those skills can be taught at all grade levels (Abrami et al., 2015). So how would you do that



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FIG URE 9.8 PAUL AND ELDER’S MODEL OF CRITICAL THINKING Critical thinkers routinely apply the intellectual standards to the elements of reasoning to develop intellectual traits. THE STANDARDS clarity accuracy relevance logic breadth



precision significance completeness fairness depth



must be applied to



THE ELEMENTS



as we learn to develop



purposes questions points of view information



inferences concepts implications assumptions



INTELLECTUAL TRAITS intellectual humility intellectual autonomy intellectual integrity intellectual courage



intellectual perseverance confidence in reason intellectual empathy fairmindedness



Source: Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2012). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life (3rd ed., p. 58). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.



in your classes? When he analyzed over 340 interventions to teach critical thinking with students ages 6 through adulthood in primary through graduate schools, three elements emerged as effective: dialogue, authentic instruction, and mentorship. • Dialogue: Teachers pose questions and encourage students to dialogue through whole class and small group discussion, debates, Socratic dialogue, or written exchanges. • Authentic Instruction: Teachers focus the dialogue on problems that make sense to the students using role-plays, simulations, case studies, or ethical dilemmas, for example. • Mentorship: One-to-one mentoring for students from teachers, coaches, or other adults also supports the development of critical thinking (Abrami et al., 2015). No matter what approach you use to develop critical thinking, it is important to follow up with additional practice. One lesson is not enough. For example, if your class examined a particular historical document to determine if it reflected bias or propaganda, you should follow up by analyzing other written historical documents, contemporary advertisements, or news stories. Unless thinking skills become overlearned and relatively automatic, they are not likely to be transferred to new situations (Mayer & Wittrock, 2006). Instead, students will use these skills only to complete the lesson in social studies, not to evaluate the claims made by friends, Web sites, politicians, car manufacturers, sales people, or diet plans.



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Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects



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Video Example 9.3 The students in this video are presenting various formulas for calculating the volume of a sphere. Notice the critical thinking skills involved as students analyze and evaluate formulas presented by classmates. Also notice the role of the teacher’s questions.



Critical thinking could be useful in any subject. But many critical thinking skills are specific to a particular subject and serve to guide actions in that subject (Huber & Kuncel, 2016). For example, to teach history, Jeffrey Nokes and his colleagues investigated (1) using traditional texts versus multiple readings and (2) direct teaching of critical thinking skills versus no direct teaching of critical thinking skills (Nokes, Dole, & Hacker, 2007). The multiple texts included historical fiction, excerpts from speeches, government documents, photographs, charts and historical data, and short sections from texts. The history critical thinking skills taught were: • Sourcing: Looking at the source of the document before reading and using that information to help interpret and make inferences about the reading. Is the source biased? Can I trust it? • Corroboration: Making connections between the information in different texts and noting similarities and contradictions. • Contextualization: Understanding the time, place, people, and culture that comprise the context for the event, with all the political and social forces that might be operating. Students who learned with multiple texts instead of traditional textbooks actually learned more history content. Also, students were able to learn and apply two of the three critical thinking skills, sourcing and corroboration, when they were directly taught how to use the skills. Contextualization proved more difficult, perhaps because the students lacked the background knowledge to fill in contextual information. So critical thinking for specific subjects can be taught along with the subject. But as you can see in the Point/Counterpoint, educators don’t agree about the best way to foster critical thinking in schools.



Argumentation The ability to construct and defend a position is essential in mathematics, physical and social sciences, politics, persuasive writing, and critical thinking, to name just a few areas. Both Piaget and Vygotsky would agree that cognitive development is supported by social interactions, dialogue, challenging misunderstandings, and argument. Like critical thinking, argumentation—the process of constructing and critiquing arguments—is considered an important 21st Century skill and is reflected in the Common Core Standards (Asterhan & Schwarz, 2016).



Argumentation The process of debating a claim with someone else.



TWO STYLES OF ARGUMENTATION. There are two styles or argumentation— disputative and deliberative. The heart of disputative argumentation is supporting your position with evidence and understanding and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. It is a competitive process where the goal is to convince an opponent to switch sides. The basic question is who is right. With deliberative argumentation, the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right (Asterhan & Babichenko, 2015). Both kinds of argumentation are difficult. Students often concede right away or else they hold on to their initial beliefs without engaging in the argument. But true learning comes with considering, understanding, and refuting arguments, then improving knowledge based on a consideration of the evidence (Asterhan & Babichenko, 2015). Children are not good at argumentation, adolescents are a bit better, and adults are better still, but not perfect. Children don’t pay very much attention to the claims and evidence of the other person in the debate. Adolescents understand that their opponent in a debate has a different position, but they tend to spend much more time presenting their own position than they do trying to understand and critique their opponent’s claims. It is as if the adolescents believe “winning an argument” means making a better



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Should Schools Teach Critical



Thinking and Problem Solving?



Problem solving and critical thinking can and should be taught.  In a special issue of Educational



Psychology Review, Karen Murphy and her colleagues (2014) made this claim: “Perhaps one of the most important aims of formal education is to equip students with the ability to think critically and analytically about complex topics” (p. 561). This claim is not new, Murphy says. It goes back at least to philosophers before Socrates. But today educators and policy makers argue strongly for investing in programs and practices that teach critical thinking to children and adolescents. Closer to home for you, Peter Facione (2011) claims that critical thinking is related to GPA in college and to reading comprehension. How can students learn to think critically? Some educators recommend teaching thinking skills directly with widely used techniques such as the Productive Thinking Program or CoRT (Cognitive Research Trust). Other researchers argue that learning computer programing languages will improve students’ minds and teach them how to think logically. There is evidence that attending college improves general critical thinking skills and dispositions even without specific interventions fostering critical thinking (Huber & Kuncel, 2016).



COUNTERPOINT .



POINT .



The question of whether schools should focus on process or content, higher-order thinking skills or academic information has been debated for years. Some educators suggest that students must be taught how to think, while other educators assert that students cannot learn to “think” in the abstract. They must be thinking about something—some content. Should teachers focus on content knowledge or critical thinking?



Critical thinking and problem-solving skills do not transfer. According to E. D. Hirsch, a vocal critic



of critical thinking programs:



But whether such direct instruction of critical thinking or self-monitoring does in fact improve performance is a subject of debate in the research community. For instance, the research regarding critical thinking is not reassuring. Instruction in critical thinking has been going on in several countries for over a hundred years. Yet researchers found that students from nations as varied as Israel, Germany, Australia, the Philippines, and the United States, including those who have been taught critical thinking continue to fall into logical fallacies. (1996, p. 136)



The CoRT program has been used in over 5,000 classrooms in 10 nations. But Polson and Jeffries (1985) report that “after 10 years of widespread use we have no adequate evidence concerning the effectiveness of the program” (p. 445). A focus on general critical thinking skills is wasteful when so many of the important skills are specific to a particular domain and when general critical thinking skills tend to develop on their own (Huber & Kuncel, 2016). Beware of Either/Or  One clear message from current research on learning is that both subject-specific knowledge and learning strategies are important. Students today need to be critical consumers of all kinds of knowledge, but critical thinking alone is not enough. Students need the knowledge, vocabulary, and concepts to understand what they are reading, seeing, and hearing. The best teachers can teach both math content and how to learn math at the same time and can provide instruction in both history and how to critically assess history sources.



presentation, but they don’t appreciate the need to understand and weaken the opponent’s claims (Kuhn & Dean, 2004; Nussbaum, 2011). Children and adolescents focus more on their own positions because it is too demanding to remember and process both their own and their opponent’s claims and evidence at the same time—the cognitive load is just too much. In addition, argumentation skills are not natural. They take both time and instruction to learn (Kuhn, Goh, Iordanou, & Shaenfield, 2008; Udell, 2007). But what has to be learned? In disputative argumentation, to make a case while understanding and refuting the opponent’s case, you must be aware of what you are saying, what your opponent is saying, and how to refute your opponent’s claims. This



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takes planning, evaluating how the plan is going, reflecting on what the opponent has said, and changing strategies as needed—in other words, metacognitive knowledge and skills for argumentation. Deanna Kuhn and her colleagues (2008) designed a process for developing metacognitive argumentation skills. They presented a sixth-grade class with the following dilemma. The Costa family has moved to the edge of town from far away Greece with their 11-year-old son Nick. Nick was a good student and soccer player back home in Greece. Nick’s parents have decided that in this new place, they want to keep Nick at home with them, and not have him be at the school with the other children. The family speaks only Greek, and they think Nick will do better if he sticks to his family’s language and doesn’t try to learn English. They say they can teach him everything he needs at home. What should happen? Is it okay for the Costa family to live in the town but keep Nick at home, or should they be required to send their son to the town school like all the other families do? (p. 1313)



Based on their initial position on the dilemma, the 28 students in the class were divided into two groups—“Nick should go to school” or “Nick should be taught at home.” These two groups were divided again into same-gender pairs and all the “Nick should go to school” pairs moved to a room next door to their class. For about 25 minutes, each pair from one side “debated” a pair in the other room using instant messaging (IM). Later in the week the process was repeated, but with different pairs debating. In all, there were seven IM debates, so every “go to school” pair debated every “stay home” pair over several weeks. After four of the seven sessions, the pairs were given a transcript of the dialogue from their last debate, along with worksheets that scaffolded their reflection on their own arguments or the arguments of their opponents. The students evaluated their arguments and tried to improve them, with some adults coaching. These reflective sessions were repeated three times. Next, there was a “showdown” debate—the entire “go to school” team debated the entire “stay home” team via one computer per team and a smart board. For this debate, half of the members of each team prepared as experts on their position and half as experts on the opponent’s arguments. After winter break and again after spring break, the whole process was repeated with new dilemmas. So what happened? The process improved the skill of disputative argumentation— competitive debating. The pairs, IM, and reflection strategies were successful for most students in helping them take into account the opponent’s position and create strategies for rebutting the opponent’s arguments. Working in pairs seemed to be especially helpful. When adolescents and even adults work alone, they often do not create effective counterarguments and rebuttals (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Kuhn’s study focused on disputative argumentation—a classic competitive debate style. But what about deliberative, collaborative argumentation? Recently Christa Asterhan and her colleagues have contrasted deliberative argumentation with disputative argumentation and found that the latter, collaborative approach was better for learning subject matter and for changing beliefs. Maybe the debate style of disputative argumentation focuses students on winning and on how they perform, so they are more resistant to change—and learning often requires change (Asterhan & Schwarz, 2016). LESSONS FOR TEACHERS. It seems that to improve students’ debating and persuasion skills, to help them learn to argue, disputative argumentation is a good approach. The strategies developed by Kuhn are useful here. But to learn subject matter, to argue to learn, deliberative argumentation makes sense. With this approach teachers encourage students to discuss and dispute in order to construct the best understanding based on evidence.



MyLab Education Self-Check 9.4



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TEACHING FOR TRANSFER STOP & THINK Think back for a moment to one of your high school classes in a subject that you have not studied in college. Imagine the teacher, the room, the textbook. Now remember what you actually learned in class. If it was a science class, what were some of the formulas you learned? Oxidation reduction? Boyle’s law? •



If you are like most of us, you may remember that you learned these things, but you will not be quite sure exactly what you learned. Were those hours wasted? This question relates to the important topic of learning transfer. Let’s begin with a definition of transfer. Whenever something previously learned influences current learning or when solving an earlier problem affects how you solve a new problem, transfer has occurred. Shana Carpenter (2012) defines transfer simply as “the application of learned information to novel contexts” (p. 279). So transfer is doing something new, not just reproducing a previous application of the information. If students learn a mathematical principle in one class and use it to solve a physics problem days or weeks later in another class, then transfer has taken place. However, the effect of past learning on present learning is not always positive. Functional fixedness and response set (described earlier in this chapter) are examples of negative transfer because they are attempts to apply inappropriate strategies to a new situation. Transfer has several dimensions (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Carpenter, 2012). You can transfer learning across subjects (math skills used in science problems), across physical contexts (learned in school, used on the job), across social contexts (learned alone, used with your family or team), across time periods (learned in college, used months or years later), across functions (learned for academics, used for hobbies and recreation), and across modalities (learned from watching the Home and Garden cable channel, used to discuss ideas for a patio with a landscape architect). So transfer can refer to many different examples of applying knowledge and skills beyond where, when, and how you learned them.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Transfer of Learning Successful transfer of learning from the school to other contexts is evidence of superior instruction. What can teachers do to optimize transfer of knowledge and skills to the broader world?



The Many Views of Transfer Transfer has been a focus of research in educational psychology for over 100 years. After all, the productive use of knowledge, skills, and motivations across a lifetime is a fundamental goal of education (Goldstone & Day, 2012; Shaffer, 2010). Early work focused on specific transfer of skills and the general transfer of mental discipline gained from studying rigorous subjects such as Greek or mathematics. But in 1924, E. L. Thorndike demonstrated that no mental discipline benefit is derived from learning Greek. Learning Greek just helps you learn more Greek. So, thanks to Thorndike, you were not required to take Greek in high school. More recently, researchers have distinguished between the automatic, direct use of skills such as reading or writing in everyday applications and the thoughtful transfer of knowledge and strategies to arrive at creative solutions to problems (Bereiter, 1995; Bransford & Schwartz, 1999). Automatic transfer probably benefits from practice in different situations, but thoughtful transfer requires more than practice. Michelene Chi and Kurt VanLehn (2012) describe thoughtful transfer as involving two processes—initial learning and reusing or applying what was learned. For thoughtful transfer to succeed, students must first actually learn the underlying principle or concept, not just the surface procedure or algorithm. So, essential to thoughtful transfer in the initial learning stage is mindful abstraction, which is the deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tied to one specific problem or situation but could apply to many. Such an abstraction becomes part of your metacognitive knowledge, available to guide future learning and problem solving. Table 9.3 on the next page summarizes the types of transfer.



Transfer Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations.



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TABLE 9.3 • Kinds of Transfer



Definition



DIRECT APPLICATION



PREPARATION FOR FUTURE LEARNING



Automatic transfer of highly practiced skill



Conscious application of abstract knowledge to a new situation Productive use of cognitive tools and motivations



Key Conditions



Extensive practice Variety of settings and conditions



Examples



Mindful focus on abstracting a principle, main idea, or procedure that can be used in many situations



Overlearning to automaticity



Learning in powerful teaching–learning environments



Driving many different cars



Applying KWL or READS strategies



Finding your gate in an airport



Applying procedures from math in designing a page layout for the school newspaper



Teaching for Positive Transfer Here is a great perspective on transfer from David Perkins and Gavriel Salomon (2012): Schools are supposed to be stopovers in life, not ends in themselves. The information, skills, and understandings they offer are knowledge-to-go, not just to use on site. To be sure, often Monday’s topics most conspicuously serve the Tuesday problem set, the Friday quiz, or the exam at the end of the year. However, in principle those topics are an investment toward thriving in family, civic, cultural, and professional lives. (p. 248)



Years of research and experience show that students will not always take advantage of knowledge-to-go. They may (seem to) learn new concepts, problem-solving procedures, and learning strategies Monday, but they may not use them for the year-end exam or even Friday unless prompted or guided. For example, studies of real-world mathematics show that people do not always apply math procedures learned in school to solve practical problems in their homes or at grocery stores (Lave, 1988; Lave & Wenger, 1991). This happens because learning is situated—tied to specific situations. Because knowledge is learned as a tool to solve particular problems, we may not realize that the knowledge is relevant when we encounter a problem that seems different, at least on the surface (Driscoll, 2005; Singley & Anderson, 1989). How can you make sure your students will use what they learn, even when situations change? WHAT IS WORTH LEARNING? First, you must answer the question “What is worth learning?” The learning of basic skills such as reading, writing, computing, cooperating, and speaking will definitely transfer to other situations, because these skills are necessary for later work both in and out of school—writing job applications, reading novels, paying bills, working on a team, locating and evaluating health care services, among others. All later learning depends on positive transfer of these basic skills to new situations. Teachers must also be aware of what the future is likely to hold for their students, both as a group and as individuals. What will society require of them as adults? As a child growing up in Texas in the 1950s and 1960s, I studied nothing about computers, even though my father was a computer systems analyst; yet now I spend hours at my Mac each day. Back then I learned to use a slide rule. Now, calculators and computers have made this skill obsolete. My mom encouraged me to take advanced math and physics instead of typing in high school. Those were great classes, but I struggle with typing



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every day at my computer—who knew? Undoubtedly, changes as extreme and unpredictable as these await the students you will teach. For this reason, the general transfer of principles, attitudes, learning strategies, self-motivation, time management skills, and problem solving will be just as important for your students as the specific transfer of basic skills. LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: SUPPORTING TRANSFER. For basic skills, greater transfer can also be ensured by overlearning, practicing a skill past the point of mastery. Many of the basic facts students learn in elementary school, such as the multiplication tables, are traditionally overlearned. Overlearning helps students develop automated basic skills as we saw in Chapter 8. For higher-level transfer, students must first learn and understand. Students will be more likely to transfer knowledge to new situations if they have been actively involved in the learning process. Strategies include having students compare and contrast two examples, then identify the underlying principles; asking students to explain to themselves or each other the worked-out examples provided by the teacher; or identify for each step in a problem solution the underlying principle at work. Students also can learn an new concept, then explain it to peers, discuss it in small groups, or make videos to be used in peer learning (Chi & VanLehn, 2012; Hoogerheide,. Loyens, & van Gog, 2014; Pai, Sears, & Maeda, 2015). Students should be encouraged to form abstractions that they will apply later, so they know transfer is an important goal. It also helps if students form deep connections between the new knowledge and their existing structures of knowledge as well as connections to their everyday experiences (Perkins & Salomon, 2012; Pugh & Phillips, 2011). Finally, one of the most powerful strategies for supporting transfer is retrieval practice through frequent testing and applying knowledge (Carpenter, 2012). Positive transfer is encouraged when skills are practiced under authentic conditions, similar to those that will exist when the skills are needed later. Students can learn to write by corresponding with email pen pals in other countries. They can learn historical research methods by studying their own family history. Some of these applications should involve complex, ill-defined, unstructured problems, because many of the problems to be faced in later life, both in school and out, will not come to students complete with instructions. One last kind of transfer is especially important for students—the transfer of the learning strategies we encountered earlier. Learning strategies are meant to be applied across a wide range of situations. STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES. Gary Phye (1992, 2001; Phye & Sanders, 1994) describes three stages in developing strategic transfer. In the acquisition phase, students should not only receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it but also rehearse the strategy and practice being aware of when and how they are using it. In the retention phase, more practice with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. In the transfer phase, students should be given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear different on the surface. To enhance motivation, teachers should point out to students how using the strategy will help them solve many problems and accomplish different tasks. These steps help build both procedural and self-regulatory knowledge—how to use the strategy as well as when and why. Some students will learn productive strategies on their own, but all students can benefit from direct teaching, modeling, and practice of learning strategies and study skills. This is one important way to prepare all of your students for the future. Newly mastered concepts, principles, and strategies must be applied in a wide variety of situations and with many types of problems (Z. Chen & Mo, 2004). The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships on the next page give ideas for enlisting the support of families in encouraging transfer.



Overlearning Practicing a skill past the point of mastery.



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GUIDELINES



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS



Promoting Transfer Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support learning. Examples 1. At the beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few of the major assignments, and some common problems students have in learning the material for that unit. 2. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child’s interests could be connected to the curriculum topics. 3. Invite parents to school for an evening of “strategy learning.” Have the students teach their family members one of the strategies they have learned in school. Give families ideas for how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply learning from school. Examples 1. To extend writing, ask parents to encourage their children to write letters or emails to companies or civic organizations asking for information or free products. Provide a shell letter form for structure and ideas, and include addresses of companies that provide free samples or information. 2. Ask family members to include their children in some projects that require measurement, halving or doubling recipes, or estimating costs.



3. Suggest that students work with grandparents to do a family memory book. Combine historical research and writing. Show connections between learning in school and life outside school. Examples 1. Ask families to talk about and show how they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or community involvement projects. 2. Ask family members to come to class to demonstrate how they use reading, writing, science, math, or other knowledge in their work. Make families partners in practicing learning strategies. Examples 1. Focus on one learning strategy at a time. Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy with homework that week. 2. Develop a lending library of books, Website resources, and DVDs to teach families about learning strategies. 3. Give parents a copy of the Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student on page 363, rewritten for your grade level.



MyLab Education Self-Check 9.5



BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: TEACHING FOR COMPLEX LEARNING AND ROBUST KNOWLEDGE We began this chapter by talking about complex cognitive skills and higher-order learning. Then we went on to explore metacognition and learning strategies, problem solving and expertise, critical thinking and argumentation, and transfer of learning to new situations. Even though research in educational psychology has examined these topics for years, lately, some researchers have focused specifically on complex learning and teaching for robust knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). In many ways this current focus brings together much of what we have learned in this chapter.



What Is Robust Knowledge? The study of expertise points to three important characteristics of robust knowledge—it is deep, connected, and coherent. Deep knowledge is knowledge about underlying principles that allows experts to recognize the same principle-based features in seemingly different problems. For example, having robust knowledge in math enables students to see immediately that river current problems and airplane wind problems can be solved with the same underlying principles. Connected knowledge means many separate bits of information are linked—problem-solving steps are linked automatically within a problem, abstract principles are linked to specific features of a problem, concepts are linked



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to appropriate procedures, and principles are connected across different disciplines and domains. Coherent knowledge is consistent and has no contradictions. Experts are much better than novices at detecting inconsistencies in knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). As teachers, we want all our students to develop robust knowledge.



Recognizing and Assessing Robust Knowledge How can we tell that someone has robust knowledge in a particular field? Table 9.4 contrasts novices with experts in the content and structure of their knowledge. As you can see, in terms of perceiving and representing the problem, novices focus on surface features, whereas experts focus on the structure and larger concepts underlying the problem. Experts can recall from their long-term memory many important details about the problem domain (such as math or physics or history), but novices rely mostly on what they can hold in their working memory, and they often get overwhelmed. They just don’t have enough connected, relevant knowledge to bring to the workbench of working memory to solve the problem. In actually solving the problem, novices have to rely on general problem-solving strategies such as working backwards or trial-and-error. This takes a long time, is filled with errors and wrong turns, and often fails. Experts, on the other hand, quickly and accurately apply the appropriate domain-specific strategy for that particular problem type. Finally, because novices’ knowledge is based on surface details of problems, they have no principles or conceptual knowledge to transfer to new situations, whereas the flexible, deep, connected, coherent knowledge of experts gives them abundant useful knowledge to transfer to new situations and problems.



Teaching for Robust Knowledge What are some instructional strategies that help students move from novice to expert skill—that help them develop robust knowledge that is deep, connected, and coherent? In the next chapter we explore several teaching approaches such as inquiry and problem-based learning that target the construction of robust knowledge. Here, let’s



TABLE 9.4 • What Robust Knowledge Looks Like in Action This table contrasts the knowledge of novices and experts, based on how they perceive and represent problems, their working and long-term memory, problem-solving strategies, and ability to transfer knowledge to novel situations. NOVICES: LACKING ROBUST KNOWLEDGE



EXPERTS: WITH ROBUST KNOWLEDGE



Perception of Problem



Focuses on surface details like “It’s a pulley problem”



Focuses on structure of underlying principles: “Newton’s Law applies here.”



Memory



Relies on working memory that quickly gets filled



Recalls many critical details, has vast store of connected knowledge in long-term memory



Problem Solving



Relies on general strategies; long, error-filled, often unsuccessful process



Quickly applies domain-relevant reasoning strategies to identify accurate solutions



Transfer



Has inflexible knowledge focused on surface details—does not have useful knowledge to transfer to novel situations



Has flexible knowledge—useful for applying to many situations



Source: Based on Richey, J. E., & Nokes-Malach, T. J. (2015). Comparing Four Instructional Techniques for Promoting Robust Knowledge. Educational Psychology Review, 27, p. 186.



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examine four strategies that we have covered in this chapter and that can be incorporated into most teaching approaches: practice, worked examples, analogies, and self-explanation (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). PRACTICE. You have read about practice in several chapters of this book. Overlearning, or practicing even after you can do a skill or procedure, makes performance smooth, fast, and automatic—with little drain at all on working memory. Retrieval practice or testing is better than restudying for remembering information. Practice can be very effective in developing procedural knowledge of how to do things, but it is not that beneficial by itself in helping students learn to do analogous things—solve new problems; form abstract concepts and deep, principle-based understandings; or connect knowledge across situations. In fact, if your students are very practiced at one procedure in math or art or writing, they may try to apply it even when that procedure or skill is inappropriate, so developing robust knowledge takes more than practice. WORKED EXAMPLES. Worked examples can support the development of robust knowledge by managing cognitive load so that students’ working memory is not overwhelmed. This leaves enough working memory available to recognize and remember key features and deeper structures in the problem. Instead of trying to solve a problem by trial and error, students see the pathway and target their cognitive resources on learning. But worked examples and practice share some of the same obstacles to developing robust knowledge. Students can get better at doing the kind of problem in the examples, but not at doing different kinds of problems. One solution is to interleave (interweave or alternate) worked examples with practice problems and with other worked examples that have steps left out. This makes students think more deeply about what they are doing and why. But the best use of worked examples requires students to explain to themselves why each step in the example is necessary. This helps students develop connections between steps, basic principles, and procedures. Self-explanation is a powerful strategy, as you will soon see. ANALOGIES. To use analogies, students map the similarities or shared features between two examples, cases, problems, time periods, works of art, and so on. Using analogies can support transfer as students apply what they know to recognize similar processes at work in seemingly different situations. The students are also building robust conceptual knowledge by linking key features in the problems to underlying principles. One problem, however, is that novices may identify analogies based on superficial similarities that have nothing to do with deep structure or underlying principles—for example, “both paintings are blue” instead of “both paintings are examples of cubism.” The careful selection of cases or problems plus some teacher guidance are important here. SELF-EXPLANATIONS. To build robust knowledge, the big winner is self-explanation. Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer, providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge. You will learn in the next chapter that students who explain in a cooperative learning group learn more than students who receive explanations. Self-explanation encourages connections (why, what else, how, when…?) and coherence (does that make sense? Are there any contradictions in the explanation?). MyLab Education Self-Check 9.6



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. SUMMARY Metacognition (340–343) What is metacognition? Metacognition consists of knowledge and skills—knowledge about our own information-processing capabilities, the thinking and learning tasks we face, and the strategies needed. The three metacognitive skills used to regulate thinking and learning are planning, monitoring, and evaluating. Planning involves deciding how much time to give to a task, which strategies to use, how to start, and so on. Monitoring is the real-time awareness of “how I’m doing.” Evaluating involves making judgments about the processes and outcomes of thinking and learning and acting on those judgments. What are some sources of individual differences in metacognition? Individual differences in metacognition may result from different paces of development (maturation) or biological differences among learners. For example, young students may not be able to understand a lesson’s purpose as well as older students. How can teachers help students develop metacognitive knowledge and skills?  With younger students, teachers can help students “look inside” to identify what they can do to read, write, or learn better. Systems such as KWL can help, if teachers demonstrate, explain, and model the strategy. For older students, teachers can build self-reflective questions into assignments and learning materials.



Learning Strategies (343–351) What are learning strategies? Learning strategies are a special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to do something. A strategy for learning might include mnemonics to remember key terms, skimming to identify the organization, and then writing answers to possible essay questions. Use of strategies and tactics reflects metacognitive knowledge. What key functions do learning strategies play?  Learning strategies help students become cognitively engaged—focus attention on the relevant, important aspects of the material. Second, they encourage students to invest effort, make connections, elaborate, translate, organize, and reorganize to think and process deeply; the greater the practice and processing, the stronger the learning. Finally, strategies help students regulate and monitor their own learning—keep track of what is making sense and notice when a new approach is needed. Describe some procedures for developing learning strategies. Expose students to a number of different strategies, not only general learning strategies but also very specific tactics, such as the graphic strategies. Teach conditional knowledge about when, where, and why to use various strategies. Develop motivation to use the strategies and tactics by showing students how their learning and performance can be improved. Provide direct instruction in content knowledge needed to use the strategies. What is retrieval practice?  This learning strategy is also called the testing effect or active retrieval and is more powerful than restudying. To benefit from this powerful strategy, students can practice recalling what they have learned by



listing key ideas, drawing concept maps, explaining to a friend, teaching another student, completing at KWL worksheet, taking a self-test, or anything else that requires active retrieval of the knowledge. Frequent tests and quizzes, even ungraded ones, are a form of retrieval practice. When will students apply learning strategies?  If they have appropriate strategies, students will apply them if they are faced with a task that requires good strategies, value doing well on that task, think the effort to apply the strategies will be worthwhile, and believe that they can succeed using the strategies. Also, to apply deep processing strategies, students must assume that knowledge is complex and takes time to learn and that learning requires their own active efforts.



Problem Solving (351–364) What is problem solving?  Problem solving is both general and domain specific. Also, problems can range from well structured to ill structured, depending on how clear-cut the goal is and how much structure is provided for solving the problem. General problem-solving strategies usually include the steps of identifying the problem, setting goals, searching for possible solutions, anticipating possible consequences, acting, and finally looking back to evaluate the outcome. Both general and specific problem solving are valuable and necessary. How can worked examples help students develop powerful schemas for problem solving?  Worked examples help students manage cognitive load (overload) and avoid inefficient trial-and-error learning. Worked examples chunk some of the steps, provide cues and feedback, focus attention on relevant information, and make fewer demands on memory, so the students can use cognitive resources to understand instead of searching randomly for solutions. To get the most benefit from worked examples, however, students have to actively engage—just “looking over” the examples is not enough. Here, self-explanation and using multiple learning channels (vision, touch, movement, hearing) support engagement. Why is the representation stage of problem solving so important?  To represent the problem accurately, you must understand both the whole problem and its discrete elements. Schema training may improve this ability. The problem-solving process follows entirely different paths, depending on what representation and goal are chosen. If your representation of the problem suggests an immediate solution, the task is done; the new problem is recognized as a “disguised” version of an old problem with a clear solution. But if there is no existing way of solving the problem or if the activated schema fails, then students must search for a solution. The application of algorithms and heuristics—such as means-ends analysis, working-backward, analogical thinking, and verbalization— may help students solve problems. Describe factors that can interfere with problem solving.  Factors that hinder problem solving include functional



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fixedness or rigidity (response set). These disallow the flexibility needed to represent problems accurately and to have insight into solutions. Also, as we make decisions and judgments, we may overlook important information because we base judgments on what seems representative of a category (representativeness heuristic) or what is available in memory (availability heuristic), then pay attention only to information that confirms our choices (confirmation bias) so that we hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence (belief perseverance). What are the differences between expert and novice knowledge in a given area?  Expert problem solvers have a rich store of declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge. They organize this knowledge around general principles or patterns that apply to large classes of problems. They work faster, remember relevant information, and monitor their progress better than novices. One consequence of developing expertise is that experts forget how difficult it was to learn something and how long it took. As a teacher, you will have to be sensitive about what it means for students to not understand.



Critical Thinking and Argumentation (364–368) What is critical thinking? Critical thinking skills include defining and clarifying the problem, making judgments about the consistency and adequacy of the information related to a problem, and drawing conclusions. No matter what approach you use to develop critical thinking, it is important to follow up activities with additional practice. One lesson is not enough—overlearning will help students use critical thinking in their own lives. What is argumentation? There are two styles or argumentation —disputative and deliberative. The heart of disputative argumentation is supporting your position with evidence and understanding and then refuting your opponent’s claims and evidence. It is a competitive process where the goal is to convince an opponent to switch sides. The basic question is who is right. With deliberative argumentation, the goal is to collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives, then arrive at a constructive conclusion. The basic question is which idea is right. Argumentation skills are not natural. They take both time and instruction to learn. It is especially difficult for children and adolescents to pay attention to, understand, and refute an opponent’s position with evidence (disputative argumentation). Deliberative argumentation also requires learning and practice.



Teaching for Transfer (368–372) What is transfer?  Transfer occurs when a rule, fact, or skill learned in one situation is applied in another situation; for example, applying rules of punctuation to write a job application letter. Transfer also involves applying to new problems the principles learned in other, often dissimilar situations. What are some dimensions of transfer?  Information can be transferred across a variety of contexts. Some examples include transfer from one subject to another, one physical location to another, or one function to another. These types of transfer make it possible to use skills developed in one area for many other tasks.



Distinguish between automatic and thoughtful transfer.  Spontaneous application of well-learned knowledge and skills is automatic transfer. Thoughtful transfer involves initial learning and reusing or applying what was learned. Essential in the initial learning stage is mindful abstraction, which is the deliberate identification of a principle, main idea, strategy, or procedure that is not tied to one specific problem or situation but could apply to many. Learning environments should support active constructive learning, self-regulation, collaboration, and awareness of cognitive tools and motivational processes. In addition, students should deal with problems that have meaning in their lives. In addition, teachers can help students transfer learning strategies by teaching strategies directly, providing practice with feedback, and then expanding the application of the strategies to new and unfamiliar situations.



Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge (372–374) What is robust knowledge? Robust knowledge is deep, connected, and coherent. Deep knowledge is knowledge about underlying principles that allows experts to recognize the same principle-based features in seemingly different problems. Connected knowledge means many separate bits of information are linked—problem-solving steps are linked automatically within a problem, abstract principles are linked to specific features of a problem, concepts are linked to appropriate procedures, and principles are connected across different disciplines and domains. Coherent knowledge is consistent and has no contradictions. How do you recognize robust knowledge? In terms of perceiving and representing the problem, novices focus on surface features, whereas experts focus on the structure and larger concepts underlying the problem. Experts can recall from their long-term memory many important details about the problem domain, but novices rely mostly on what they can hold in their working memory, and they often get overwhelmed. In actually solving the problem, novices have to rely on general problem-solving strategies that take a long time, are filled with errors, and often fail. Experts, on the other hand, quickly and accurately apply the appropriate domain-specific strategy for that particular problem type. Finally, because novices’ knowledge is based on surface details of problems, they have no principles or conceptual knowledge to transfer to new situations, whereas the flexible, deep, connected, coherent knowledge of experts gives them abundant useful knowledge to transfer to new situations and problems. How can teaching develop robust knowledge?  Four strategies that we have covered in this chapter can be incorporated into most teaching approaches: practice, worked examples, analogies, and self-explanation. Each of these four strategies can be useful, but the big winner is selfexplanation. Explaining each step in a worked example, drawing a model, explaining to a peer, providing evidence, telling why, justifying an answer—these self-explanations are better than detailed explanations by the teacher in building robust knowledge.



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. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Problem Solving and Critical Thinking



Teaching for Transfer



Metacognitive Development and Robust Knowledge



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 9.1



Application Exercise 9.2



Application Exercise 9.3



. KEY TERMS Algorithm (p. 358) Analogical thinking (p. 359) Argumentation (p. 366) Availability heuristic (p. 361) Belief perseverance (p. 361) CAPS (p. 350) Cmaps (p. 348) Concept map (p. 347) Confirmation bias (p. 361) Critical thinking (p. 364)



Embodied cognition (p. 357) Executive control processes (p. 340) Functional fixedness (p. 360) Heuristic (p. 359) KWL (p. 342) Learning strategies (p. 344) Means-ends analysis (p. 359) Metacognition (p. 340) Overlearning (p. 371) Problem (p. 352)



Problem solving (p. 352) Production deficiency (p. 350) READS (p. 350) Representativeness heuristic (p. 360) Response set (p. 360) Retrieval practice/testing effect (p. 349) Schema-driven problem solving (p. 358) Transfer (p. 369) Verbalization (p. 359) Working-backward strategy (p. 359)



. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. What higher-order knowledge can make the difference between how well and quickly students learn material? A. Declarative B. Rote C. Metacognition D. Procedural 2. Knowing the importance of metacognition, Joanna Pappas decided she would try to focus her young students’ attention on their own thinking skills. Joanna knew by having her students “think” about their thinking they would eventually increase their metacognitive skills. Which one of the following strategies should Joanna employ? A. Insight B. A KWL chart



C. An algorithm D. Overlearning 3. Teachers often neglect to teach their students about when, where, and why they should use various strategies. A strategy is more apt to be retained and appropriately used when educators directly teach which type of knowledge? A. Declarative B. Procedural C. Self-regulatory D. Rote 4. Fourth-graders Richard and Bruce sat on the stoop outside of the school. They had missed their bus and now had to make the decision whether to walk taking a short cut or just wait until their mothers notice they had not arrived home. “I think we should start walking on the path, and maybe we will get there before they notice we missed the bus.”



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“I think we should wait. If we walk on the path and our mothers come to get us, they won’t see us, and they’ll worry. Missing the bus is bad enough. If my mom can’t find me, she’ll be really mad!” In what type of problem solving are the two boys engaged? A. Heuristic B. Schema-driven C. Algorithm D. CAPS



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Karen Slagle walked away from her friends on the playground. She had just had an argument over who would win the spot as class president. “I know my brother will win. He has more friends and that equals more votes.”



“Karen, you can’t be serious. What about the issues such as school policies and procedures?” “Those issues don’t matter. Regina Hoyt won because she was popular last year. The only real issue is popularity.” “What about the year before last when the captain of the football team lost because his campaign didn’t deal with anything but sports issues?” “That was a fluke. Look at our freshman year. That popular basketball player won.” 5. How is Karen Slagle’s argument an example of confirmation bias? 6. In the current argument Karen Slagle is not practicing critical thinking. What types of strategies do critical thinkers employ?



MyLab Education Licensure Exam



. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Uncritical Thinking Here is how some practicing teachers would help students learn to critically evaluate the information they find on the Internet. PAUL DRAGIN • ESL Teacher, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH



This common problem does not have an easy fix. A few years ago, a student completed a research paper about 9/11, and the paper was filled with conspiracy theories that the student reported as fact. This dramatic example of undocumented, unsubstantiated research opened my eyes to the need to teach research methods far more explicitly to my students. Here is my general strategy to help ensure more quality research: After allowing the students to explore using Google and other common search engines to get some familiarity with their topic, I direct them to a reference database such as EBSCOhost or ProQuest, which, in our city, can be accessed with a library card via the public library Web site. Limiting the databases they can use reduces the likelihood that inaccurate and highly biased information makes its way into their reports. Demonstrating to them the difference between research-based, scholarly information and general information can go a long way in producing a product that demonstrates actual research. SARA VINCENT • Special Education Teacher Langley High School, McLean, VA



The Internet is a useful tool for students, but it is filled with a plethora of bad information. Luckily, the teacher in the described scenario can fix the problem before the students’ submission of their final drafts. As an English teacher, I often encounter this problem but find that the majority of the students will comply if I set strict citation guidelines. After returning the first drafts to the students, I devote the next lesson to using credible sources rather than using less-reliable sources. I show examples of absurd claims from Internet Web sites. I also show the students how to find appropriate information. The students then exchange papers and complete a peer-editing



lesson. In this lesson, students critique areas of their peers’ drafts in which the sources were weak or nonexistent. To create strict citation guidelines, I tell my students that they are not allowed to use any Web site that ends in “.com.” Instead, they only are allowed to use Web sites that end in “.edu” or “.gov,” or they can use online databases such as JSTOR. Choosing to use an inappropriate site results in automatic failure on the assignment. If teachers use these strict guidelines, their students are highly likely to choose credible Web sites. PAULA COLEMERE • Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ



I usually teach my research unit after we have done persuasive reading and writing. Because I teach students how to evaluate information for bias during the persuasive unit, I know they have some prior knowledge before we tackle research. I show examples from scholarly journals, books, and general Web sites like Wikipedia. Then, as we discuss, I think aloud to model for students why I would or would not use a source. I typically do not allow my students to use any Web sources and keep them to the sites that are pre-approved in our library’s database. If I were to allow a Web-based source, it would be limited to one. It is extremely helpful to students if you can show them sample research papers that are excellent, satisfactory, and poor. This way, they have an idea of what the finished product should look like. Another strategy would be to read a passage as a class and critically evaluate it together. Thinking critically is a skill that needs to be modeled and taught to kids. It is a mistake to assume they know how to do this on their own. JESSICA N. MAHTABAN • Eighth-Grade Math Teacher Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ



The best way to show students how to evaluate information from Web sites is by modeling. I have a PowerPoint presentation that explains to students how to evaluate the authenticity



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of what they are reading on the Internet. Once the students become familiar with all the key points of how to evaluate Web sites, then I can show various Web sites on the Smart board, and as a class we can discuss and review the validity of the site. We need to teach students how to articulate their thoughts by expanding on their ideas. Teachers can add “Why or why not?” or “explain” to the end of questions. If students are exposed to higher-level thinking questions and learn how to ask and answer these questions, then they can think more critically about school subjects.



of “factual” information found on Web sites that contradict clearly accepted facts will teach the students that they must evaluate information in the context of what they know to be true. This will help them to understand that multiple sources, not just the Internet, should be used. In addition, I devote some time to teaching my students how to properly cite sources from the Internet and other sources. This is an important skill and also a necessary one so that they will not be suspected of plagiarism.



JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher: K–12



John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA



Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL



Understanding that the Internet plays such a significant role in students’ lives and that it does provide reliable information, the class needs to be taught how to appropriately use the Web for research. This involves teaching strategies on how to identify credible information, and providing ample opportunities for practice. To understand that not all information on the Internet is accurate, students need to see real examples—examples that are relevant to them. This could be as simple as exposing them to several different sites that post conflicting information about the same topic and then asking them to define how they would decide which information to believe. Once students recognize that they need to exercise discretion when retrieving information from the Internet, they can be taught HOW to do so. The teacher can provide a list of guiding questions that will help students critically evaluate their sources. The ultimate goal is for students to use the guiding questions independently and apply them across settings; however, in the beginning, students will require a much higher level of support. An “I do, we do, you do” approach is probably the best way to assist students in the development and practice of these skills. LAUREN ROLLINS • First-Grade Teacher Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH



The Internet is a fantastic resource when it is used properly. Unfortunately, because anyone can post information on the Internet, it is not always reliable or factual. With respect to evaluating information found on the Internet, I encourage my students to visit multiple sites with multiple viewpoints so they can weigh the relative merits of each. In this way, they practice their critical thinking skills. Using examples



LINDA SPARKS • First-Grade Teacher Whenever I assign a new research project, I begin with a specific list of resource instructions. For example, I might state that I want two books, two magazine articles, and three Web sites. After the topic is picked, I have the students pull together their resources and come to me so that I can check them to make sure each student is headed in the right direction. It also gives me a better understanding of what they are researching and I can find out if they have any misconceptions about the project. I find I get better results this way, because the students know I am aware of what they are researching and have their lists of resources. (Even if they don’t use all their sources, I want them to see what is available for them.) I also am more prepared to teach specific writing skills. The first skill I teach before I assign a project as they practice reading articles is how to take that information and transfer it into their own words. Limiting the number of quotes is a way to encourage higher-level thinking processes. Many times, when given the chance, students are more creative than the writers of the articles they read. BARBARA PRESLEY • Transition/Work Study Coordinator— High School Level BESTT Program (Baldwinsville Exceptional Student Training and Transition Program), C. W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY



To me, discussion is key: whole-group discussion, small-group discussion, and one-to-one discussion, all the time being prepared to defend or criticize (with legitimate corroboration) topics raised. Students learn well from their mistakes as long as the correction is respectful and meaningful to them personally. They can’t learn to think critically until someone questions their premises and they have to defend their position—as long as the discussions are conducted without malice. They are gaining experience in critical thinking through the process of criticism, both given and received.



chapter ten



m



TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Learning to Cooperate



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



CONSTRUCTIVISM AND DESIGNING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS You want to use cooperative learning with your middle school students. Many students have worked in groups, but few seem to have participated in true cooperative learning. When you surveyed the class members about their experiences, most rolled their eyes and groaned. You take it that their experiences have not been very positive. These students have a wide range of abilities, including some who are truly gifted and talented, several who are just learning English, and a few who are very shy; and then there are others who would take over and dominate every discussion if you let them. You believe that collaboration is a crucial 21st century skill for all students and that learning together can deepen understanding as students question, explain, and build on each other’s thinking. No matter what, you hope the experience of learning together will build both your students’ confidence and your sense of efficacy as a teacher, so you want authentic successes. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you begin to introduce cooperative learning to your students? • What tasks will you choose to start? • How will you establish groups? • What will you watch and listen for to be sure the students are making the most of the experience?



PinkCat/Shutterstock



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES For the past three chapters, we have analyzed different aspects of learning. We considered behavioral, information processing, and cognitive science explanations of what and how people learn. We have examined complex cognitive processes such as metacognitive skills and problem solving. These explanations of learning focus on the individual and what is happening in his or her “head.” In this chapter, we expand our investigation of learning to include the social context of learning and the notion of constructivism. Constructivism is a broad perspective that calls attention to two critical aspects of learning: social and cultural factors. Sociocultural constructivist theories have roots in cognitive perspectives but have moved well beyond these early explanations. We will explore a number of teaching strategies and approaches that are consistent with constructivist perspectives—teacher facilitation, inquiry, problem-based learning, cooperative learning, cognitive apprenticeships, and reciprocal teaching. Finally, we will examine learning in this digital age, including the considerations about learning in technology-rich environments and the flipped classroom. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 10.1



Explain different perspectives on constructivism as a theory of learning and teaching.



Objective 10.2



Identify the common elements in most contemporary constructivist theories.



Objective 10.3



Apply constructivist principles to classroom practice including using inquiry, problem-based learning, and cognitive apprenticeships.



Objective 10.4



Appropriately incorporate collaboration and cooperative learning in your classes.



Objective 10.5



Describe positive and negative influences of technology on the learning and development of children and adolescents.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives



COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM



Cognitive and Social Constructivism



Consider this situation:



Constructivist Views of Learning How Is Knowledge Constructed? Knowledge: Situated or General? Common Elements of Constructivist StudentCentered Teaching Designing Constructivist Learning Environments Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching Collaboration and Cooperation Tasks for Cooperative Learning Setting Up Cooperative Groups



A young child who has never been to the hospital is in her bed in the pediatric wing. The nurse at the station down the hall calls over the intercom above the bed, “Hi Chelsea, how are you doing? Do you need anything?” The girl looks puzzled and does not answer. The nurse repeats the question with the same result. Finally, the nurse says emphatically, “Chelsea, are you there? Say something!” The little girl responds tentatively, “Hello, wall—I’m here.”



Chelsea encountered a new situation—a talking wall. The wall is persistent. It sounds like a grown-up wall. She shouldn’t talk to strangers, but she is not sure about walls. She uses what she knows and what the situation provides to construct meaning and to act. Here is another example of constructing meaning. This time, Kate and her 9-year-old son Ethan co-construct understandings as they buy groceries:



Ethan: (running to get a shopping cart) Do we need the big one? Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Kate: We might—better too big than not big enough. Here Learning Wisely is our list—where do we go first? Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice Ethan: We need ice cream for the party! (Ethan heads toward frozen foods) Designing Learning Environments in a Digital Kate: Whoa! What happened to the ice cream carton you World left out on the kitchen counter? Technology and Learning Ethan: It melted and it wasn’t out that long. I promise! Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities Kate: Right and we may be in this store a while, so let’s start for Young Children with things that won’t melt while we are shopping—I The Flipped Classroom usually buy produce first. Ethan: What’s “produce”? Summary and Key Terms Kate: Things that grow—fruits and vegetables “produced” Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What by farmers. Would They Do? Ethan: OK, the list says cucumbers. Here they are. Wait there are two kinds. Which do you want? The little ones say “local.” What’s local? Kate: Local means from around here—close to us, close to our “location.” Ethan: Is local better? Kate: Maybe. I like to support our local farmers. Where are the small cucumbers from—look at the tiny print on the label. Ethan: Virginia—is that close to us? Kate: Not really—it is about a 6-hour drive from here. . . . Designs for Cooperation



Look at the knowledge being co-constructed about planning ahead, vocabulary, problem solving, and even geography. Constructivist perspectives of learning focus on how people make meaning, both on their own like Chelsea and in interaction with others like Ethan. Constructivism/ constructivist approach View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.



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Constructivist Views of Learning Constructivism is a broad and much debated term. Actually, constructivism is more a



philosophy about knowledge than a scientific theory of learning. Various constructivist perspectives are grounded in the research of Piaget, Vygotsky, the Gestalt psychologists, and the work of Bartlett, Bruner, and Rogoff; in addition, the philosophy of John Dewey



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and the work in anthropology of Jean Lave are also among the many intellectual origins of this philosophy. But even though many psychologists and educators use the term constructivism, they often mean very different things ( J. Martin, 2006; McCaslin & Hickey, 2001; Phillips, 1997). Although there is no single constructivist theory, most constructivist perspectives do agree on two central ideas: Central Idea 1: Learners are active in constructing their own understanding—they create knowledge by going beyond the information they are given (Chi & Wylie, 2014). Central Idea 2: Social interactions are important in this knowledge construction process (Bruning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Schunk, 2016). One way to organize constructivist views is to describe two forms of constructivism that match these central ideas: cognitive and social construction (Palincsar, 1998; Phillips, 1997). Cognitive constructivists focus on how individuals use information, resources, and even help from others to build understanding—see Central Idea 1. In contrast, social constructivists view learning as increasing our abilities to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture—see Central Idea 2 (Dohn, 2016; Windschitl, 2002). Let’s look a bit closer at each type of constructivism. COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM. Many psychological theories include some kind of constructivism because these theories embrace the idea that individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they make sense of their experiences (Palincsar, 1998). Because they study individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept, or identity, they are sometimes called individual constructivists or psychological constructivists; they all focus on the inner psychological life of people. When Chelsea talked to the wall in the previous section, she was making meaning using her own individual knowledge and beliefs about how to respond when someone (or something) talks to you (Piaget, 1971; Windschitl, 2002). When children observe that most plants need soil to grow and then conclude that plants “eat dirt,” they are using what they know about how eating supports life to make sense of plant growth (M. C. Linn & Eylon, 2006). Using these standards, the most recent information processing theories are constructivist because they are concerned with how individuals construct internal representations (propositions, images, concepts, schemas) that can be remembered and retrieved (Mayer, 1996; Schunk, 2016). Some psychologists, however, believe that information processing is “trivial” or “weak” constructivism because the individual’s only constructive contribution is to build accurate internal representations of the outside world, not to construct a unique and individual understanding (Derry, 1992; Garrison, 1995; H. H. Marshall, 1996; Windschitl, 2002). In contrast, Piaget’s psychological (cognitive) constructivist perspective is less concerned with “correct” representations and more interested in meaning as constructed by the individual. Piaget’s special focus was on logic and the construction of universal knowledge such as conservation or reversibility (P. H. Miller, 2016). Such knowledge comes from reflecting on and coordinating our own cognitions or thoughts, not from copying external reality. Piaget saw the social environment as an important factor in development, but did not believe that social interaction was the main mechanism for changing thinking. At the extreme end of individual constructivism is the notion of radical constructivism. This perspective holds that each of us constructs meaning (knowledge) from our own experiences as we try to explain to ourselves what we perceive, but we have no way of understanding or “knowing” the knowledge constructed by others or even whether our knowledge is “correct.” Learning for radical constructivists consists of replacing one construction with another that better explains the person’s current perceptions of reality (Hennessey et al., 2012). A difficulty with this position is that, when pushed to the extreme of relativism, all knowledge and all beliefs are equal because they are all valid individual perceptions. There are problems with this thinking for educators. First, teachers have a professional responsibility to emphasize some values, such as honesty or justice, over others,



MyLab Education



Video Example 10.1 The young students in this science class are investigating earthworms. In pairs, they are finding answers to their questions and constructing their own knowledge with the teacher’s guidance. Notice the active role of the students in building understanding, and making sense of information about earthworms.



Radical constructivism Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong.



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such as deception and bigotry. All perceptions and beliefs are not equal. Second, there are right answers in many fields such as mathematics, and students will have trouble learning if they hold on to personal misconceptions and naïve constructions. As teachers, we ask students to work hard to learn. If learning cannot advance understanding because all understandings are equally good, then, as David Moshman (1997) noted, “we might just as well let students continue to believe whatever they believe” (p. 230). Also, it appears that some knowledge, such as counting and one-to-one correspondence, is not constructed, but innate. Knowing one-to-one correspondence is part of being human (Geary, 1995; Schunk, 2016). SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM. In cognitive constructivism, learning means individually possessing knowledge (Central Idea 1), but in social constructivism, learning means belonging to a group and participating with that group in the social construction of knowledge (Central Idea 2) (Dohn, 2016; Mason, 2007). Vygotsky emphasized the second idea, that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning, just as Ethan’s interactions and activities in the grocery store with his mother shaped his learning about anticipating possible consequences (running out of space in the shopping cart and melted ice cream), the meaning of “produce” and “local,” and geography—where is Virginia? ( J. Martin, 2006). By participating in a broad range of activities with others, learners appropriate the outcomes produced by working together; these outcomes could include both new strategies and knowledge. Appropriating means being able to reason, act, and participate using cultural tools—for example, using conceptual tools such as “force” and “acceleration” to reason in physics (Mason, 2007). Because Vygotsky’s theory relies heavily on social interactions and the cultural context to explain learning, most psychologists classify him as a social constructivist (Palincsar, 1998; Prawat, 1996). However, some theorists categorize him as a cognitive constructivist because he was primarily interested in development within the individual (Moshman, 1997; Phillips, 1997). In a sense, Vygotsky was both. One advantage of his theory of learning is that it gives us a way to consider both the cognitive and the social: He bridges both camps. For example, Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development—the area in which a child can solve a problem with the help (scaffolding) of an adult or more able peer—has been called a place where culture and cognition create each other (M. Cole, 1985). Culture creates cognition when the adult uses tools and practices from the culture (language, maps, computers, looms, or music) to steer the child toward goals the culture values (reading, writing, weaving, dance). Cognition creates culture as the adult and child or several adults together generate new practices and problem solutions to add to the cultural group’s repertoire (Serpell, 1993). So people are both products and producers of their societies and cultures (Bandura, 2001). One way of integrating cognitive and social constructivism is to think of knowledge as both individually constructed and socially mediated (Windschitl, 2002). These two different perspectives on constructivism raise some general questions, create some tensions, and suggest different answers, as you will see next.



How Is Knowledge Constructed? One tension is based on how knowledge is constructed. There are three explanations, shown in Table 10.1, based on Bruning, Schraw, and Norby (2011), Moshman (1982), and Schunk (2016).



Knowledge: Situated or General? Appropriating Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools.



A second question that cuts across many constructivist perspectives is whether knowledge is internal, general, and transferable, or bound to the time and place in which it is constructed. Psychologists who emphasize the social construction of knowledge and situated learning affirm Vygotsky’s notion that learning is inherently social and embedded in a particular cultural setting (Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Dohn, 2016; Schoor, Narciss, & Körndle, 2015). What is true in one time and place—such as the “fact” before Columbus’s



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TABLE 10.1 • How Knowledge Is Constructed TYPE



ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE



EXAMPLE THEORIES



External Direction



Knowledge is acquired by constructing a representation of the outside world. Direct teaching, feedback, and explanation affect learning. Knowledge is accurate to the extent that it reflects the “way things really are” in the outside world.



Information processing



Internal Direction



Knowledge is constructed by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge. Knowledge is not a mirror of the external world, even though experience influences thinking and thinking influences knowledge. Exploration and discovery are more important than teaching.



Piaget



Both External and Internal Direction



Knowledge is constructed based on social interactions and experience. Knowledge reflects the outside world as filtered through and influenced by culture, language, beliefs, interactions with others, direct teaching, and modeling. Guided discovery, teaching, models, and coaching as well as the individual’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and thinking affect learning.



Vygotsky



time that the earth was flat—becomes false in another time and place. Particular ideas may be useful within a specific community of practice, such as fifteenth-century navigation, but useless outside that community. What counts as new knowledge is determined in part by how well the new idea fits with current accepted practice. Over time, the current practice may be questioned and even overthrown, but until such major shifts occur, current practice will shape what is considered valuable, and even what is considered knowledge. Situated learning emphasizes that learning in the real world is not like studying in school. It is more like an apprenticeship where novices, with the support of an expert guide and model, take on more and more responsibility until they can function independently. Proponents of this view believe situated learning explains learning in factories, around the dinner table, in high school halls, in street gangs, in the business office, and on the playground. Situated learning is often described as “enculturation,” or forming an identity within a particular community by adopting its norms, behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and attitudes. The community might be mathematicians or gang members or writers or students in your eighth-grade class or soccer players—any group that has particular ways of thinking and acting. Knowledge is viewed not as individual cognitive structures, but rather as a creation of the community over time. The practices of the community— the ways of interacting and getting things done, as well as the identities and tools the community has created—constitute the knowledge of that community. Learning means becoming more able to participate in those practices, take on those identities, and use the tools (Dohn, 2016; Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996; Mason, 2007). At the most basic level, “situated learning emphasizes the idea that much of what is learned is specific to the situation in which it is learned” ( J. R. Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996, p. 5). Thus, some would argue, learning to do calculations in school may help students do more school calculations, because the skills can be applied only in the context in which they were learned—namely, school (Lave, 1997; Lave & Wenger, 1991). But it also appears that knowledge and skills can be applied across contexts that were not part of the initial learning situation, as when you use your ability to read and



Community of practice Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true. Situated learning The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings.



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calculate to do your income taxes, even though income tax forms were not part of your high school curriculum (Schunk, 2016). Learning that is situated in school does not have to be isolated or irrelevant (Bereiter, 1997). As you saw in Chapter 9, a major question in educational psychology—and education in general—concerns the transfer of knowledge from one situation to another. How can you encourage this transfer from one situation to another? Help is on the way in the next section.



Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Teaching STOP & THINK What makes a lesson student centered? List the characteristics and features that put the student in the center of learning. • MyLab Education



Video Example 10.2 In Mr. Fireng’s middle school science class, the students engage in peer teaching. Students work together in groups to develop expertise about one concept in their science unit, plan a lesson and activities around their concept, and teach that concept to their peers. Observe the student-centered focus of Mr. Fireng’s approach.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Student-Centered Learning (II, A3) Many of the major initiatives to reform content-area curricula (e.g., science, mathematics) emphasize student-centered/ constructivist approaches to learning. Describe the major principles of these approaches, and explain how they differ from teachercentered approaches.



Complex learning environments Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life.



We have looked at some areas of disagreement among the constructivist perspectives, but what about areas of agreement? All constructivist perspectives assume that knowing develops as learners, like Chelsea and Ethan, try to make sense of their experiences. “Learners, therefore, are not empty vessels waiting to be filled, but rather active organisms seeking meaning” (Driscoll, 2005, p. 487). Humans construct mental models or schemas and continue to revise them to make better sense of their experiences. We are knowledge inventors, not copy machines or filing cabinets. Our constructions do not necessarily resemble external reality; rather, they are our unique interpretations, like Chelsea’s friendly, persistent wall. This doesn’t mean that all constructions are equally useful or viable. Learners test their understandings against experience and the understandings of other people—they negotiate and co-construct meanings like Ethan did with his mother. Constructivists share similar goals for learning. They emphasize knowledge in use rather than the storing of inert facts, concepts, and skills. Learning goals include developing abilities to find and solve ill-structured problems, critical thinking, inquiry, selfdetermination, and openness to multiple perspectives (Driscoll, 2005). Even though there is no single constructivist theory, many constructivist approaches recommend five conditions for learning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



Embed learning in complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments. Provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning. Support multiple perspectives, and use multiple representations of content. Nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed. Encourage ownership in learning. (Driscoll, 2005; H. H. Marshall, 1992)



Before we discuss particular teaching approaches, let’s look more closely at these dimensions of constructivist teaching. COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS. Constructivists believe that students should not be given stripped-down, simplified problems and basic skills drills, but instead should encounter complex learning environments that deal with “fuzzy,” ill-structured problems. The world beyond school presents few simple problems or step-by-step directions, so schools should be sure that every student has experience solving complex problems. Complex problems are not just difficult ones; rather, they have many parts. There are multiple, interacting elements in complex problems and multiple possible solutions. There is no one right way to reach a conclusion, and each solution may bring a new set of problems. These complex problems should be embedded in authentic tasks and activities, the kinds of situations that students would face as they apply what they are learning in the real world. Students may need support (scaffolding) as they work on these complex problems, with teachers helping them find resources, keeping track of their progress, breaking larger problems down into smaller ones, and so on. This aspect of constructivist



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approaches is consistent with situated learning in emphasizing learning in situations where the knowledge will be applied. SOCIAL NEGOTIATION. Many constructivists share Vygotsky’s belief that higher mental processes develop through social negotiation and interaction, so collaboration in learning is valued. A major goal of teaching is to develop students’ critical thinking and argumentation—the abilities to establish and defend their own positions while respecting the positions of others and working together to negotiate or co-construct meaning. To accomplish this exchange, students must talk and listen to each other. It is a challenge for children in cultures that are individualistic and competitive, such as the United States, to adopt what has been called an intersubjective attitude—a commitment to build shared meaning by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES AND REPRESENTATIONS OF CONTENT. When students encounter only one model, one analogy, one way of understanding complex content, they often oversimplify as they try to apply that one approach to every situation. I saw this happen in my educational psychology class when six students were presenting an example of guided discovery learning. The students’ presentation was a near copy of a guided discovery demonstration I had given earlier in the semester, but with some major misconceptions. My students knew only one way to represent discovery learning. Resources for the class should have provided multiple representations of content using different analogies, examples, and metaphors. This idea is consistent with Jerome Bruner’s (1966) spiral curriculum, a structure for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects—the “big ideas”—early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time. Another example, the use of manipulatives in mathematics, allows students different ways to represent the quantities and processes in mathematics (Carbonneau, Marley, & Selig, 2012). UNDERSTANDING THE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS. Constructivist approaches emphasize making students aware of their own role in constructing knowledge. The assumptions we make, our beliefs, and our experiences shape what each of us comes to “know” about the world. Different assumptions and different experiences lead to different knowledge, as we saw in Chapter 6 when we explored the role of cultural differences in shaping knowledge. If students are aware of the influences that shape their thinking, they will be more able to choose, develop, and defend positions in a self-critical way while respecting the positions of others. STUDENT OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING. “While there are several interpretations of what [constructivist] theory means, most agree that it involves a dramatic change in the focus of teaching, putting the students’ own efforts to understand at the center of the educational enterprise” (Prawat, 1992, p. 357). Student ownership does not mean that the teacher abandons responsibility for instruction. Because the design of teaching is a central issue in this book, we will spend the rest of this chapter discussing examples of ownership of learning and student-centered instruction. MyLab Education Self-Check 10.1



DESIGNING CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Designing learning environments means translating our knowledge about learning and motivation into activities, assignments, assessments, and other resources for instruction (Belland, Kim, & Hannafin, 2013). Educational psychologists are not the only people who study how to design learning environments. In fact, an interdisciplinary field often



Social negotiation Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives. Intersubjective attitude A commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. Multiple representations of content Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Spiral curriculum Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time.



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called the learning sciences encompasses research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning and learning environments. No matter what their focus is, all knowledge workers are interested in how deep robust knowledge in subjects like science, mathematics, and literacy is actually acquired.



Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments Here are some basic assumptions to guide our consideration of how to design powerful learning environments (Sawyer, 2006): • Experts have deep conceptual knowledge. Experts know many facts and procedures, but just learning facts and procedures will not make you an expert. Experts have deep conceptual understanding that allows them to put their knowledge into action; they can apply and modify their knowledge to fit each situation. • Learning comes from the learner. Better instruction alone will not transfer deep understandings from teachers to students. Learning is more than receiving and processing information transmitted by teachers or texts. Rather, students must actively participate in their own personal construction of knowledge. Again, we are knowledge inventors, not copy machines (de Kock, Sleegers, & Voeten, 2004). • Schools must create effective learning environments. It is the job of the school to create environments where students are active in constructing their own deep understandings so they can reason about real-world problems and transfer their learning from school to their lives beyond the school walls. • Prior knowledge and beliefs are key. Students come into our classrooms filled with knowledge and beliefs about how the world works. Some of these preconceptions are right, some are part right, and some are wrong. If teaching does not begin with what the students “know,” then the students will learn what it takes to pass the test, but their knowledge and beliefs about the world will not change (Hennessey, Higley, & Chesnut, 2012). • Reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge. Students need to express and perform the knowledge they are developing through writing, conversations, drawings, projects, skits, portfolios, reports, and so on. But the performance is not enough. To develop deep conceptual knowledge, students need to reflect— thoughtfully analyze their own work and progress. Keith Sawyer (2006) contrasts learning environments designed based on these assumptions with traditional classroom practices that have dominated schooling in many countries for decades. Look at Table 10.2 to see the differences. Even though, as you can see again in Table 10.2, the student is at the center of constructivist perspectives of learning, this does not mean that teachers are irrelevant or obsolete. In constructivist classrooms, teachers are facilitators and learning environment designers.



Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom Mark Windschitl (2002) suggests the following ways that teachers can encourage meaningful learning. To facilitate learning, teachers:



Learning sciences An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning.



• Elicit students’ ideas and experiences in relation to key topics, then fashion learning situations that help students elaborate on or restructure their current knowledge. • Provide students with a variety of information resources as well as the tools (technological and conceptual) necessary to mediate learning. • Make their own thinking processes explicit to learners and encourage students to do the same through dialogue, writing, drawings, or other representations. • Encourage students’ reflective and autonomous thinking in conjunction with the conditions listed above. • Employ a variety of assessment strategies to understand how students’ ideas are evolving and then give feedback on the processes as well as the products of their thinking. (p. 137).



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TABLE 10.2 • How Deep Learning Contrasts with Learning in Traditional Classrooms LEARNING IN TRADITIONAL CLASSROOMS



BUT FINDINGS FROM COGNITIVE SCIENCE SHOW OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR DEEP LEARNING



Class material is not related to what students already know. Example: Teacher says, “Igneous rocks are. . . .”



Learners relate new understandings to what they already know and believe. Example: Teacher says, “Have any of you seen granite counter tops on TV home shows or maybe you have one in your house? What do they look like . . .?”



Class material presented and learned as disconnected bits of knowledge. “The definition of metamorphic rocks is. . . .”



Learners integrate and interconnect their knowledge in expanding conceptual systems. “We already have learned about two kinds of rocks. We also learned last week about how the earth has changed over the centuries, with some ocean floors becoming land areas. Today we will learn about how marble and diamonds. . . .”



Lessons involve memorizing facts and doing procedures without understanding how or why. “To divide fractions, invert and multiply. . . .”



Learners search for patterns and recognize or invent underlying principles. “Remind me what it means to divide. . . . Ok, so 3/4 divided by 1/2 means how many sets of what are in . . .?”



Learners have trouble understanding ideas that are not straight from the textbook or explained in the same way. “What does your textbook say about . . .?”



Learners evaluate new ideas, even if not in the text, and integrate them into their thinking. “On TV yesterday there was a story about a new drug that is effective in curing one out of 8 cases of. . . . What is the probability of a cure?”



Authorities and experts are the source of unchanging and accurate facts and procedures. “Scientists agree. . . .”



Learners understand that knowledge is socially constructed by people, so ideas require critical examination. “Here are brief summaries of two positions about climate change. Let’s think about how you would determine which position is more supported by evidence . . .?”



Learners simply memorize everything instead of thinking about the purpose of learning and the best strategies for that purpose. “This will be on the test.”



Learners think about why they are learning, monitor their understanding, and reflect on their own learning processes. “How could you use this concept in your own life? How can you tell if you are understanding it?”



Source: Based on Sawyer, R. K. (2006). The New Science of Learning. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (p. 4). New York: Cambridge University Press.



SCAFFOLDING. Constructivist approaches include scaffolding to support students’ developing expertise. One implication of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development is that deep understanding requires that students grapple with problems in their zone of proximal development, where they construct knowledge with support; students need scaffolding in order to work in that zone. Here is a good definition of scaffolding that emphasizes its dynamic interactive nature as well as the knowledge that both teacher and student bring to the learning situation—both are experts on something: “Scaffolding is a powerful conception of teaching and learning in which teachers and students create meaningful connections between teachers’ cultural knowledge and the everyday experience and knowledge of the student” (McCaslin & Hickey, 2001, p. 137). Look back at the grocery store conversation between Ethan and his mother. Notice how the mother used the melted ice cream on the kitchen counter—connecting to Ethan’s experience and knowledge—to scaffold Ethan’s understanding.



Scaffolding Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more.



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MyLab Education



Video Example 10.3 In Mr. Fireng’s middle school science class, he provides scaffolding as needed. Observe how he prompts a student who needs a little help to answer the warm-up questions about ticks. Notice how he encourages the student from China when an English word becomes a barrier to her learning. What is the role of social interaction in the learning that is taking place in this classroom?



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Advance Organizers (II, A3) The advance organizer is an important element in many teacher-centered/expository approaches to instruction. Be able to explain the role of the advance organizer in these approaches, and identify the basic types of organizers.



Advance organizer Statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows.



The original definition of scaffolding (Wood et al., 1976) included both motivational and cognitive support—helping students stay engaged and interested while also helping them move toward deeper learning (Belland, 2014). Motivational scaffolding includes recruiting the students’ interests and enthusiasm to engage with the learning activity, maintaining the students’ attention and redirecting when the students stray off task, and helping students control their emotions if learning gets frustrating. These motivational supports are important for all students, but especially for students with learning challenges (Radford et al., 2015). Cognitive scaffolding has three characteristics (Radford, Bosanquent, Webster, & Blatchford, 2015; van de Pol, Volman, & Beishuizen, 2010): 1. Contingency Support: The teacher is constantly adjusting, differentiating, and tailoring responses to the students. 2. Fading: The teacher gradually withdraws support as the students’ understanding and skills deepen. 3. Transferring Responsibility: Students assume more and more responsibility for their own learning. There are a number of ways teachers can provide contingency support, including prompting, modeling, and reminders. For example, to study the role of teacher support in the growth of student relational thinking, Tzu-Jung Lin and her colleagues analyzed over 35,000 exchanges during the problem-based discussions in small groups of fourth graders. The researchers found that teachers’ prompts for relational thinking—encouraging logical reasoning, use of analogies, counterargument, alternative hypotheses, and elaborated clarifications—led to better student relational thinking. Once the teacher coached one student to think more deeply, the relational thinking spread to other members of the group—they scaffolded each other. Other effective teacher supports included praising students for using cognitive strategies and prompting the group to stay on task, not interrupt each other, take turns, and be sure everyone contributed (Lin et al., 2015). Fading support can involve moving from concrete to abstract problems. This strategy is in keeping with the U.S. Institute of Education Science’s recommendations that encourage teachers to “Connect and integrate abstract representations of a concept with concrete representations of the same concept” (Pashler et al., 2007, p. 13). One example of the importance of fading comes from three studies of mathematics learning in elementary school (Fyfe, McNeil, & Borjas, 2015). The researchers tested four ways of teaching math to first through third graders: problems presented using concrete material only, problems presented using abstract (numbers only) instruction, problems presented that faded from concrete to abstract, and problems that started abstract and became more concrete. In the three different studies, concrete fading to abstract instruction, like that shown in Figure 10.1, was more effective, even for students with greater prior knowledge in math. To transfer responsibility and support growing expertise, scaffolds should be designed so the students make choices as they learn, consider the consequences of different options, make decisions about strategies, and select paths of action. If students are following this approach, they will be able to assume more and more responsibility for their own learning, so fading will be more successful (Belland, 2011). These kinds of scaffolds also help students to become “self-scaffolding” (Radford et al., 2015). ADVANCE ORGANIZERS AS SCAFFOLDING. One way to scaffold both learning and motivation is to begin a lesson or activity with an advance organizer (Melrose, 2013). This is the provision of introductory material broad enough to encompass all the information that will follow. The organizers can serve three purposes: They direct your attention to what is important in the upcoming material, they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented, and they remind you of relevant information you already have. Advance organizers fall into two categories, comparative and expository (Mayer, 1984). Comparative organizers activate (bring into working memory) already existing schemas. They remind you of what you already know but may not realize is relevant to



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FIGU RE 1 0.1 FADING INSTRUCTION FROM CONCRETE MATERIALS TO ABSTRACT PROBLEMS Elementary age students learned some basic math concepts by beginning with concrete materials—how do you have the give the same number of stickers to the monkey and to the frog?, then moving to a work sheet asking the same question, and finally working with an abstract problem using numbers only.



Source: From Fyfe, E. R., McNeil, N. M., & Borjas, S. (2015). Benefits of “Concreteness Fading” for Children’s Mathematics Understanding. Learning and Instruction, 35, p. 107.



the new topic being discussed. A comparative advance organizer for a history lesson on revolutions might be a statement that contrasts military uprisings with the physical and social changes involved in the Industrial Revolution; you could also compare the common aspects of the French, English, Mexican, Russian, Iranian, Egyptian, and American revolutions (Salomon & Perkins, 1989). In contrast, expository organizers provide new knowledge that students will need in order to understand the upcoming information. In an English class, you might begin a large thematic unit on rites of passage in literature with a very broad statement of the theme and a brief analysis about why it has been so central in literature—something like, “A central character coming of age must learn to know himself or herself, often makes some kind of journey of self-discovery, and must decide what in the society is to be accepted and what should be rejected.” Such an organizer might precede reading novels such as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The general conclusion of research on advance organizers is that they do scaffold student learning, especially when the material to be learned is quite unfamiliar, complex, or difficult—as long as two conditions are met (Langan-Fox, Waycott, & Albert, 2000; Morin & Miller, 1998). First, to be effective, the students must understand the organizer. This was demonstrated dramatically in a classic study by Dinnel and Glover (1985). They found that instructing students to paraphrase an advance organizer—which, of course, requires them to understand its meaning—increased the effectiveness of the organizer. Second, the organizer must really be an organizer: It must indicate relations among the basic concepts and terms that will be used in the upcoming lesson. Concrete models, diagrams, concept maps, charts, timelines, or analogies seem to be especially good organizers (D. H. Robinson, 1998; D. H. Robinson & Kiewra, 1995). FACILITATING THROUGH ASKING AND ANSWERING DEEP QUESTIONS. Studies with students from fourth grade through college in subjects as diverse as science, mathematics, history, and literature show that teachers can facilitate learning by training students to ask and answer deep questions when they read, listen to a lecture, or participate in class discussions. To be effective, you first must to be sure that all your students have the necessary basic facts and knowledge to think deeply about. Then you can identify questions that prompt students to reason about underlying principles and big ideas in the content, make reasoned arguments, and provide evidence (Pashler et al., 2007). It is not easy or natural to ask and answer deep questions. Students have to be supported as they learn these skills. The Guidelines for Facilitating Deep Questioning on the next page, taken from Pashler et al. (2007), give some ideas.



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GUIDELINES Facilitating Deep Questioning Encourage students to think aloud when speaking or writing their explanations as they study or discuss a topic. Examples 1. Present a challenging story and ask a student to think aloud to explain as he or she reads the story, linking the story to personal experiences and prior knowledge. 2. Have students respond to each other’s explanations and consider multiple explanations. 3. Where appropriate, use deliberative argumentation (Chapter 9) to reach a collaborative consensus about what is a good explanation. Ask questions that require an explanation, not just reciting facts or repeating from the text, to answer. Examples 1. “How and why would the destruction of bees affect other life on our planet?” “How would the United States have changed if the other candidate had won the Presidential elections in 1860, 1952, and 2016?”



2. Provide models of good, deep questions and teach students to distinguish between deep questions that require explanations like those above and superficial questions that only require a factual answer such as “What insect pollinates flowers?” “Who were the two main Presidential candidates in 1860, 1952, and 2016?” Ask questions that challenge students’ prior beliefs and assumptions. Examples 1. Ask questions that highlight puzzling or paradoxical situations, such as, “Why is it good for a forest to periodically experience fires?” 2. Ask questions that make students defend their positions with facts and evidence. Source: Based on Pashler, H., Bain, P., Bottge, B., Graesser, A., Koedinger, K., McDaniel, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2007) Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning (NCER 2007–2004). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ncer.ed.gov.



To repeat one of my favorite assertions, teachers are not irrelevant in constructivist classrooms. Rather, they are facilitators and learning environment designers. We have explored facilitation. Now let’s examine several designs for constructivist teaching and learning: inquiry and problem-based learning, cognitive apprenticeships, and reciprocal teaching. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Inquiry Learning (II, A2, 3) Inquiry learning is a studentcentered approach to learning that predates many “traditional” forms of instruction. Describe the basic structure of this approach to learning. What are its strengths and limitations? What roles does the teacher have?



Inquiry learning Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions.



Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning John Dewey described the basic inquiry learning format in 1910. Educators have developed many adaptations of this strategy, but the form usually includes the following elements (Echevarria, 2003; Lashley, Matczynski, & Rowley, 2002). The teacher presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students: • • • •



formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem, collect data to test the hypotheses, draw conclusions, and reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it.



This is a general picture of inquiry learning, but what is actually going on? Erin Furtak and her colleagues (2012) categorized the actual activities and processes in inquiry as being procedural (hands-on, posing scientific questions, doing science procedures, collecting data, graphing or charting data), epistemic (drawing conclusions based on evidence, generating and revising theories), conceptual (connecting to students’ prior knowledge, eliciting students’ mental models and ideas), or social (participating in class discussions, arguing and debating ideas, giving presentations, working collaboratively). When the researchers analyzed 37 studies conducted from 1996 to 2006 that compared inquiry approaches with the traditional teaching of science, they found that the greatest impact on student learning came when the inquiry approach included epistemic



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activities or a combination of epistemic, procedural, and social activities. So having students collaborate to do hands-on scientific procedures, gather and represent data, draw conclusions, debate ideas, and make presentations was more effective than traditional teacher-centered approaches. But throughout these activities, teacher guidance and scaffolding were important. Just letting the students work completely on their own doing experiments was not effective. EXAMPLES OF INQUIRY. Shirley Magnusson and Annemarie Palincsar developed a teachers’ guide for planning, implementing, and assessing different phases of inquiry science units, called guided inquiry supporting multiple literacies (GisML, see Figure 10.2 on the next page) (Hapgood, Magnusson, & Palincsar, 2004; Palincsar, Magnusson, Collins, & Cutter). The teacher first identifies a curriculum area and some general guiding questions, puzzles, or problems. For example, the teacher chooses communication as the area and asks this general question: “How and why do humans and animals communicate?” Next, the teacher poses several specific focus questions: “How do whales communicate?” “How do gorillas communicate?” The focus questions have to be carefully chosen to guide students toward important understandings. One key idea in understanding animal communication is the relationships among the animal’s structures, survival functions, and habitat. Animals have specific structures such as large ears or echolocators, which function to find food, attract mates, or identify predators, and these structures and functions are related to the animals’ habitats—large ears for navigating in the dark, for example. Thus, focus questions must ask about animals with different structures for communication, different functional needs for survival, and different habitats. Questions about animals with the same kinds of structures or the same habitats would not be good focus points for inquiry (Magnusson & Palincsar, 1995). The next phase is to engage students in the inquiry, perhaps by playing different animal sounds, having students make guesses and claims about communication, and asking the students questions about their guesses and claims. Then, the students conduct both first-hand and second-hand investigations. First-hand investigations are direct experiences and experiments, for example, measuring the size of bats’ eyes and ears in relation to their bodies (using pictures or videos—not real bats!). In second-hand investigations, students consult books, the Internet, interviews with experts, and other resources to find specific information or get new ideas. As part of their investigating, the students begin to identify patterns. The curved line in Figure 10.2 shows that cycles can be repeated. In fact, students might go through several cycles of investigating, identifying patterns, and reporting results before moving on to constructing explanations and making final reports. Another possible cycle is to evaluate explanations before reporting by making and then checking predictions, applying the explanation to new situations. Inquiry teaching allows students to learn content and process at the same time. In the preceding examples, students learned about how animals communicate and how structures are related to habitats. In addition, they learned the inquiry process itself— how to solve problems, evaluate solutions, debate ideas, and think critically. PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING. Whereas inquiry learning grew out of practices in science, problem-based learning grew out of research on expert knowledge in medicine (Belland, 2011). Through problem-based learning, students develop knowledge that is useful and flexible, not inert. Inert knowledge is information that is memorized but seldom applied (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1996; Whitehead, 1929). In problem-based learning, students work in groups to confront a real-world, illstructured problem that has no single correct solution (Belland, Kim, & Hannafin, 2013; Lisette et al., 2014). During the first phase, initial problem discussion, the students identify and analyze the problem based on the facts from the scenario, then determine what they already know. It soon becomes clear that the students will need more information, so they identify learning issues. These questions guide the next phase—individual research on the learning issues. After the individual research phase, students return to their groups to report their research results and collaborate to find solutions. As they



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Discovery Learning (I, A1) Many teachers, especially in mathematics and science, believe that meaningful learning in their content areas is best supported by discovery learning. Be prepared to answer questions about the assumptions, techniques, strengths, and limitations of this instructional strategy.



Problem-based learning Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process.



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suggest hypotheses, apply their new knowledge, and evaluate their problem solutions, they may recycle to research again if necessary, and finally reflect on the knowledge and skills they have gained. Throughout the entire process, students are not alone or unguided. Their thinking and problem solving are scaffolded by the teacher, computer software supports, models, coaching, expert hints, guides and organizational aids, or other students in the collaborative groups—so working memory is not overloaded. For example, as students work, they may have to fill in a diagram that helps them distinguish between “claims” and “reasons” in a scientific argument or write on a whiteboard divided into four columns listing facts, ideas, learning issues, and action plans (Hmelo-Silver, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, Ravit, & Chinn, 2007). In true problem-based learning, the problem is real and the students’ actions matter. For example, during the 2010 Deepwater oil spill, many teachers used the problem as a springboard for learning. Their students researched how this spill compared to others in size, location, expense, causes, and attempted solutions. What could be done? How do currents and tides play a role? What locations, businesses, and wildlife are in the greatest danger? What will be the short-term and long-term financial and environmental impacts? What actions can students take to play a positive role? A number of teachers blogged about using the oil spill in problem-based learning and collected resources for other teachers (see edutopia.org/ and search for “oil spill” to find more resources). Let’s look at these phases more closely as they might take place in an upper-level science class (S. S. Klein & Harris, 2007). 1. The cycle begins with an intriguing challenge to the whole class. For example, in biomechanics it might be “Assume you are a living cell in a bioreactor. What things will influence how long you live?” or “Your grandmother is recovering from a



FIGUR E 10 .2 A MODEL TO GUIDE TEACHER THINKING ABOUT INQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE INSTRUCTION The straight lines show the sequence of phases in instruction, and the curved lines show cycles that might be repeated during instruction. Share Findings— public reporting



Engage: Guesses, Claims, Hypotheses



General Guiding Questions and Specific Focus Questions Investigate to Identify Relationships first-hand and second-hand investigations



Evaluate: Create Explanations



Prediction



Source: Based on “Designing a Community of Practice: Principles and Practices of the GisML Community,” by A. S. Palincsar, S. J. Magnusson, N. Marano, D. Ford, and N. Brown, 1998, Teaching and Teacher Education, 14, p. 12. Adapted with permission from Elsevier.



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2. 3. 4. 5. 6.



broken hip. In which hand should she hold the cane to help her balance?” The question is framed in a way that makes students bring to bear their current knowledge and preconceptions. Next, students generate ideas to compile what they currently know and believe and what they need to know more about using individual, small-group, or whole-group brainstorming or other activities. Students research the topic individually. Multiple perspectives are added to the process in the form of outside experts (live, on video, or from texts), Web sites, magazine or journal articles, or podcasts on the subject. Students go deeper to research and revise. They consult more sources or hear class lectures, all the while revising ideas and perhaps journaling about their thinking. Students test their mettle by getting feedback from other students or the teacher about their tentative conclusions. Some formative (ungraded) tests might check their understanding at this point. Students come back to their groups, discuss conclusions, and go public with their final conclusions and solutions in the form of an oral presentation, poster/project, or final exam.



The teacher’s role in problem-based learning is to identify engaging problems and appropriate resources; orient students to the problem by describing objectives and rationales; organize the students by helping them set goals and define tasks; support, coach, and mentor students as they gather information, craft solutions, and prepare artifacts (models, reports, videos, PowerPoints, portfolios, etc.); and support student reflection on their own learning outcomes and processes (Arends & Kilcher, 2010). RESEARCH ON INQUIRY AND PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING. Do using inquiry projects or problem-based learning activities lead to greater achievement? The debate has waged for years. Some research results say “yes” (Belland et al., 2013; Furtak et al., 2012; Loyens et al., 2015). But not every educational psychologist agrees that problem-based learning is valuable, at least for all students, as you can see on the next page in the Point/ Counterpoint: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? BEING SMART ABOUT PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING. You don’t have to choose between inquiry and content-focused methods. The best approach in elementary and secondary schools may be a balance of content-focused and inquiry or problem-based methods (Lisette et al., 2014). For example, Eva Toth, David Klahr, and Zhe Chen (2000) tested a balanced approach for teaching fourth graders how to use the controlled variable strategy in science to design good experiments. The method had three phases: (1) In small groups, students conducted exploratory experiments to identify variables that made a ball roll farther down a ramp; (2) the teacher led a discussion, explained the controlled variable strategy, and modeled good thinking about experiment design; and (3) the students designed and conducted application experiments to isolate which variables caused the ball to roll farther. The combination of inquiry, discussion, explanation, and modeling was successful in helping the students understand the concepts. Clearly, scaffolding supports are key factors in successful inquiry and problem-based learning. As Rich Mayer (2004) has observed, students need enough freedom and exploration to get mentally active and engaged, combined with the right amount of guidance to make the mental activity productive. The bottom line is that problem-based learning can be effective for helping students learn to solve ill-structured problems if appropriate scaffolding and teacher facilitation are available. For example, teachers can select and limit the number of research materials for the individual research phase, provide models of questions and answers about the learning issues identified, offer guidance about the characteristics of a good solution, and give feedback along the way (Lisette et al., 2014). Another constructivist approach that relies heavily on scaffolding is cognitive apprenticeships.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based



Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?



POINT .



Inquiry, discovery learning, and problem-based learning are very appealing, but are they effective? Specifically, do these approaches lead to deep understanding and robust knowledge for most students?



Problem-based learning is overrated. Paul Kirsch-



ner and his colleagues were clear and critical in their article in the Educational Psychologist. Even the title of the article was blunt: “Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.” They argued: Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006, p. 75) These respected researchers (and others more recently) cited decades of research demonstrating that unguided



discovery/inquiry and problem-based learning are ineffective, especially for students with limited prior knowledge (Kalyuga, 2011; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Tobias, 2010). Louis Alfieri and his colleagues (2011) examined the results from 108 studies going back over 50 years and found that explicit teaching was more beneficial than unassisted discovery, especially for studies published in the most well-rated journals. Their conclusion: “unassisted discovery generally does not benefit learning” (p. 12). But what about problem-based learning in particular? Much of the research on problem-based learning has taken place in medical schools, and results have been mixed. In one study, students learning through problem-based instruction were better at clinical skills such as problem formation and reasoning, but they were worse in their basic knowledge of science and felt less prepared in science (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). A review of problem-based learning curricula in medical schools concluded that this approach was not effective in promoting higher levels of student knowledge (Colliver, 2000).



Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching



Cognitive apprenticeship A relationship in which a less-experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert.



Over the centuries, apprenticeships have proved to be an effective form of education. By working alongside a master and perhaps other apprentices, young people have learned many skills, trades, and crafts. Knowledgeable guides provide models, demonstrations, and corrections, as well as a personal bond that is motivating. The performances required of the learner are real and important and grow more complex as the learner becomes more competent (A. Collins, 2006; Hung, 1999; M. C. Linn & Eylon, 2006). With guided participation in real tasks comes participatory appropriation—students appropriate the knowledge, skills, and values involved in doing the tasks (Rogoff, 1995, 1998). In addition, both the newcomers to learning and the old-timers contribute to the community of practice by mastering and remastering skills—and sometimes improving these skills in the process (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Allan Collins (2006) suggests that knowledge and skills learned in school have become too separated from their use in the world beyond school. To correct this imbalance, some educators recommend that schools adopt many of the features of apprenticeships. But rather than learning to sculpt or dance or build a cabinet, apprenticeships in school would focus on cognitive objectives such as reading comprehension, writing, or mathematical problem solving. There are many cognitive apprenticeship models, but most share six features: • Students observe an expert (usually the teacher) model the performance. • Students get external support through coaching or tutoring (including hints, tailored feedback, models, and reminders). • Students receive conceptual scaffolding, which is then gradually faded as the student becomes more competent and proficient.



COUNTERPOINT .



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Problem-based learning is a powerful teaching approach.  For example, middle school students partici-



pating in problem-based learning showed superior comprehension and better reasoning about why the Columbia Shuttle disaster happened compared to those who had just heard a lecture on the topic (Wirkala, & Kuhn, 2011). In a study of almost 20,000 middle school students in a large urban district who used inquiry-based materials, those who participated in inquiry learning had significantly higher passing rates on standardized tests. African American boys especially benefitted from these methods (Geier et al., 2008). Several other studies point to increases in student engagement and motivation with inquiry learning (HmeloSilver et al., 2007), as long as the learning is supported and students have adequate background knowledge. In an extensive study of a problem-based medical program in the Netherlands, Schmidt and his colleagues (2009) concluded that compared to graduates of conventional programs, graduates of the problem-based learning program performed better in practical medical and interpersonal skills, took less time to graduate, and had small positive differences in their medical knowledge and diagnostic reasoning. In studies of high school economics and mathematics, research favors problem-based approaches for learning more complex concepts and solving multistep word problems. Students who are better at selfregulation and who know when to ask for help may benefit more from problem-based methods (Evensen, Salisbury-Glennon, & Glenn, 2001), but using problem-based methods over time can help all students to develop these self-directed learning skills. In sum, Cindy Hmelo-Silver (2004; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007) reviewed the research and found good evidence that



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problem-based learning supports the construction of flexible knowledge and the development of problem-solving and self-directed learning skills, but less evidence indicates that participating in problem-based learning is intrinsically motivating or that it teaches students to collaborate. Beware of Either/Or  The difference between effective and ineffective inquiry and problem-based learning seems to come down to completely unguided discovery versus guided, supported, and well-scaffolded inquiry and problem-based learning. Alfieri and his colleagues (2011) concluded: [O]ptimal approaches should include at least one of the following: (a) guided tasks that have scaffolding in place to assist learners, (b) tasks requiring learners to explain their own ideas and ensuring that these ideas are accurate by providing timely feedback, or (c) tasks that provide worked examples of how to succeed in the task. (p. 13) But to make the matter a bit more complicated, evidence shows that the value of guidance and feedback depends on the student’s prior knowledge or age. For example, in learning mathematics problem-solving strategies, students with little knowledge benefitted from feedback as they explored possible solutions, but students with some knowledge benefitted more from just exploring solutions independently without feedback and guidance (Fyfe, Rittle-Johnson, & DeCaro, 2012). Also, first-grade students learned some basic mathematics reasoning skills better from unguided discovery learning via computer than from direct instruction—perhaps an example of the value of unstructured play for young children (Baroody et al., 2013).



• Students continually articulate their knowledge—putting into words their understanding of the processes and content being learned. • Students reflect on their progress, comparing their problem solving to an expert’s performance and to their own earlier performances. • Students are required to explore new ways to apply what they are learning—ways that they have not practiced at the master’s side. As students learn, they are challenged to master more complex concepts and skills and to perform them in many different settings. How can teaching provide cognitive apprenticeships? Mentoring in teaching is one example. Another is cross-age grouping. In the Key School, an inner-city public elementary school in Indianapolis, Indiana, students of different ages work side by side for part of every day on a “pod” designed to have many of the qualities of an apprenticeship. The pods might focus on a craft or a discipline. Examples include gardening, architecture, and “making money.” Many levels of expertise are evident in the students of different ages, so students can move at a comfortable pace but still have the model of a master available. Community volunteers, including many parents, visit to demonstrate a skill that is related to the pod topic. COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIPS IN READING: RECIPROCAL TEACHING.



The goal of



reciprocal teaching is to help students understand and think deeply about what they read



(Oczuks, 2003; Palincsar, 1986; Palincsar & Brown, 1984, 1989). To accomplish this goal, students in small reading groups learn four strategies: summarizing the content of a passage, asking a question about the central point, clarifying the difficult parts of the



Reciprocal teaching Learning to apply the strategies of questioning, summarizing, predicting, and clarifying; designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read.



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material, and predicting what will come next. These are strategies skilled readers apply almost automatically but poor readers seldom do—or they don’t know how. To use the strategies effectively, poorer readers need direct instruction, modeling, and practice in actual reading situations. First, the teacher introduces these strategies, perhaps focusing on one strategy each day. As the expert, the teacher explains and models each strategy and encourages student apprentices to practice. Next, the teacher and the students read a short passage silently. Then, the teacher again provides a model by summarizing, questioning, clarifying, or predicting based on the reading. Everyone reads another passage, and the students gradually begin to assume the teacher’s role. The teacher becomes a member of the group and may finally leave as the students take over the teaching. Often, the students’ first attempts are halting and incorrect. But the teacher gives clues, guidance, encouragement, support doing parts of the task (e.g., providing question stems), modeling, and other forms of scaffolding to help the students master these strategies. The goal is for students to learn to apply these strategies independently. APPLYING RECIPROCAL TEACHING. Although reciprocal teaching seems to work with almost any age student, most of the research has been done with younger adolescents who can read aloud fairly accurately but who are far below average in reading comprehension. After 20 hours of practice with this approach, many students who were in the bottom quarter of their class moved up to the average level or above on tests of reading comprehension. Palincsar has identified three guidelines for effective reciprocal teaching: 1. Shift gradually. The shift from teacher to student responsibility must be gradual. 2. Match demands to abilities. The difficulty of the task and the responsibility must match the abilities of each student and grow as these abilities develop. 3. Diagnose thinking. Teachers should carefully observe the “teaching” of each student for clues about how the student is thinking and what kind of instruction he or she needs. In contrast to some approaches that try to teach 40 or more strategies, an advantage of reciprocal teaching is that it focuses attention on four powerful strategies. But these strategies must be taught; not all students develop them on their own. One study of reciprocal teaching spanning over 3 years found that questioning was the strategy used most often, but students had to be taught how to ask good higher-level questions because most student questions were literal or superficial (Hacker & Tenent, 2002). Another advantage of reciprocal teaching is that it emphasizes practicing these four strategies in the context of actual reading—reading literature and reading texts. Finally, the idea of teacher facilitation through scaffolding and gradually moving the student toward independent and fluid reading comprehension is a critical component in reciprocal teaching and cognitive apprenticeships in general (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994). For some vignettes showing reciprocal teaching, go to readingrockets.org and research “reciprocal teaching.” MyLab Education Self-Check 10.2



COLLABORATION AND COOPERATION Even with all the concern today about test performance and international comparisons, schooling has always been about more than academic learning. Of course, academics are the prime directive, but the ability to collaborate is a core 21st-century capability (Roschelle, 2013). Most corporations are looking for employees who are not only good at the mastery of a particular set of academic skills but who also have the ability to work harmoniously with a wide variety of coworkers as a cooperative team, to demonstrate initiative and responsibility, and to communicate effectively. (E. Aronson, 2000, p. 91)



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Since the 1970s, researchers have examined collaboration and cooperation in schools. Some, like Aronson and Roschelle, believe that learning to successfully collaborate is an important skill in itself, and necessary for success in the future. Other educators claim that collaboration is a means for learning academic material—so we could say the two goals are learning to collaborate and collaborating to learn (Kuhn, 2015). Of course, teachers don’t have to choose. Both goals are valuable. Despite some inconsistencies, the majority of the studies indicate that truly cooperative groups have positive effects—from preschool to college—on students’ empathy, tolerance for differences, feelings of acceptance, friendships, self-confidence, awareness of the perspectives of others, higher-level reasoning, problem solving, decision making, essay writing, and even school attendance (Galton, Hargreaves, & Pell, 2009; Gillies & Boyle, 2011; Solomon, Watson, & Battistich, 2001; Zhang et al., 2016). It is even argued that cooperative learning experiences are crucial in preventing many of the social problems that plague children and adolescents (Gillies, 2003, 2004). About 80% of elementary school teachers and 62% of middle school teachers use some form of peer learning on a regular basis (Ladd et al., 2014b). COLLABORATION, GROUP WORK, AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING. The terms collaboration, group work, and cooperative learning often are used as if they mean the same thing. Certainly there is some overlap, but there are differences as well. Ted Panitz (1996) suggests collaboration is a philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Collaboration is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. Cooperation, on the other hand, is a way of working with others to attain a shared goal (Gillies, 2003). Collaborative learning has roots in the work of British teachers who wanted their students to respond to literature in more active ways as they learned. Cooperative learning has American roots in the work of psychologists John Dewey and Kurt Lewin. You could say that cooperative learning is one way to collaborate in schools. Group work, on the other hand, is simply several students working together—they may or may not be cooperating. Many activities can be completed in groups. For example, students can divide up the territory to conduct a local survey. How do people feel about the plan to build a new mall that will bring more shopping and more traffic? Would the community support or oppose the building of a nuclear power plant? If students must learn 10 new definitions in a biology class, why not let them divide up the terms and definitions and teach one another? Be sure, however, that everyone in the group can handle the task. Sometimes, one or two students end up doing the work of the entire group. Group work can be useful, but true cooperative learning requires much more than simply putting students in groups and dividing up the work. Angela O’Donnell and Jim O’Kelly, colleagues of mine from Rutgers University, describe a teacher who claimed to be using “cooperative learning” by asking students to work in pairs on a paper, each writing one part. Unfortunately, the teacher allowed no time to work together and provided no guidance or preparation in cooperative social skills. Students got a grade for their individual part and a group grade for the whole project. One student received an A for his part, but a C for the group project because his partner earned an F—he never turned in any work. So one student was punished with a C for a situation he could not control while the other was rewarded with a C for doing no work at all. This was not cooperative learning—it wasn’t even group work (O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994). BEYOND GROUPS TO COOPERATION. David and Roger Johnson (2009a), two of the founders of cooperative learning in the United States, define formal cooperative learning as “students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments” (p. 373). The Johnson brothers describe five elements that define true cooperative learning groups: • Positive interdependence • Promotive interaction



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Characteristics of Cooperative Learning (II, A2) Many instructional strategies labeled as cooperative learning lack one or more qualities that are essential components of such techniques. List those essential qualities, and explain the role of each.



MyLab Education



Podcast 10.1 Textbook author Anita Woolfolk shares some ways that she has used cooperative learning in her college classes to take advantage of students as experts in technology.



Collaboration A philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Cooperation Way of working with others to attain a shared goal. Cooperative learning Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals.



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• Individual accountability • Collaborative and social skills • Group processing Group members experience positive interdependence. The members believe they can attain their goals only if the others in the group attain their goals as well, so they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. Promotive interaction means that group members encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts. They usually interact faceto-face and close together, not across the room, but they also could interact via digital media around the world. Even though they feel a responsibility to the group to work together and help each other, students must ultimately demonstrate learning on their own; they are held individually accountable for learning, often through individual tests or other assessments. Collaborative and social skills are necessary for effective group functioning. These skills include paying attention and listening even if you don’t agree, disagreeing and sharing your ideas respectfully, taking turns, doing your fair share, working with partners even it they are not your choice, asking for/providing help, giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, involving every member, encouraging and praising, controlling emotions and frustrations, cheering up partners, and admitting mistakes, among other skills (Ladd et al., 2014a, 2014b). These skills are not natural, even for socially capable students. Often they must be taught and practiced before the groups tackle a learning task. Finally, members monitor group processes and relationships to make sure the group is working effectively and to learn about the dynamics of groups. They take time to ask, “How are we doing as a group? Is everyone working together? What should we do more or less of next time?” Different learning theory approaches favor cooperative learning for different reasons (O’Donnell, 2002, 2006). Information processing theorists point to the value of group discussion in helping participants rehearse, elaborate, and expand their knowledge. As group members question and explain, they have to organize their knowledge, make connections, and review—all processes that support information processing and memory. Advocates of a Piagetian perspective suggest the interactions in groups can create the cognitive conflict and disequilibrium that lead an individual to question his or her understanding and try out new ideas—or, as Piaget (1985) said, “to go beyond his current state and strike out in new directions” (p. 10). Those who favor Vygotsky’s theory suggest that social interaction is important for learning because higher mental functions such as reasoning, comprehension, and critical thinking originate in social interactions and are then appropriated and internalized by individuals. Students can accomplish mental tasks with social support before they can do them alone. Thus, cooperative learning provides the social support and scaffolding students need to move learning forward. To benefit from these dimensions of cooperative learning, groups must be cooperative— all members must participate. Cooperative learning has a long history in American education, moving in and out of favor over the years. Today, evolving constructivist perspectives have fueled a growing commitment to cooperative learning. The approach is now used “in schools and universities throughout most of the world in every subject area and from preschool through graduate school and adult training programs” (D. Johnson & R Johnson, 2009, p. 365). Research supports this wide use. For example, in grades 8 through 12 in Australia, students in cooperative groups that were structured to require positive interdependence and mutual helping learned more in math, science, and English than students in unstructured learning groups (Gillies, 2003). In addition, compared to students in the unstructured groups, students in the structured groups also said learning was more fun. But, as any teacher or parent knows, cooperation is not automatic when students are put into groups. WHAT CAN GO WRONG: MISUSES OF GROUP LEARNING. Without careful planning and monitoring by the teacher, group interactions can hinder learning and reduce rather



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than improve social relations in classes (Gillies & Boyle, 2011; Kuhn, 2015). For example, if there is pressure in a group for conformity—perhaps because rewards are being misused or one student dominates the others—interactions can be unproductive and unreflective. Without feedback about accuracy, misconceptions might be reinforced, or the worst, not the best, ideas may be combined to construct a superficial or even incorrect understanding (Asterhan, Schwarz, & Cohen-Eliyahu, 2014). Students who work in groups but arrive at wrong answers may be more confident that they are right—a case of “two heads are worse than one” (Puncochar & Fox, 2004). Also, the ideas of low-status students may be ignored or even ridiculed while the contributions of high-status students are accepted and reinforced, regardless of the merit of either set of ideas (C. W. Anderson, Holland, & Palincsar, 1997; E. G. Cohen, 1986). Mary McCaslin and Tom Good (1996) list several other disadvantages of group learning: • Students often value the process or procedures over the learning. Speed and finishing early take precedence over thoughtfulness and learning. • Socializing and interpersonal relationships may take precedence over learning. • Students may simply shift dependency from the teacher to the “expert” in the group; learning is still passive, and what is learned can be wrong. • Status differences may be increased rather than decreased. Some students learn to “loaf” because the group progresses with or without their contributions. Others become even more convinced that they are unable to understand without the support of the group. Deanna Kuhn (2015) sums up the situation: “It is not enough to put individuals in a context that allows collaboration and expect them to engage in it effectively. Intellectual collaboration is a skill, learned through engagement and practice and much trial and error” (p. 51). Without careful attention to task design and support for cooperation, students probably won’t benefit from collaborative activities. How can teachers avoid these problems and encourage true cooperation? Like any instructional activity, cooperative learning has three phases that require teachers’ preparation and participation: before, during, and after the lesson. To insure successful cooperative learning, teachers have to plan before; monitor, support, and consolidate learning during; and reflect on learning after the activity, as shown in Table 10.3.



TABLE 10.3 • The Teacher’s Role in Cooperative Learning Here are some examples of teacher competencies needed for successful cooperative learning. The teacher plans, monitors, supports, consolidates, and finally reflects. BEFORE THE ACTIVITY



DURING THE ACTIVITY



AFTER THE ACTIVITY



Plan/Design



Monitor



Support



Consolidate



Reflect



Goals/Tasks Materials Group composition Roles/Scripts Instructions Planned assessments



Determine which interactions will lead to learning in this task. Watch for explanations, questions, challenges, shared information, elaboration, and affirmations.



Scaffolding and fading Prompts, cues Resources at different levels Encouragement Feedback Praise Guiding questions



Class presentations Compare/contrast solutions Whole class discussion Individual testing



Revisit learning goals and plans: What did monitoring reveal? Was the support appropriate? Did students learn? What changes should be made for the next time?



Source: Based on Kaendler, C., Wiedmann, M., Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2015). Teacher Competencies for the Implementation of Collaborative Learning in the Classroom: A Framework and Research Review. Educational Psychology Review, 27, 505–536.



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Tasks for Cooperative Learning Successful teachers interviewed in one study emphasized that group activities must be well planned, students need to be prepared to work in groups, and teachers’ expectations for the task have to be explicitly stated (Gillies & Boyle, 2011). Like so many other decisions in teaching, plans for using cooperative groups begin with a goal. What are students supposed to accomplish? What is the task? Is it a true group task—one that builds on the knowledge and skills of several students—or is the task more appropriate for individuals (E. G. Cohen, 1994; O’Donnell, 2006)? Tasks for cooperative groups may be more or less structured. Highly structured tasks include work that has specific answers—drill and practice, applying routines or procedures, answering questions from readings, computations in mathematics, and so on. Ill-structured complex tasks have multiple answers and unclear procedures, requiring problem finding and higher-order thinking. These ill-structured problems are true group tasks; that is, they are likely to require the resources (knowledge, skills, problem-solving strategies, creativity) of all the group members to accomplish, whereas individuals often can accomplish highly structured tasks just as effectively as groups. These distinctions are important because ill-structured, complex, true group tasks appear to require more and higher-quality interactions than routine tasks if learning and problem solving are to occur (E. G. Cohen, 1994; Gillies, 2004; Gillies & Boyle, 2011). HIGHLY STRUCTURED, REVIEW, AND SKILL-BUILDING TASKS. A relatively structured task such as reviewing previously learned material for an exam might be well served by a structured technique such as student teams achievement divisions (STAD), in which teams of four students compete to determine which team’s members can amass the greatest improvement over previous achievement levels (Slavin, 1995). Praise, recognition, or extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation, effort, and persistence under these conditions, and thus increase learning. Focusing the dialogue by assigning narrow roles also may help students stay engaged when the tasks involve practice or review. ILL-STRUCTURED, CONCEPTUAL, AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS. If the task is ill structured and more cognitive in nature, then an open exchange and elaborated discussion will be more helpful (E. G. Cohen, 1994; Ross & Raphael, 1990). Thus, strategies that encourage extended and productive interactions are appropriate when the goal is to develop higher-order thinking and problem solving. In these situations, a tightly structured process, competition among groups for rewards, and rigid assignment of roles are likely to inhibit the richness of the students’ interactions and to interfere with progress toward the goal. Open-ended techniques such as reciprocal questioning (King, 1994), reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994), pair–share (S. Kagan, 1994), or Jigsaw (E. Aronson, 2000) should be more productive because, when used appropriately, they encourage more extensive interaction and elaborative thought in situations where students are being exposed to complex materials. In these instances, the use of rewards may well divert the group away from the goal of in-depth cognitive processing. When rewards are offered, the goal often becomes achieving the reward as efficiently as possible, which could mean having the highest-achieving students do all the work (Webb & Palincsar, 1996). SOCIAL SKILLS AND COMMUNICATION TASKS. When the goal of peer learning is enhanced social skills or increased intergroup understanding and appreciation of diversity, the assignment of specific roles and functions within the group might support communication (E. G. Cohen, 1994; S. Kagan, 1994). In these situations, it can be helpful to rotate leadership roles so that minority group students and females have the opportunity to demonstrate and develop leadership skills; in addition, all group members can experience the leadership capabilities of each individual (N. Miller & Harrington, 1993). Rewards probably are not necessary, and they may actually get in the way because the goal is to build community, a sense of respect, and responsibility for all team members.



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Setting Up Cooperative Groups How large should a cooperative group be? Again, the answer depends on your learning goals. If the purpose is for the group members to review, rehearse information, or practice, 4 to 5 or 6 students is about the right size. But if the goal is to encourage each student to participate in discussions, problem solving, or computer learning, then groups of 2 to 4 members work best. Also, when setting up cooperative groups, it often makes sense to balance the number of boys and girls. Some research indicates that when there are just a few girls in a group, they tend to be left out of the discussions unless they are the most able or assertive members. By contrast, when there are only one or two boys in the group, they tend to dominate and be “interviewed” by the girls unless these boys are less able than the girls or are very shy. Whatever the case, teachers must monitor groups to make sure everyone is contributing and learning. If a group includes some students who are perceived as different or who are often rejected, then it makes sense to be sure that there are group members who are tolerant and kind. One successful teacher interviewed by Gillies and Boyle (2011) put it this way: I also try to make sure that there are one or two people in the group who have the ability to be tolerant. At least the kid in question will know that, while the other group members may not be his best friends, they won’t give him a hard time. I try to put the least reactive kids in the group with the child in question. This year I’ve had a couple of girls who have been very good with difficult kids. They don’t put up with nonsense but they don’t over-react and are prepared to demonstrate some good social skills. (p. 72)



ASSIGNING ROLES. Some teachers assign roles to students to encourage cooperation and full participation. Several roles are described in Table 10.4. If you use roles, be sure that they support learning. In groups that focus on social skills, roles should TABLE 10.4 • Possible Student Roles in Cooperative Learning Groups Depending on the purpose of the group and the age of the participants, having these assigned roles might help students cooperate and learn. Of course, students may have to be taught how to enact each role effectively, and roles should be rotated so students can participate in different aspects of group learning. ROLE



DESCRIPTION



Encourager



Encourages reluctant or shy students to participate



Praiser/Cheerleader



Shows appreciation of others’ contributions, and recognizes accomplishments



Gate Keeper



Equalizes participation, and makes sure no one dominates



Coach



Helps with the academic content, explains concepts



Question Commander



Makes sure all students’ questions are asked and answered



Checker



Checks the group’s understanding



Taskmaster



Keeps the group on task



Recorder



Writes down ideas, decisions, and plans



Reflector



Keeps group aware of progress (or lack of progress)



Quiet Captain



Monitors noise level



Materials Monitor



Picks up and returns materials



Source: Based on Cooperative Learning by S. Kagan. Published by Kagan Publishing, San Clemente, CA. Copyright © 1994 by Kagan Publishing.



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support listening, encouragement, and respect for differences. In groups that focus on practice, review, or mastery of basic skills, roles should support persistence, encouragement, and participation. In groups that focus on higher-order problem solving or complex learning, if you assign roles, they should encourage thoughtful discussion, sharing of explanations and insights, probing, brainstorming, and creativity. Make sure that you don’t communicate to students that the major purpose of the groups is simply to do the procedures—the roles. Roles are supports for learning, not ends in themselves (Woolfolk Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 1999). Often, cooperative learning strategies include group reports to the entire class. If you have been on the receiving end of these class reports, you know that they can be deadly dull. To make the process more useful for the audience as well as the reporters, Annemarie Palincsar and Leslie Herrenkohl (2002) taught the class members to use intellectual roles as they listened to reports. These roles were based on the scientific strategies of predicting and theorizing, summarizing results, and relating predictions and theories to results. Some audience members were assigned the role of checking the reports for clear relationships between predictions and theories. Other students in the audience listened for clarity in the findings. And the rest of the students were responsible for evaluating how well the group reports linked prediction, theories, and findings. Research shows that using these roles promotes class dialogue and conceptual understanding (Palincsar & Herrenkohl, 2002). GIVING AND RECEIVING EXPLANATIONS. In practice, the effects of learning in a group vary, depending on what actually happens in the group and who is in it. If only a few people take responsibility for the work, these people will learn, but the nonparticipating members probably will not. Students who ask questions, get answers, and attempt explanations are more likely to learn than students whose questions go unasked or unanswered. In fact, evidence shows that the more a student provides elaborated, thoughtful explanations to other students in a group, the more the explainer learns. Giving good explanations appears to be even more important for learning than receiving explanations (O’Donnell, 2006; Webb, Farivar, & Mastergeorge, 2002). In order to explain, you have to organize the information, put it into your own words, think of examples and analogies (which connect the information to things you already know), and test your understanding by answering questions. These are excellent learning strategies (King, 2002; O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994). Good explanations are relevant, timely, correct, and elaborated enough to help the listener correct misunderstandings; the best explanations tell why (Webb et al., 2002; Webb & Mastergeorge, 2003). For example, in a middle school mathematics class, students worked in groups on problems like this: Find the cost of a playing a video game for 20-minutes when the first minute costs $0.25 and each additional minute costs $0.11.



The level of explanation and help students received was significantly related to learning; the higher the level, the more learning. At the highest level, the helper tells how to solve the problem and why. For example, a helper explaining the problem above might say, “OK, it is 25 cents for the first minute, then there are 19 minutes left and each of those minutes costs 11 cents, so you multiply 11 cents by 19. That equals $2.09—then add 25 cents for the first minute so it costs $2.34.” A poor explanation might be just giving the solution, “11 times 19 plus 25” or even just provide the answer—“I got $2.34.” If a helper says, “11 times 19,” then the receiver should say, “Why is it 19?” or “Why do you multiply by 11?” Asking good questions and giving clear explanations are critical, and usually these skills must be taught.



Designs for Cooperation Developing deep understandings in cooperative groups requires that all the group members participate in high-quality discussions that include interpretations, connections, explanations, and evidence supporting claims. We now turn to different strategies that build in structures to support both participation and high-quality discussions.



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FIGU RE 1 0.3 QUESTION STEMS TO ENCOURAGE DIALOGUE IN RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING After participating in a lesson or studying an assignment on their own, students use these stems to develop questions, create and compare answers, and collaborate to create the best response. What is an everyday application of



?



in your own words?



How would you define



?



What are the advantages and disadvantages of ?



What do you already know about applies to



Explain why



.



influence



How does



?



?



What is the value of What are the reasons for



? ?



What are some arguments for and against



? Your second choice?



What is your first choice about What if Compare How would



? Why?



and why? and



based only on



be different if



Do you agree or disagree with this claim



.



? ? What is your evidence?



RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING. Reciprocal questioning requires no special materials or testing procedures and can be used with a wide range of ages. After a lesson or presentation by the teacher, students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about the material (King, 1990, 1994, 2002). The teacher provides question stems (see Figure 10.3), and then students are taught how to develop specific questions about the lesson material using the generic question stems. The students create questions and then take turns asking and answering. This process has proved more effective than traditional discussion groups because it seems to encourage deeper thinking about the material as well as forming connections between the lesson and previous knowledge or experience. For example, using question stems like those in Figure 10.3, a small group in Mr. Garcia’s ninth-grade world cultures class had the following discussion about the concept of culture: Sally: In your own words, what does culture mean? Jim: Well, Mr. Garcia said in the lesson that a culture is the knowledge and understandings shared by the members of a society. I guess it’s all the things and beliefs and activities that people in a society have in common. It includes things like religion, laws, music, medical practices, stuff like that. Sally: And dance, art, family roles. Barry: Knowledge includes language. So, I guess cultures include language, too. Jim: I guess so. Actually, I have a question about that: How does a culture influence the language of a society? Barry: Well, for one thing, the language is made up of words that are important to the people of that culture. Like, the words name things that the people care about, or need, or use. And so, different cultures would have different vocabularies. Some cultures may not even have a word for telephone, because they don’t have any. But, phones are important in our culture, so we have lots of



Reciprocal questioning Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material.



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different words for phones, like cell phone, digital phone, desk phone, cordless phone, phone machine, and . . . Jim (laughing): I’ll bet desert cultures don’t have any words for snow or skiing. Sally (turning to Barry): What’s your question? Barry: I’ve got a great question! You’ll never be able to answer it. What would happen if there were a group somewhere without any spoken language? Maybe they were all born not being able to speak, or something like that. How would that affect their culture, or could there even be a culture? (King, 2002, pp. 34–35)



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Forms of Cooperative Learning (II, A2) STAD and Jigsaw are just two of many cooperative learning techniques, each designed for certain instructional purposes.. For ideas that are especially appropriate for older students, go to the Center for Teaching Excellence at Cornell University (cte.cornell.edu/) and search for “collaborative learning” or to the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (utc.edu) and search for “cooperative learning/”



Jigsaw classroom A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. Constructive/Structured controversy Students work in pairs within their fourperson cooperative groups to research a particular controversy.



JIGSAW. Elliot Aronson and his graduate students invented the Jigsaw classroom when Aronson was a professor of social psychology (and I was a student) at the University of Texas at Austin. Some of my friends worked on his research team. Aronson developed the approach “as a matter of absolute necessity to help defuse a highly explosive situation” (E. Aronson, 2000, p. 137). The Austin schools had just been desegregated by court order. White, African American, and Hispanic students were together in classrooms for the first time. Hostility and turmoil ensued, with fistfights in corridors and classrooms. Aronson’s answer was the Jigsaw Classroom. In Jigsaw, each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “experts” on their piece. Because students have to learn and be tested on every piece of the larger “puzzle,” everyone’s contribution is important—the students truly are interdependent. A more recent version, Jigsaw II, adds expert groups in which the students who are responsible for the same material from each learning group confer to make sure they understand their assigned part and then plan ways to teach the information to their learning group members. Next, students return to their learning groups, bringing their expertise to the sessions. In the end, students take an individual test covering all the material and earn points for their learning team score. Teams can work for rewards or simply for recognition (E. Aronson, 2000; Slavin, 1995). CONSTRUCTIVE/STRUCTURED CONTROVERSIES. Constructive conflict resolution is essential in classrooms because conflicts are inevitable and even necessary for learning. Piaget’s theory tells us that developing knowledge requires disequilibrium—cognitive conflict. Sidney D’Mello and his colleagues (2014) suggest that confusion can stimulate complex learning as long as students engage to resolve the conflict. One study of tenth graders found that students who were wrong, but for different reasons, were sometimes able to correct their misunderstandings if they argued together about their conflicting wrong answers (Schwarz, Neuman, & Biezuner, 2000). Individuals trying to exist in groups will have interpersonal conflicts, too, which also can lead to learning. In fact, research over the last 40 years demonstrates that constructive/structured controversy in classrooms can lead to greater learning, open-mindedness, seeing the perspectives of others, creativity, motivation, engagement, and self-esteem (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 2009b; Roseth, Saltarelli, & Glass, 2011). Table 10.5 shows how academic and interpersonal conflicts can be positive forces in a learning community. As you can see in Table 10.5, the structured part of constructive/structured controversies is that students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular controversy, such as whether lumber companies should be allowed to cut down trees in national forests. Each pair of students researches the issue, develops a pro or con position, presents that position and evidence to the other pair, discusses the issue, and then reverses positions and argues for the other perspective. Then, the group develops a final report that summarizes the best arguments for each position and reaches a consensus (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 2009b; O’Donnell, 2006). In addition to these approaches, Spencer Kagan (1994) has developed many cooperative learning structures designed to accomplish different kinds of academic and social tasks.



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TABLE 10.5 • Constructive/Structured Controversies: Learning from Academic and Interpersonal Conflicts Conflict, if handled well, can support learning. Academic conflicts can lead to critical thinking and conceptual change. Conflicts of interest are unavoidable but can be handled so no one is the loser. CONSTRUCTIVE ACADEMIC CONTROVERSY



CONFLICTS OF INTEREST



One person’s ideas, information, theories, conclusions, and opinions are incompatible with those of another, and the two seek to reach an agreement.



The actions of one person attempting to maximize his or her benefits prevents, blocks, or interferes with another person’s maximizing her or his benefits.



Controversy Procedure



Integrative (Problem-Solving) Negotiations



Research and prepare positions.



Describe wants.



Present and advocate positions.



Describe feelings.



Refute opposing position and refute attacks on own position.



Describe reasons for wants and feelings.



Reverse perspectives.



Take other’s perspective.



Synthesize and integrate best evidence and reasoning from all sides.



Invent three optional agreements that maximize joint outcomes. Choose one, and formalize agreement.



Source: From “The Three Cs of School and Classroom Management,” by D. Johnson and R. Johnson. In H. J. Freiberg (Ed.), Beyond Behaviorism: Changing the Classroom Management Paradigm. Copyright © 1999. Adapted with permission from Pearson Education, Inc.



Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely Cooperative learning always benefits from careful planning, but sometimes including students with special needs requires extra attention to planning and preparation. For example, cooperative structures such as scripted questioning and peer tutoring depend on a balanced interaction between the person taking the role of questioner or explainer and the student who is answering or being taught. In these interactions, you want to see and hear explaining and teaching, not just telling or giving right answers. But many students with learning disabilities have difficulties understanding new concepts, so both the explainer and the student can get frustrated, and social rejection for the student with learning disabilities might follow. Because students with learning disabilities often have problems with social relations, it is not a good idea to put them in situations where more rejection is likely. So, when you are teaching new or difficult-to-grasp concepts, cooperative learning might not be the best choice for students with learning disabilities (Kirk et al., 2006). In fact, research has found that cooperative learning in general is not always effective for students with learning disabilities (D. D. Smith, 2006). Gifted students also may not benefit from cooperative learning when groups are mixed in ability. The pace often is too slow, the tasks too simple, and there is just too much repetition. In addition, gifted students often fall into the role of teacher or end up just doing the work quickly for the whole group. If you use mixed-ability groups and include gifted students, the challenges are to use complex tasks that allow work at different levels and keep gifted students engaged without losing the rest of the class (D. D. Smith, 2006). Cooperative learning may be an excellent choice for students who are English language learners (ELLs), however. The Jigsaw cooperative structure is especially helpful because all students in the group, including the students who are ELLs, have information that the group needs, so they also must talk, explain, and interact. In fact, the Jigsaw approach was developed in response to the need to create high interdependence in diverse groups. In many classrooms today, four to six or more languages are



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GUIDELINES Using Cooperative Learning Fit group size and composition to your learning goals. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, use groups of two to five, common interest groups, mixed groups, or random groups. 2. For structured, fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, use groups of 4 to 6, mixed-ability such as highmiddle and middle-low or high-low and middle-middle group compositions. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, use groups of two to four; select members to encourage interaction. Assign appropriate roles. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, assign roles to monitor participation and conflict; rotate leadership of the group. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, assign roles to monitor engagement and ensure low-status students have resources to offer, as in Jigsaw. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, assign roles only to encourage interaction, divergent thinking, and extended, connected discourse, as in debate teams, or to assign a group facilitator. Don’t let roles get in the way of learning. Make sure you assume a supporting role as the teacher. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, be a model and encourager. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, be a model, director, or coach.



3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, be a model and facilitator. Move around the room, and monitor the groups. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, watch for listening, turn taking, encouraging, and managing conflict. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, watch for questioning, giving multiple elaborated explanations, attention, and practice. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, watch for questioning, explaining, elaborating, probing, divergent thinking, providing rationales, synthesizing, and using and connecting knowledge sources. Start small and simple until you and the students know how to use cooperative methods. Examples 1. For social skills and team-building goals, try one or two skills, such as listening and paraphrasing. 2. For structured fact- and skill-based, practice-and-review tasks, try pairs of students quizzing each other. 3. For higher-level conceptual and thinking tasks, try reciprocal questioning using pairs and just a few question stems. For more information on cooperative learning, see: http://www.co-operation.org Source: Based on “Implications of Cognitive Approaches to Peer Learning for Teacher Education,” by A. Woolfolk Hoy and M. Tschannen-Moran, 1999. In A. O’Donnell and A. King (Eds.), Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.



represented. Teachers can’t be expected to master every heritage language spoken by all of their students every year. In these classrooms, cooperative groups can help as students work together on academic tasks. Students who speak two languages can help translate and explain lessons to others in the group. Speaking in a smaller group may be less anxiety provoking for students who are learning another language; so the students who are ELLs may get more language practice with feedback in these groups (D. D. Smith, 2006). The Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning give you ideas for using cooperative learning with all your students.. Cooperative learning is only as good as its design and implementation. Cooperative methods probably are both misused and underused in schools, in part because using cooperative learning well requires time and investment in teaching students how to learn in groups (Kuhn, 2015; Blatchford, Baines, Rubie-Davies, Bassett, & Chowne, 2006).



Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice Years ago, Larry Cremin (1961) observed that progressive, innovative pedagogies require infinitely skilled teachers. Today, the same could be said about constructivist teaching. We have already seen that many varieties of constructivism and many practices flow



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TABLE 10.6 • Teachers’ Dilemmas of Constructivism in Practice Teachers face conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political dilemmas as they implement constructivist practices. Here are explanations of these dilemmas and some representative questions that teachers face as they confront them. TEACHERS’ DILEMMA CATEGORY I.



Conceptual dilemmas: Grasping the underpinnings of cognitive and social constructivism; reconciling current beliefs about pedagogy with the beliefs necessary to support a constructivist learning environment.



REPRESENTATIVE QUESTIONS OF CONCERN Which version of constructivism is suitable as a basis for my teaching? Is my classroom supposed to be a collection of individuals working toward conceptual change or a community of learners whose development is measured by participation in authentic disciplinary practices? If certain ideas are considered correct by experts, should students internalize those ideas instead of constructing their own?



II. Pedagogical dilemmas: Honoring students’ attempts to think for themselves while remaining faithful to accepted disciplinary ideas; developing deeper knowledge of subject matter; mastering the art of facilitation; managing new kinds of discourse and collaborative work in the classroom.



Do I base my teaching on students’ existing ideas rather than on learning objectives? What skills and strategies are necessary for me to become a facilitator? How do I manage a classroom where students are talking to one another rather than to me? Should I place limits on students’ construction of their own ideas? What types of assessments will capture the learning I want to foster?



III. Cultural dilemmas: Becoming conscious of the culture of your classroom; questioning assumptions about what kinds of activities should be valued; taking advantage of experiences, discourse patterns, and local knowledge of students with varied cultural backgrounds.



How can we contradict traditional, efficient classroom routines and generate new agreements with students about what is valued and rewarded? How do my own past images of what is proper and possible in a classroom prevent me from seeing the potential for a different kind of learning environment? How can I accommodate the worldviews of students from diverse backgrounds while at the same time transforming my own classroom culture? Can I trust students to accept responsibility for their own learning?



IV. Political dilemmas: Confronting issues of accountability with various stakeholders in the school community; negotiating with key others the authority and support to teach for understanding.



How can I gain the support of administrators and parents for teaching in such a radically different and unfamiliar way? Should I make use of approved curriculums that are not sensitive enough to my students’ needs, or should I create my own? How can diverse problem-based experiences help students meet specific state and local standards? Will constructivist approaches adequately prepare my students for high-stakes testing for college admissions?



Source: M. Windschitl. (2002). Framing Constructivism in Practice as the Negotiation of Dilemmas: An Analysis of the Conceptual, Pedagogical, Cultural, and Political Challenges Facing Teachers. Review of Educational Research, 72, p. 133. Copyright © 2002 by the American Educational Research Association. Reproduced with permission of the publisher.



from these different conceptions. We also know that all teaching today happens in a context of high-stakes testing and accountability. In these situations, constructivist teachers face many challenges. Mark Windschitl (2002) identified four teacher dilemmas of constructivism in practice, summarized in Table 10.6. MyLab Education Self-Check 10.3



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DESIGNING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS IN A DIGITAL WORLD It seems that computers, smart phones, iPads, tablets, digital readers, wikis, and interactive video games, along with iCloud, Facebook, Twitter, Google, WhatsApp, Snapchat, Instagram, Scratch, . . . and other digital tools and media have changed life for everyone. Homes and schools are filled with media. Many of your students will have had computers, even from early ages. Their immersion in virtual reality games may make traditional school activities seem tame and boring by comparison (Common Sense Media, 2013; Connor-Zachocki, Husbye, & Gee, 2015; Graesser, 2013; Lenhart, 2015; Turkle, 2011). STOP & THINK How many digital devices are you using right now? How many do you own? •



MyLab Education



Video Example 10.4 In this video, high school students develop instruction for younger students to help them learn appropriate and safe behaviors for online exchanges. As you watch, consider how technology supports learning.



For many students, doing homework often involves exchanging messages with friends via email, texting, or cell phones, searching the Web, and downloading resources—all the time listening to music via a phone (D. F. Roberts, Foehr, & Rideout, 2005). These students have never known a world without digital media, so they have been called digital natives, homo zappiens, the Net generation, iGenerations, or Google Generation (Kirschner & van Merriënboer, 2013). Students are at least as expert at using technology as their teachers and most of this expertise was acquired outside of school (Graesser, 2013).



Technology and Learning Does technology use support academic learning? The answer is complex and even surprising. One review concluded that using computer tutorial programs appeared to improve achievement test scores for K–12 students, but simulations and enrichment programs had few effects—perhaps another example that when you teach and test specific skills, children learn the skills. Computers are more likely to increase achievement if they support the basic processes that lead to learning: active engagement, frequent interaction with feedback, authenticity and real-world connection, and productive group work (Graesser, 2013; A. Jackson et al., 2006; Tamim, Bernard, Borokhovski, Abrami, & Schmid, 2011). Computers can be useful to teach basic reading processes such as word decoding or phonological awareness or basic number sense because specialized software can provide individual feedback, move at the right pace for each student, and increase motivation. Well-designed programs also can improve listening and reading comprehension (Baroody et al., 2013; Potocki, Ecalle, & Magnan, 2013; R. Savage et al., 2013). Like any teaching tool, computers can be effective if used well, but just being on a computer will not automatically increase academic achievement. TECHNOLOGY-RICH ENVIRONMENTS. With all the technology available today, interest in technology-rich learning environments (TREs) is growing. These environments include virtual worlds, computer simulations that support problem-based learning, intelligent tutoring systems, educational games, audio recordings, wikis, hand-held wireless devices, and multimedia environments—to name just a few. There are three kinds of uses for technology in schools. First, teachers can design technology-based activities for their classrooms, for virtual learning environments, or for blended models using both in-class and virtual environments. Second, students can interact with technologies in a variety of ways, such as by using a computer or tablet to complete assignments or by collaborating in a virtual environment with other students or teachers using interactive cloud computing applications. Cloud computing allows computer users online access to applications such as Google documents or Microsoft Web Mail along with computing assets such as network-accessible data storage and processing. Finally, administrators use technology to track teacher, class, and student information in school, district, or statewide systems. You could be involved with any or all three of these uses of technology in your teaching. A golden rule for technology integration



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in any classroom is that you do not need to reinvent the wheel. Focus on identifying centers of expertise where existing resources are available to adapt and build on. VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS. Virtual learning environments (VLEs) is a broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual systems. The most traditional VLE is referred to as a learning management system (LMS). LMSs deliver e-learning using applications such as Moodle, BlackBoard, RCampus, and D2L. LMSs are large, complex, and costly—my university uses a system we call “Carmen” to support every course on campus. My Carmen sites have readings, discussion groups, class-built wikis, PowerPoints, Weblinks, a calendar, and many other resources. We taught classes without these assets for decades, but the LMS has expanded our teaching and learning options. To deal with costs, some institutions use free open-source software to construct VLEs. Tools that support open-source software include Moodle, Google Apps, and PBWorks. Betty’s Brain is an example of a VLE developed by Vanderbilt and Stanford Universities (go to http://www.vanderbilt.edu and search betty’s brain for more information). Using this computer-based system, students are challenged to “teach” a topic in science to a computer agent known as Betty. The system provides hypertext resources for the students to use in planning their instruction (and learning the concepts and processes under study). As I have discovered so many times in my life, the best way to learn something is to teach it. Remember, the research on cooperative learning shows that the explainer learns more than the listener (O’Donnell, 2006). Like all good teachers, the students who are working with Betty must keep track of how well she is learning—by asking Betty to answer questions and take quizzes. The computer system also incudes an expert on the topic, Mr. Davis, who grades Betty’s work and mentors the student “teachers.” See Figure 10.4 for an example screen from Betty’s Brain. PERSONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS. There are different kinds of VLEs. A personal learning environment (PLE) framework provides tools that support individualized learning



FIGU RE 1 0.4 BETTY’S BRAIN: A VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Betty’s Brain is a computer-based learning environment that uses learning-by-teaching to engage students in learning about science topics.



Virtual learning environments (VLE) A broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual or online systems. Learning management system (LMS) Systems that deliver e-learning, provide tools and learning materials, keep records, administer assessments, and manage learning.



Source: Based on http://www.teachableagents.org/research/bettysbrain.php



Personal learning environment (PLE) Provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations.



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in a variety of contexts and situations; the learners assume control of how and when their learning occurs. Students working in PLEs can download an assignment at a coffee shop, read the material on the bus, and then post an analysis on the discussion board at 4:00 A.M. from their room. Learning in PLEs can be asynchronous—taking place any time and anywhere. Complex PLEs include tools that assess learners’ knowledge and then adapt the next content to fit their unique needs. Tools that support PLEs include computer-based training modules, e-books, cognitive tutors, quizzes, and self-assessment tools. Many have been very successful. For example, the intelligent tutoring system (ITS) Cognitive Tutors teaches mathematics in schools throughout the United States (Graesser, 2013). Math is one thing, but how about more ill-structured domains like writing? An ITS can help here, too. In one study with tenth graders, Writing Pal improved essay writing, although the students found some aspects of the system annoying (Roscoe & McNamara, 2013). A personal learning network (PLN) is a framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. PLNs consist of both synchronous (real-time) and asynchronous technologies using interactive Web conferencing, hybrid classes, or online discussions. A PLN can be used for K–12 instructional purposes and also as a resource for professional development. Social networking tools such as Facebook, Twitter, Edutopia, and EdWeb allow the instruction to move outside the school, city, and even country to include learners with similar interests around the globe. Tools that support PLNs include Web conferencing tools, such as Adobe Connect instant messaging, interactive video and audio messaging, social networking, discussion boards, and blogs. IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS. The most complex VLE is an immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE). The IVLE is a simulation of a real-world



environment. The purpose is to learn through enculturation, for example, by being eco explorers in the rainforest or reporters covering a story about an outbreak of food poisoning in a local school (Gee, 2008; Gibson, Aldrich, & Prensky, 2006; Shaffer et al., 2009). IVLEs are designed to be domain specific using realistic scenarios (Bagley & Shaffer, 2009; Shaffer et al., 2009). IVLE experiences mimic tasks required in a professional practicum, such as interviewing sources for a news story about food poisoning, following leads to identify the source of a problem, and crafting an accurate engaging article, thus blending real-world engagement in a virtual scenario. These immersive environments often include cognitive tutors; the technology is programmed to interact as a tutor by providing prompts after analyzing the student’s response.



Personal learning network (PLN) Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE) A simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum.



GAMES. What about educational games? Certainly students use games outside school. One estimate is that American students ages 8 to 18 spend an average of 13 hours a week playing video games—some more and some less, but some up to 30 hours a week. Often students are playing with others who may or may not be in the same room, or even time zone. Over 50% of adults also play video games—you may be one (Arena, 2015; Lenhart, 2015). Many researchers suggest games provide a natural, engaging form of learning and that “combining games with educational objectives could not only trigger students’ learning motivation, but also provide them with interactive learning opportunities” (Sung & Hwang, 2013, p. 44). Games might include a knowledge base developed by experts, a challenge to students in the form of a problem or role-play, and a final product such as creating a database, report, design, or problem solution. But as a teacher, you may not have access to well-designed video games that match or support your curriculum. How can you capitalize on students’ extensive gaming outside school? One suggestion is to think of games as ways of “tilling the soil,” getting students ready for learning by developing prior knowledge (Arena, 2015). For example, Motion Math: Pizza, available from the iTunes App Store, gives students experience with the concept of supply and demand as they operate a pizza store. Angry Birds gives students experience with scientifically accurate trajectories of projectiles—a basis for learning about Newtonian physics. There are curricula that explore conservation of momentum, terminal velocity, and other subjects based on Portal2 (go to the Teach with Portals Web site).Teachers have developed



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semester-long projects based on the game series Civilization. To see other ideas, go to the Educade Web site. Even though not all your students will play the same games, you still can develop lessons around the games they do play. For example, a language arts teacher might assign a persuasive essay requiring each student to convince the rest of the class to play his or her favorite game. This means that student write based on personal expertise and motivation. See Arena (2015) for more ideas. But even with this promise, there is no guarantee that students will learn from all educational games or transfer their learning to situations outside the game ( Jabbar, & Felicia, 2015; Ownston, 2012; Roschelle, 2013). Pieter Wouters and his colleagues in the Netherlands (2013) analyzed 38 studies of serious educational computer games conducted from 1990 to 2012. They concluded that games were more effective than traditional instruction in terms of learning and retention, but not in terms of motivation, the one thing you might think would be an asset for games. Students participating in games learned more when the games were not the only method but were supplemented with other forms of instruction, when there were multiple sessions, and when the students worked in groups. In addition, based on a synthesis of research with K–12 students, Douglas Clark and his colleagues (2016) concluded games designed to enhance learning, particularly games that included scaffolding that adapted the game to students’ individual needs and interests, were more effective than teaching approaches that did not include games. Massive multi-player online games (MMOGs) are interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds in which the learner assumes a character role of avatar. Many of these games have affinity groups—online communities that share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games. These groups provide practice in problem solving, communication, reading, and writing. In fact, students who don’t seem to be good readers in school can be very capable readers of even complex text when they are trying to improve their gaming skills—a goal that makes sense to them. The University of Wisconsin Casual Learning Lab is using the wildly popular World of Warcraft as part of an after-school learning program. See wowinschool.pbworks.com/ for some ideas (King, 2015).



Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children Digital media are appealing, but are they appropriate for preschool children? This is a hotly debated issue. In making decisions about computers and young children, ask these four questions (Bullard, 2017): • • • •



Is it the best tool for the job? Will it produce added value to the activity? Is the activity itself beneficial to the child? Are the benefits worth the costs?



Developmentally appropriate ways to use computers with 3- and 4-year-olds differ from the ways we use computers in kindergarten and the primary grades. Here are a few guidelines. Computers should not be used to do solitary drill-and-practice activities. Software for young children should include simple spoken directions; the activities should be open-ended and encourage discovery, exploration, problem solving, understanding of cause and effect, and social interaction. Children should be able to remain in control of the activities through a variety of responses. Finally, the content should be appropriate for and respectful of diverse cultures, ages, and abilities (M. A. Fischer & Gillespie, 2003; Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2012; Tsantis, Bewick, & Thouvenelle, 2003). There is another important consideration: Do the program’s multimedia features (e.g., embedded videos, zoom-ins, music, added sounds, images) add to learning or take away from it? One danger is that programs will include attractive visuals or sound effects that actually interrupt and interfere with the development of important concepts. For example, do the sounds of a buzz saw and the thud of a falling tree in a Peter Rabbit storytelling program foster distractibility and interfere with understanding the story, plot,



Massive multi-player online games (MMOG) Interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds where the learner assumes a character role, or avatar. Affinity groups Online communities for video game users where they can share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games they are playing.



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FIGUR E 10 .5 CHECKLIST FOR SELECTING APPROPRIATE SOFTWARE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN When screening software, consider the following criteria: ❑ Does the software have high educational or informational value? Is value added by using the software? Or would this information be better presented in a different format? ❑ Is the software developmentally appropriate for the children using it? According to Haugland (2005), only 20% of software is appropriate for children. Beware of software that is just an electronic work sheet page. The age limit, educational objectives, and educational philosophy should be clearly stated (Peterson, Verenikina, & Herrington, 2008). ❑ Is the software designed so that the child can use it independently (simple and clear directions, uses speech when appropriate, uses picture menus, and organized for intuitive use) (Prairie, 2005)? ❑ If providing simulations, they are realistic and real-world (Peterson, Verenikina, & Herrington, 2008). ❑ Is the child able to exercise control when using the software (sets the pace, can repeat a process, can stop and resume, chooses from multiple paths, and frequently saves)? ❑ Does the software encourage active learning (requires active participation and encourages exploration and further investigation, allows for trial and error)? ❑ Is the software exciting and interesting (utilizes many senses including sound, music, and voice; includes graphics and sounds that are motivating for young children; and is relevant to the group of children using the software)? ❑ Does the software scaffold children’s learning (provides increasing challenges and a variety of levels, provides nonthreatening feedback allowing children to know their progress, provides hints and instruction, and does not penalize for mistakes)? ❑ Is the software anti-bias, containing respectful images of diverse cultures, multiple languages, people of different ages, abilities, colors, and diverse family structures (NAEYC, 1996)? ❑ Does the software promote prosocial values (no violence or implicit violence is present such as “blowing it up” to get rid of mistakes) (Tsantis, Bewick, & Thouvenelle, 2003)? ❑ Is the software preselected to match curricular goals, and is the software tied closely to other curricular activities? Software should support or be supported by the curriculum. ❑ Does the software have high-quality graphics and sounds? Graphics and sound need to add to the quality rather than being distracting. ❑ Is the software accessible for children with special needs? ❑ Does the software provide delight, enchantment, and adventure such as opportunities for free exploration, finding hidden secrets, and elements of surprise (Plowman, McPake, & Stephen, 2012)?



Source: Bullard, J. (2017). Creating Environments for Learning: Birth to Age Eight (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson, p. 348. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



and characters? Maybe (Tsantis et al., 2003). The bottom line is that multimedia elements should focus on meaning and not just provide attractive “bells and whistles.” Figure 10.5 is a checklist for evaluating software for young children. See the Guidelines: Using Computers for more ideas. COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND CODING. Using technology for learning and for life has become so pervasive for all ages that some educators argue students should



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GUIDELINES Using Computers IF YOU HAVE ONLY ONE COMPUTER IN YOUR CLASSROOM Provide convenient access. Examples 1. Find a central location if the computer is used to display material for the class. 2. Find a spot on the side of the room that allows seating and view of the screen, but does not crowd or disturb other students if the computer is used as a workstation for individuals or small groups. Be prepared. Examples 1. Check to be sure software needed for a lesson or assignment is installed and working. 2. Make sure instructions for using the software or doing the assignment are in an obvious place and clear. 3. Provide a checklist for completing assignments. Create “trained experts” to help with computers. Examples 1. Train student experts, and rotate experts. 2. Use adult volunteers—parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles, older siblings—anyone who cares about the students. Develop systems for using the computer. Examples 1. Make up a schedule to ensure that all students have access to the computer and no students monopolize the time. 2. Create standard ways of saving student work. IF YOU HAVE MORE THAN ONE COMPUTER IN YOUR CLASSROOM Plan the arrangement of the computers to fit your instructional goals. Examples 1. For cooperative groups, arrange so students can cluster around their group’s computer. 2. For different projects at different computer stations, allow for easy rotation from station to station. Experiment with other models for using computers. Examples 1. Navigator Model—four students per computer: One student is the (mouse and keyboard) driver, another is the “navigator.” “Back-seat driver 1” manages the group’s progress and “back-seat driver 2” serves as the timekeeper. The navigator attends a 10- to 20-minute training session in which the facilitator provides an



overview of the basics of particular software. Navigators cannot touch the mouse. Driver roles are rotated. 2. Facilitator Model—six students per computer: he facilitator has more experience, expertise, or training and serves as the guide or teacher. 3. Collaborative Group Model—seven students per computer: Each small group is responsible for creating some component of the whole group’s final product. For example, one part of the group writes a report, another creates a map, and a third uses the computer to gather and graph census data. NO MATTER HOW MANY COMPUTERS YOU HAVE IN YOUR CLASSROOM Select developmentally appropriate programs that encourage learning, creativity, and social interaction. Examples 1. Encourage two children to work together rather than having children work alone. 2. Check the implicit messages in programs. For example, some drawing programs allow children to “blow up” their projects if they don’t like them, so instead of solving a problem, they just destroy it. Tsantis et al. (2003) recommend a recycle metaphor instead of a “blow it up” option. 3. Look for programs that encourage discovery, exploration, problem solving, and multiple responses. Monitor children as they work at computers. Examples 1. Make sure computers are in areas where adults can observe them. 2. Discuss with children why some programs or Web sites are off limits. 3. Balance computer time with active play such as hands-on projects, blocks, sand, water, and art. Keep children safe as they work at computers. Examples 1. Teach children to shield their identity on the Internet and monitor any “friends” they may be communicating with. 2. Install filtering software to protect children from inappropriate content. Sources: Suggestions from Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., & Reifel, S. (2005). Play and Child Development (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp. 76–80, and Tsantis, L. A., Bewick, C. J., & Thouvenelle, S. (2003, November). Examining Some Common Myths About Computer Use in the Early Years. Beyond the Journal: Young Children on the Web (pp. 1–9). Bullard, J. (2017). Creating Environments for Learning: Birth to Age Eight (3rd Ed.). Boston: Pearson, pp. 342–352.



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learn computational thinking, defined as “knowing how to use data, models, simulations, and algorithmic thinking to formulate and solve problems” (Malby et al., 2017, p. 160), in other words, thinking like a computer scientist. According to the national K–12 Computer Science Standards, computational thinking is a skill that students should begin to develop in elementary school (http://www.csteachers.org). Computational thinking includes, but is not limited to, programming and coding. Since the 1980s and 1990s when Seymore Papert (1980, 1991) introduced LOGO programming and turtle graphics for children, interest has grown in teaching students to code. Some educators claimed that programming teaches students to think logically in all areas, but others said programming just helped students learn to program. Even so, there is ongoing interest in and advocacy for the value of coding as a way to foster computational thinking. High school courses in computing are growing in popularity. For example, between 2010 and 2014, enrollment in computing courses increased by almost 800% (ECS, 2014). See the Exploring Computer Science Web site for ideas about curriculum (exploringcs.org). Simple programing languages available today include Scratch, Alice, GameMaker, Kodable Pro, Cargo-Bot, Kodu, Daisy the Dinosaur, and Greenfoot. There is even a version of Scratch (developed by MIT) called Scratch Jr. that will allow children from kindergarten through second grade to program (Guernsey, 2013)! Many of these languages allow even very young students to build programs by snapping together images of blocks on the computer screen. The way the blocks snap together controls actions of different characters on the computer screen (Grover & Pea, 2013). Costumes, sounds, colors, and other effects can be added. Table 10.7 provides other resources for learning to code. MEDIA/DIGITAL LITERACY. With the advent of digital media comes a new concern with literacy—media or digital literacy. Today, to be literate—to be able to read, write, and communicate—children have to read and write in many media, not just printed words. Films, videos, DVDs, computers, photographs, artwork, magazines, music, TV, billboards, and more communicate through images and sounds. How do children read these messages? This is a new area of research and application in educational and developmental psychology. As an example of application, consider Project Look Sharp at Ithaca College, directed by Cynthia Scheibe, a developmental psychologist. The goal of the project is to provide materials, training, and support as teachers integrate media literacy and critical thinking about media into their class lessons. Teachers participating in the project help their students become critical readers of media. For example, during the 2016 U.S. Presidential election, Project Look Sharp provided 10 different lesson plans that helped students decode the candidates’ campaign ads, videos, Web sites, articles, and news releases on topics such as racial justice, national security, voting rights, economic inequality, climate change, and immigration. In the first lesson, students view one video ad from each TABLE 10.7 • Resources for Teaching Coding



Computational thinking The thought processes involved in formulating problems so you can represent their solution steps and algorithms for computing.



ORGANIZATION



WEBSITE



Girls Who Code



https://girlswhocode.com



Technology Education and Literacy in Schools



https://www.tealsk12.org



Made with Code from Google



https://www.madewithcode.com



Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Thinking



https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~compthink/



Coding in the Classroom, Edutopia



https://www.edutopia.org/topic/ coding-classroom



Source: Based on Malby, R. W., Verock, R-E., Edwards, S. A., & Woolf, B. P. (2017). Transforming Learning with New Technologies (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.



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candidate that depicts African American males. Students then decode the videos to determine each candidate’s point of view on protecting African American rights and identify specific ways those attitudes are communicated in the videos. Project Look Sharp suggests questions such as the following to guide discussion of media: 1. Who made—and who sponsored—this message, and why was it made? Who paid for it? 2. Who is the target audience, and how do you know? 3. What are the different techniques used, and why are they used? 4. What messages are communicated (and/or implied)? What is your interpretation, and why? 5. How current, accurate, and credible is the information in this message? 6. What is left out of the message that might be good to know? The Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy give more ideas from Scheibe and Rogow (2008) for supporting the development of media literacy in your students—a skill that seems more important than ever.



GUIDELINES Supporting the Development of Media Literacy Use media to practice general observation, critical thinking, analysis, perspective taking, and communication skills. Examples 1. Ask students to think critically about the information presented in advertising, “news” programs, and textbooks. Would different people interpret the messages in differing ways? 2. Foster creativity and communication by having students produce their own media on a topic you are studying. 3. Ask students to compare ways information might be presented in a documentary, TV news report, advertisement, public service announcement, and so on. 4. Give examples of how word selection, background music, camera angles, color, and so on, can be used to set a mood or bias a message. Use media to stimulate interest in a new topic. Examples 1. Have students work in small groups to read, analyze, and discuss a controversial magazine, newspaper, or online article about the topic. 2. Ask students to do a media search for information about a topic. 3. Use a short video, magazine illustration, blog entry, or brief article to stimulate discussion, encouraging students to express what they already know or their opinion about a topic. Help students identify what they already know or believe about a topic based on popular media content. Help them identify erroneous beliefs. Examples 1. What do students “know” about space travel?



2. What have they learned about biology from advertisements? Use media as a standard pedagogical tool. Examples 1. Encourage students to follow (and write about) current events, including tracking a single story across diverse media sources. 2. Assign homework that makes use of different media. 3. Have students express opinions or attempt to persuade using different media, including photographs, collages, videos, poems, songs, animated films. Analyze the effects that media had on historical events. Examples 1. How were Native Americans portrayed in art and in films? 2. What sources of information were available 50 years ago? 100 years ago? Use video effectively. Examples 1. Show short segments, not whole films or programs. 2. Leave the lights on to encourage active viewing and discussion. 3. Before viewing, let students know what they should be looking/listening for. 4. Pause periodically during viewing to point out important information or ask questions. For more ideas, see the Project Look Sharp Web site.



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FIGUR E 10 .6 TRADITIONAL AND FLIPPED CLASSROOMS Traditional Classroom



What happens during class



What happens outside of class



Flipped Classroom



Teacher-led instruction with whole groups, small groups, and individuals



Student-led activities with whole groups, small groups, and individuals



Students as learners



Students as teachers and learners



Teacher comes ready to teach by imparting information or directing activities



Students come prepared to learn by doing activities and adding to online information



Students do homework using paper worksheets and writing prompts



Students watch videos or pencasts or listen to podcasts of teacher presentations



Reading assignments come from paper textbooks



Reading assignments come from online textbooks or interactive web resources



Source: Maloy, R. W., Verock, R-E., Edwards, S. A., & Woolf, B. P. (2017). Transforming Learning with New Technologies (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson, p. 42]



The Flipped Classroom Some of you reading this book have viewed Salman Khan’s TED talk about reinventing education. Khan founded a nonprofit educational organization that produces video tutorials on mathematics and many other subjects. If you haven’t checked it out, I recommend you spend some time exploring the Khan Academy Web site. In his TED talk, Khan described one use of his tutorials––to “flip the classroom.” In a flipped classroom what usually happens in class—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, direct teaching—is moved outside class, and what usually happens at home—homework, projects, practice—happens in class under the teacher’s supervision and support. This arrangement allows the individual student to learn at his or her own pace away from school, and transforms the classroom into a more dynamic and interactive group learning space where time can be spent reviewing and applying concepts studied at home, getting further teacher or peer explanation and scaffolding, and assessment with feedback. Invention and creativity should be encouraged. It appears that teachers are listening. In 2014, 78% of teachers in a national survey reported that they had flipped at least one lesson and 45% said they flipped once or twice a week (Malby et al., 2017). What does a flipped classroom look like? Figure 10.6 gives some basics. In many ways the flipped classroom is a good example of constructivist teaching. Teachers are no longer just providers of information. Students use teacher-produced worksheets, minilectures, and outlines as well as readings and other study tools to learn at home. If all the students have access to the Internet, other at-home learning activities can be added such as online resources, video tutorials, and collaborative discussions. In class, the teacher’s role is changed to facilitator and scaffolder of learning. Groups can work on activities at their level, allowing teachers to differentiate instruction to students’ needs. For students who do not have access to powerful learning technologies at home, some class time can be devoted to online research, learning games, wikis, blogs, creating digital portfolios, listening to or creating podcasts, or using learning apps. In college, whole courses might be flipped by putting all the lectures and readings online through Blackboard or Moodle, but in elementary or secondary schools, the teacher may just flip one lesson—doing assignments outside class to prepare for project-based activities in class, for example (Malby et al., 2017). Of course, to take advantage of the flipped classroom, students have to be self-disciplined to engage deeply with the lectures or PowerPoints at home and unsupervised. MyLab Education Self-Check 10.4



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. SUMMARY Cognitive and Social Constructivism (pp. 382–387) Describe two kinds of constructivism.  Constructivism is more a philosophy about knowledge than a scientific theory of learning. Cognitive constructivists such as Piaget are concerned with how individuals make sense of their world, based on individual knowledge and beliefs. Social constructivists such as Vygotsky believe that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning. By participating in a broad range of activities with others, learners appropriate the outcomes produced by working together; they acquire new strategies and knowledge of their world. In what ways do constructivist views differ about knowledge sources, accuracy, and generality?  Constructivists debate whether knowledge is constructed by mapping external reality, by adapting and changing internal understandings, or by an interaction of external forces and internal understandings. Most psychologists believe there is a role for both internal and external factors, but differ in how much they emphasize one or the other. Also, there is discussion about whether knowledge can be constructed in one situation and applied to another or whether knowledge is situated—specific and tied to the context in which it was learned. What is meant by thinking as enculturation?  Enculturation is a broad and complex process of acquiring knowledge and understanding consistent with Vygotsky’s theory of mediated learning. Just as our home culture taught us lessons about the use of language, the culture of a classroom can teach lessons about thinking by giving us models of good thinking; providing direct instruction in thinking processes; and encouraging practice of those thinking processes through interactions with others. What are some common elements in most constructivist views of learning? Even though there is no single constructivist theory, many constructivist approaches recommend complex, challenging learning environments and authentic tasks; social negotiation and co-construction; multiple perspectives and representations of content; understanding that knowledge is constructed; and student ownership of learning.



Designing Constructivist Learning Environments (pp. 387–398) What are some basic assumptions to guide the design of learning environments?  Key assumptions to guide design are that experts develop deep conceptual knowledge, learning comes from the learner, creating learning environments is the responsibility of the school, students’ prior knowledge is key, and reflection is a critical component of learning. These common assumptions enable researchers from a variety of disciplines to address the same issues of learning from a variety of perspectives. What is scaffolding? Scaffolding involves making connections between teachers’ cultural knowledge and the everyday experience and knowledge of the student by providing supports for learning—prompts, cues, needed information, coaching, and so on. Scaffolding includes both motivational and cognitive support—helping students stay engaged and interested while also helping them move toward deeper



learning. Motivational support includes supports such as connecting to student interests, redirecting attention, and coping with frustration. Cognitive supports include tailoring instruction, fading supports, and gradually transferring responsibility to students. How can teachers facilitate using advance organizers and deep questioning?  Advance organizers facilitate instruction by providing introductory material broad enough to encompass all the information that will follow. The organizers can serve three purposes: They direct your attention to what is important in the upcoming material, they highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented, and they remind you of relevant information you already have. Teachers also can facilitate learning by training students in how to ask and answer deep questions when they read, listen to a lecture, or participate in class discussions. These questions prompt students to reason about underlying principles and big ideas in the content, make reasoned arguments, and provide evidence. Distinguish between inquiry methods and problem-based learning. The inquiry strategy begins when the teacher presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students ask questions (only yes–no questions in some kinds of inquiry) and then formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem; collect data to test the hypotheses about casual relationships; form conclusions and generalizations; and reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it. Problem-based learning may follow a similar path, but the learning begins with an authentic problem—one that matters to the students. The goal is to learn math or science or history or some other important subject while seeking a real solution to a real problem. Describe six features that most cognitive apprenticeship approaches share.  Students observe an expert (usually the teacher) model the performance; get external support through coaching or tutoring; and receive conceptual scaffolding, which is then gradually faded as the students become more competent and proficient. Students continually articulate their knowledge—putting into words their understanding of the processes and content being learned. They reflect on their progress, comparing their problem solving to an expert’s performance and to their own earlier performances. Finally, students explore new ways to apply what they are learning—ways that they have not practiced at the master’s side. Describe the use of dialogue in reciprocal teaching.  The goal of reciprocal teaching is to help students understand and think deeply about what they read. To accomplish this goal, students in small reading groups learn four strategies: summarizing the content of a passage, asking a question about the central point, clarifying the difficult parts of the material, and predicting what will come next. These strategies are practiced in a classroom dialogue about the readings. Teachers first take a central role, but as the discussion progresses, the students take more and more control.



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Collaboration and Cooperation (pp. 398–409) What are the differences between collaboration and cooperation? One view is that collaboration is a philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work. Collaboration is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. Cooperation, on the other hand, is a way of working together with others to attain a shared goal. Describe five elements that define true cooperative learning.  Promotive interaction means that group members encourage and facilitate each other’s efforts. They usually interact face-to-face and close together, but they also could interact via digital media around the world. Group members experience positive interdependence; they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. Even though they work together and help each other, members of the group must ultimately demonstrate learning on their own. They are held individually accountable for learning, often through individual tests or other assessments. If necessary, the collaborative skills important for effective group functioning, such as giving constructive feedback, reaching consensus, and involving every member, are taught and practiced before the groups tackle a learning task. Finally, members monitor group processes and relationships to make sure the group is working effectively and to learn about the dynamics of groups. What are the learning theory underpinnings of cooperative learning and what can go wrong? Learning can be enhanced in cooperative groups through rehearsal and elaboration (information processing theories), creation and resolution of disequilibrium (Piaget’s theory), or scaffolding of higher mental processes (Vygotsky’s theory). But if there is pressure in a group for conformity—perhaps because rewards are being misused or one student dominates the others—interactions can be unproductive and unreflective. Without feedback about accuracy, misconceptions might be reinforced, or the worst, not the best, ideas may be combined to construct a superficial or even incorrect understanding. Students who work in groups but arrive at wrong answers may be more confident that they are right. Also, the ideas of low-status students may be ignored or even ridiculed while the contributions of high-status students are accepted and reinforced, regardless of the merit of either set of ideas. How should tasks match design in cooperative learning?  Teachers have a role before, during, and after cooperative learning. First, they must select an appropriate task. A relatively structured task works well with a structured technique; extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation, effort, and persistence under these conditions; roles, especially those that focus attention on the work to be accomplished, also may be productive. On the other hand, strategies that encourage extended and productive interactions are appropriate when the goal is to develop higher-order thinking and problem solving. The use of rewards may well divert the group away from the goal of in-depth cognitive processing. When the goal of peer learning is enhanced social skills or increased intergroup understanding and appreciation of diversity, the assignment of specific roles and functions within the group might support communication. Rewards probably are not necessary and may actually get in the way because the goal is to build community, a sense of respect, and responsibility for team members. What are some possible strategies for cooperative learning?  Strategies include reciprocal questioning, Jigsaw, constructive/



structured controversy, and many cooperative structures described by Spencer Kagan. But cooperative learning is not for everyone. Sometimes students with learning disabilities and students with more advanced knowledge do not benefit from cooperative learning. What are some dilemmas of constructivist practice?  The first is conceptual: How do I make sense of cognitive versus social conceptions of constructivism and reconcile these different perspectives with my practice? The second dilemma is pedagogical: How do I teach in truly constructivist ways that both honor my students’ attempts to think for themselves, but still ensure that they learn the academic material? Third are cultural dilemmas: What activities, cultural knowledge, and ways of talking will build a community in a diverse classroom? Finally, there are political dilemmas: How can I teach for deep understanding and critical thinking, but still satisfy the accountability demands of parents and the requirements of state achievement testing?



Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World (pp. 410–418) What are some possible uses of technology in education?  Technology such as computers, iPads, tablets, smart phones, digital readers, and interactive gaming systems are extremely popular among young people. In education, virtual learning environment (VTE) is a broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual systems. There are different kinds of VLEs. The most traditional VLE is referred to as a learning management system (LMS). LMSs deliver e-learning using applications such as Moodle and BlackBoard. A personal learning environment (PLE) framework provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations; the learners assume control of how and when their learning occurs. A personal learning network (PLN) is a framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. The most complex VLE is an immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE). The IVLE is a simulation of a real-world environment where students work alone or with others to solve problems, create projects, simulate the skills of experts, visit historical sites, tour world-class museums, or play games that teach and apply academic skills. Technology by itself will not guarantee improvement in academic achievement; like any tool, technology must be used well by confident, competent teachers. Some educators are suggesting that all students should learn computational thinking—thinking like a computer scientist—to formulate and solve problems that can be solved using the computational processes like those applied by computers. Many systems allow even very young students to create computer programs. Also, every student should learn to critically evaluate all the digital media that bombards us today. What is a flipped classroom? One possibility for using technology is the flipped classroom. In a flipped classroom, what usually happens in class—lessons, lectures, note taking, worksheets, direct teaching—is moved outside class, and what usually happens at home—homework, projects, practice—happens in class under the teacher’s supervision and support. For students who do not have access to powerful learning technologies at home, some class time can be devoted to online research, learning games, wikis, blogs, creating digital portfolios, listening to or creating podcasts, or using learning apps.



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. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Applying Constructivist Perspectives



Social Constructivism in a Mathematics Class



Learning in a Digital World



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Application Exercise 10.1



Application Exercise 10.2



Application Exercise 10.3



. KEY TERMS Advance organizer (p. 390) Affinity groups (p. 413) Appropriating (p. 384) Cognitive apprenticeship (p. 396) Collaboration (p. 399) Community of practice (p. 385) Complex learning environments (p. 386) Computational thinking (p. 416) Constructive/Structured controversy (p. 406) Constructivism/Constructivist approach (p. 382) Cooperation (p. 399)



Cooperative learning (p. 399) Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE) (p. 412) Inquiry learning (p. 392) Intersubjective attitude (p. 387) Jigsaw classroom (p. 406) Learning management system (LMS) (p. 411) Learning sciences (p. 388) Massive multi-player online games (MMOG) (p. 413) Multiple representations of content (p. 387)



Personal learning environment (PLE) (p. 411) Personal learning network (PLN) (p. 412) Problem-based learning (p. 393) Radical constructivism (p. 383) Reciprocal questioning (p. 405) Reciprocal teaching (p. 397) Scaffolding (p. 389) Situated learning (p. 385) Social negotiation (p. 387) Spiral curriculum (p. 387) Virtual learning environments (VLE) (p. 411)



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CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE



MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which one of the following activities would NOT be consistent with a constructivist environment? A. Students are given frequent opportunities to engage in complex, meaningful, problem-based activities. B. Students work collaboratively and are given support to engage in task-oriented dialogue with one another. C. Teachers elicit students’ ideas and experiences in relationship to key topics, then fashion learning situations that assist students in elaborating on or restructuring their current knowledge. D. Teachers employ limited assessment strategies and give feedback on products rather than processes. 2. In Mr. Lawrence’s classroom, students are engaged in learning the art of driving. They watch Mr. Lawrence model techniques, receive hints and feedback from him on their performance, and are encouraged to put into words the new skills they are practicing. This type of learning is best referred to as which one of the following? A. Reciprocal teaching B. Cognitive apprenticeship C. Cooperative learning D. Schema building 3. Group activities must be well planned. Students need to be prepared to work in groups, and teachers have to be explicit in stating their expectations. Which one of the following strategies is NOT an element that defines true cooperative learning? A. Positive interdependence and individual accountability B. Group processing C. Competition D. Collaborative and social skills



4. Research demonstrates that constructive controversy can lead to greater learning, open-mindedness, seeing the perspectives of others, creativity, motivation, and engagement. Which one of the following is a set-up for activities that engage students in constructive/structured controversies? A. Students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular argument. B. Each student is part of a group, and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become experts on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. C. Students intuitively understand the design that helps them think deeply about what they read. D. A combination of academic learning with personal and social development for secondary and college students is created.



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case To infuse her class with constructivist strategies, Brenda Rhodes planned several problem-based learning scenarios. One of the scenarios required students to find a solution for their city’s homeless population. Over the past few years, the number of homeless individuals and families had grown alarmingly quickly. Social service agencies, shelters, and businesses in the central city were struggling to deal with the challenge. Brenda believed her students would find the topic interesting and that it met the criteria for problem-based learning. 5. Does Brenda Rhodes’s activity of finding a solution for the city’s homeless population as a topic meet the requirements for problem-based learning? Explain your answer. 6. Identify several types of scaffolding the students might use to help them solve their problem.



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK Learning to Cooperate Here is how some practicing teachers responded to the situation described at the beginning of the chapter about the class that hated cooperative learning. PAULA COLEMER • Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ



First, cooperative learning should be introduced early in the year and used in a variety of ways. Simple activities such as “think-pair-share” or “tell partner two things you learned” are basic ways of having students learn cooperatively. In addition, Socratic seminars are a great way to get students to dialogue together and gain deeper understanding of a concept. A Socratic seminar begins with the facilitator posing an openended question to the group. Participants are encouraged to learn through a meaningful discussion rather than memorizing bits of information. This takes practice, but if introduced early and practiced throughout the year, students will gain higher-level thinking skills. Finally, when having students do a team activity in class, groups need to be placed together thoughtfully and deliberately by the teacher. Team members need to be taught skills necessary for successful group work such as active listening and how to give and receive constructive criticism. Groups should have a variety of abilities, and students should be assigned specific tasks within the group so everyone has a role and purpose. PAUL DRAGIN • ESL Teacher, Grades 9–12 Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH



To introduce cooperative learning, I will begin with some exercises that require no talking, such as puzzles that can only be completed by group cooperation and sharing without any verbal communication. Each group member receives pieces that make up a puzzle; the catch is that some of the pieces belong to another group member’s puzzle. By trading pieces strategically and rapidly, the goal is to be the first group to complete all puzzles. This sets the stage for a discussion about the need to work together, because each person in the group needs something that another team member has in order to complete his or her puzzle. All effective cooperative learning requires the input of each member, and without that input, the activity has no chance of reaching its full potential. The establishment of groups is open to myriad options, and this is a good thing. Randomly assigning students as well as strategically assigning students to work together is an important learning opportunity for each student and better mimics real-world situations where we don’t get to choose our coworkers.



JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher, K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL



To have effective groups, students need to respect each other and feel accepted by their peers. Therefore, it is important to incorporate some class-building and team-building exercises before the groups jump into academic content. The purpose of these activities is to acquaint students with one another and create a sense of community. It will be easier to establish groups if the teacher collects information about the students first. This information can include anything from preferred learning style to favorite subject to career aspirations. It is also important to understand the students’ levels of academic proficiency. Groups should be fluid, because different types of groups will accomplish different outcomes. Teachers need to identify the objectives of an activity before creating the groups for that activity. In some situations, it might be appropriate to group students who are strong in a skill with students who have deficits in that skill. In other cases, it might be more effective to group together students with similar interests or career goals. It is up to the teacher to determine which type of group will result in the most worthwhile outcome for students. LINDA SPARKS • First-Grade Teacher John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA



I have used cooperative learning groups a lot through the years. There are so many things that can be learned and shared from working together. There is always frustration with some students, but overall it seems to work. I also try to set it up in a variety of ways, from letting them select their own groups, picking names out of a hat, and passing out different topics and forming groups based on the topics. I will use assessments to organize a group as well as make sure that each student has a specific task. (Project editor, information manager, organizer, reporter, researcher, etc.) There always seems to be one student ready to take a back seat and let the others in the group do all of the work. We go over the social skills needed to work in a group. We often will post a list in the classroom of simple rules: using appropriate language, speaking quietly and respectfully while working, listening and encouraging team members, and asking for help when needed. While they work in their groups, I will walk around the class and take notes on what is being worked on. I want to make sure there are no misconceptions about the project. After the project is completed, I grade them in a variety of ways. I give a grade to each participant for his/ her contribution to the project, a group grade for the project and/or presentation, and a grade for group participation for the project. Students learn more when they are directly involved in what is being taught. This is yet another style of learning.



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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Failure to Self-Regulate



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION You know that your students need to be organized and self-regulating to do well in both their current and their future classes. But many of the students just don’t seem to know how to take charge of their own learning. They have trouble completing larger projects—many wait until the last minute. They can’t organize their work or decide what is most important. Some can’t even keep up with assignments. Their book bags are disaster areas—filled with long overdue assignment sheets and class handouts from last semester crumbled in with school newsletters and permission slips for field trips. You are concerned because they will need to be much more organized and on top of their work as they progress through their education. You have so much material to cover to meet district guidelines, but many of your students are drowning in the amount of work they already have. CRITICAL THINKING • Which organizational skills do students need to be successful in your subject or class? • What could you do to teach these skills, while still covering the material that will be on the proficiency or achievement tests the students will have to take in the spring? • How would you help students develop an authentic sense of efficacy for guiding their own learning?



Tanor/Shutterstock



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES In the past four chapters, we analyzed different aspects of learning. We considered behavioral and information processing explanations of what and how people learn. We examined complex cognitive processes such as concept learning and problem solving. These explanations of learning focus on the individual and what is happening in his or her “head.” Recent perspectives have called attention to two other aspects of learning that are critical: social and cultural factors. In the previous chapter, we examined psychological and social constructivism. In this chapter, we look at social cognitive theory—a current view of learning and motivation that discusses dynamic interactions among many of the behavioral, personal, and environmental (including social and cultural) factors involved in learning and motivation. Social cognitive theory has its roots in Bandura’s (1977, 1986) early criticisms of behavioral views of learning, as you read in Chapter 7. Social cognitive theory moved beyond behaviorism to focus on humans as self-directed agents who make choices and marshal resources to reach goals. Concepts such as self-efficacy, agency, and self-regulated learning are key in social cognitive theories. These concepts are important in understanding motivation as well, so this chapter provides a good path from learning to the discussion of motivation in the next chapter. We end the chapter with a look back at our tour through different models of instruction. Rather than debating the merits of each approach, we will consider the contributions of these different models of instruction, grounded in different theories of learning. Don’t feel that you must choose the “best” approach—there is no such thing. Even though theorists argue about which model is best, excellent teachers don’t debate. They apply all the approaches, using each one when appropriate. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 11.1



Distinguish between social learning theory and social cognitive theory, including an explanation of triadic reciprocal causality.



Objective 11.2



Discuss the roles of observation and modeling in learning, including factors that support learning by observation.



Objective 11.3



Define self-efficacy and agency, distinguish these concepts from self-concept and self-esteem, explain the sources of self-efficacy, and discuss self-efficacy for teaching.



Objective 11.4



Describe important components of self-regulated learning.



Objective 11.5



Apply your knowledge to teach for self-efficacy and self-regulated learning.



Objective 11.6



Explain the meaning and different applications of four basic theories of learning.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Social Cognitive Theory A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura Beyond Behaviorism Triadic Reciprocal Causality Modeling: Learning by Observing Others Elements of Observational Learning Observational Learning in Teaching Agency and Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem Sources of Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will What Influences Self-Regulation? A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning Reaching Every Student: Examples of SelfRegulation in Two Classrooms Technology and Self-Regulation Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification Emotional Self-Regulation Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation Complex Tasks Control Self-Evaluation Collaboration Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?



SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Most of what is known today as social cognitive theory is based on the work begun by Albert Bandura in the 1950s at Stanford University. Before we talk about the theory, let’s meet the man.



A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura Albert Bandura’s life story should be a movie. You could say he lived the American dream, except that he is from Canada. His parents were immigrants from Central Europe; they chose the rugged land of northern Alberta for their family farm. Bandura’s parents never went to school, but they valued education. His father taught himself to read in three languages, giving young Albert a great model of self-regulated learning—a concept that figures prominently in social cognitive theory today. While attending high school, Bandura worked many jobs, including a stint as a carpenter at a furniture factory and one as a road worker on the Alaska Highway in the Yukon. He finished his undergraduate degree at the University of British Columbia in 3 years, even though he had to cram all his classes into the morning to have time for his afternoon jobs. Because he needed a morning class to fill one time slot, he enrolled in introductory psychology and found his future profession (Bandura, 2007, p. 46). His next stop was graduate school at the epicenter of psychological research in 1950—the University of Iowa. After earning his PhD (in 3 years again), Bandura joined the faculty at Stanford in 1953—he was 28 years old. More than 65 years later, he is the David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology/Emeritus at Stanford and has taught some of the children of his former students. When I read Bandura’s autobiography I was struck by how much his theories reflected his life as a self-directed, self-regulating learner growing up in a challenging environment. Describing his experiences in his two-teacher high school, Bandura (2007) said: We had to take charge of our own learning. Self-directed learning was an essential means of academic self-development, not a theoretical abstraction. The paucity of educational resources turned out to be an enabling factor that has served me well rather than an insurmountable handicapping one. The content of courses is perishable, but self-regulatory skills have lasting functional value whatever the pursuit might be. (p. 45)



In the next sections we will look at the key features of Albert Bandura’s work and social cognitive theory by considering four topics: moving beyond behaviorism, the concept of triadic reciprocal causality, the power of observational learning, and the key function of self-efficacy in the development of human agency.



Beyond Behaviorism Bandura believed basic behavioral principles were correct as far as they went, but also too limited to explain complex human thinking and learning. In his autobiography, Bandura (2007) describes the shortcomings of behaviorism and the need to put people in social context:



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I found this behavioristic theorizing discordant with the obvious social reality that much of what we learn is through the power of social modeling. I could not imagine a culture in which its language; mores; familial customs and practices; occupational competencies; and educational, religious, and political practices were gradually shaped in each new member by rewarding and punishing consequences of their trial-and-error performances. (p. 55)



As you learned in Chapter 7, Bandura’s early social learning theory included enactive learning (learning through reinforcement and punishment of your own behaviors) and added observational learning, that is learning through modeling and observing others. A formal definition for modeling is changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person (a model) being reinforced or punished for particular behaviors. Over time, Bandura’s explanations of learning included more attention to cognitive (personal) factors such as expectations and beliefs in addition to the social influences of models (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2016). His current perspective, social cognitive theory, retains an emphasis on the role of other people serving as models and teachers (the social part of social cognitive theory), but includes thinking, believing, expecting, anticipating, self-regulating, and making comparisons and judgments (the cognitive part). Social cognitive theory is a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning, and motivation. The theory addresses how people develop social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral capabilities; how people regulate their own lives; and what motivates them (Bandura, 2007; Bandura & Locke, 2003). Many of the concepts from this chapter will help you understand motivation in Chapter 12.



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Video Example 11.1 In this video, students begin the school day with their usual classroom routine. The teacher sees one student working diligently on her assignment right after she arrives, and he reinforces her behavior with a slip of paper and a compliment. Consider how this type of reward might influence other students to model her behavior.



Triadic Reciprocal Causality I claimed earlier that social cognitive theory describes a system. This system, called triadic reciprocal causality, is the dynamic interplay among three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral, as shown in Figure 11.1 on the next page. Personal factors (beliefs, expectations, cognitive abilities, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge), the physical and social environment (resources, consequences of actions, other people, models and teachers, and physical settings), and behavior (individual actions, choices, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by each other. Figure 11.1 on the next page shows the interaction of person, environment, and behavior in learning settings (Pajares & Usher, 2008; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). External factors such as models, instructional strategies, classroom environments, or teacher feedback (elements of the environment for students) can affect student personal factors such as goals, sense of efficacy for the task (described in the next section), attributions (beliefs about causes for success and failure), expectations, and self-regulatory processes such as planning, monitoring, and controlling distractions. For example, teacher feedback can lead students to feel either more confident or more discouraged, and then the students adjust their goals accordingly. Environmental factors, such as rewards for turning in homework, and personal factors, such as setting challenging goals, can in turn encourage useful behaviors like effort and persistence that lead to successful learning (Usher & Schunk, 2017). But these behaviors also reciprocally influence personal factors. For example, as students achieve through increased effort (behavior), their self-efficacy and interest (personal factors) are likely to increase. Finally, student behaviors also affect their environment. For example, if students do not persist or if they perform poorly on assignments, teachers may change instructional strategies or learning group assignments, thus changing the learning environment for the students. Think for a minute about the power of triadic reciprocal causality in classrooms. If personal factors, behaviors, and the environment are in constant interaction, then cycles of events are progressive and self-perpetuating. Suppose a student had difficulties in his previous school. The first day at his new school he is late to class because he got lost in the unfamiliar building. The student has a tattoo and several visible pierced body parts. He is anxious about his first day and hopes to do better at this new school, but the teacher’s initial reaction to his late entry and dramatic appearance is a bit hostile. The



Social learning theory Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. Modeling Changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person—a model. Social cognitive theory Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory. Triadic reciprocal causality An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other.



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FIGUR E 11 .1 A SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEW OF RECIPROCAL INFLUENCES IN LEARNING All three forces—personal, social/environmental, and behavioral—are in constant interaction. They influence and are influenced by each other.



• • • • • • • • • •



• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •



Behavioral Factors Academic achievement, school performance Selection of learning activities Choice of courses or major Physical activity Homework completion Effort and persistence Organizational skills Coping skills Interactions with classmates and teachers Withdrawal or engagement



Personal Factors Beliefs, goals, and expectations Thoughts and feelings Cognition and metacognition Memory Background knowledge Motivation Awareness of discrimination or prejudice Mental health Physical and cognitive attributes/deficits Personality Gender, ethnicity, race, age, cultural heritage Academic, social, mental, and verbal ability Curiosity and creativity Intelligence Religion



• • • • • • • • • • • • • •



Environmental Factors Teacher support and expectations Local, state, and national policies Societal and familial values and norms Classroom/school climate Learning structures (e.g., scaffolding, reinforcement) Social status and support Evaluative messages from others Online environment (e.g., social media) Physical environment (e.g., geography, climate) Psychological climate (e.g., hostile, welcoming) Peer group Exposure to diversity Curriculum and policies Economic resources



student feels insulted and responds in kind, so the teacher begins to form expectations about him and becomes more vigilant, less trusting. The student senses the distrust. He decides that this school will be just as worthless as his previous one—and wonders why he should bother to try. The teacher sees the student’s disengagement, invests less effort in teaching him, and the cycle continues. These reciprocal effects are more than hypothetical. When Trevor and Kitty Williams (2010) examined data on high school students’ confidence and achievement in mathematics in 30 different countries, they found evidence that math confidence and math achievement reciprocally influenced each other in 26 of the countries, just as Bandura would predict. You can see that if teachers’ expectations are communicated to students (see Chapter 12), and these expectations affect students’ confidence, then achievement can be influenced as well. In other words, the beliefs and behaviors of one person can create the environment for another!



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Let’s look more closely at two key elements of social cognitive theory: observational learning and self-efficacy. As we examine each of these more closely, we emphasize their implications for teaching. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.1



MODELING: LEARNING BY OBSERVING OTHERS



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What causes an individual to learn and perform modeled behaviors and skills? Several factors play a role. First, the developmental level of the observer makes a difference in learning. As children grow older, they can focus attention for longer periods of time, more effectively identify the important elements of a model’s behavior to observe, use memory strategies to retain information, and motivate themselves to practice, as you can see in Table 11.1. A second influence is the status of the model. Children are motivated to imitate the actions of others who seem competent, powerful, prestigious, and enthusiastic, so parents, teachers, older siblings, athletes, action heroes, rock stars, or film personalities may serve as models, depending on the age and interests of the child. Third, by watching others who are similar to us, we learn about what behaviors are appropriate and we are able to identify the range of behaviors we probably could accomplish (Schunk et al., 2014). Children and adolescents pay close attention to models they perceive to be similar in age, gender, or race. (When you watch your favorite show, do you pay closer attention to characters who seem similar to you?) All students need to see successful, capable models who look and sound like them, no matter what their ethnicity, socioeconomic status, or gender. Bandura (2016) describes Indian, African, Mexican, and Chinese television novellas and radio programs (like our reality shows) whose main characters deal effectively with social problems such as HIV prevention, women’s rights, and overpopulation. Viewers’ and listeners’ behaviors and beliefs change after exposure to these stories. How?



This teacher models “how to think” as she demonstrates a think-aloud strategy for her students. By modeling, she hopes her students will be able to perform the same skill and use think-aloud to make predictions as they read.



TABLE 11.1 • Factors That Affect Observational Learning CHARACTERISTIC



EFFECTS ON MODELING PROCESS



Developmental Status



Improvements with development include longer attention span and increased capacity to process information, use strategies, compare performances with memorial representations, and adopt intrinsic motivators.



Model Prestige and Competence



Observers pay greater attention to competent, high-status models. Consequences of modeled behaviors convey information about functional value. Observers attempt to learn actions they believe they will need to perform.



Vicarious Consequences



Consequences to models convey information about behavioral appropriateness and likely outcomes of actions. Valued consequences motivate observers. Similarity in attributes or competence signals appropriateness and heightens motivation.



Outcome Expectations



Observers are more likely to perform modeled actions they believe are appropriate, attainable, and will result in rewarding outcomes.



Goal Setting



Observers are likely to attend to models who demonstrate behaviors that help observers attain goals.



Self-efficacy



Observers attend to models when they believe they are capable of learning or performing the modeled behavior. Observation of similar models affects self-efficacy (“If they can do it, I can too”).



Source: From Schunk, D. H. (2016). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective (7th ed.), p. 131. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River, NJ.



Video Example 11.2



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Look back at Table 11.1 for the answer: The factors related to how people learn from models involve goals, consequences, and expectations. If observers expect that certain actions of models will lead to particular outcomes (e.g., specific practice regimens leading to improved athletic performance) and the observers value those outcomes or goals, then the observers will pay attention to the models and try to reproduce their behaviors. Finally, observers are more likely to learn from models if the observers have a high level of self-efficacy—if they believe they are capable of doing the actions needed to reach the goals, or at least of learning how to do them (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2014). Of course, this works both ways. Watching another person perform a skill successfully can also increase the observers’ beliefs that they can do it too. We’ll examine this more later.



Elements of Observational Learning STOP & THINK Your interview for a position in the middle school is going well. Now you are asked, “Who are your role models as teachers? Do you hear yourself saying or see yourself doing things that other teachers from your past have done? Are there teachers from films or books that you would like to emulate?” •



Through observational learning, we discover not only how to perform a behavior but also what will happen to us in specific situations if we perform it. Observation can be a very efficient learning process. The first time children hold hairbrushes, cups, or baseball bats, they usually brush, drink, or swing as well as they can, given their current muscle development and coordination. Through comparison with a model, we also can identify adjustments that may produce better outcomes. To learn new behaviors or refine current abilities, Bandura (1986) proposed that four elements of observational learning are essential: paying attention, retaining information or impressions, producing behaviors, and being motivated to repeat the behaviors. ATTENTION. To learn through observation, we have to pay attention. This includes both selective attention (paying attention to the correct cues and information) as well as sustained attention (maintaining focus). In teaching, you will have to ensure students’ attention to the critical features of the lesson by making clear presentations and highlighting important points. In demonstrating a skill (for example, threading a sewing machine, performing a dissection, or operating a lathe), you may need to have students look over your shoulder as you work. Seeing your hands from the same perspective as they see their own directs their attention to the right features of the situation and makes observational learning easier. RETENTION. To imitate the behavior of a model, you have to remember each step. This involves mentally representing the model’s actions in some way, probably as verbal steps (“Hwa-Rang, the eighth form in Tae Kwan Do karate, is a palm-heel block, then a middle riding stance punch, then …”), or as visual images, or both. Retention can be improved by mental rehearsal (imagining imitating the behavior) or by actual practice. In the retention phase of observational learning, practice helps us remember the elements of the desired behavior, such as the sequence of steps. PRODUCTION. Once we “know” how a behavior should look and remember the elements or steps, we still may not perform it smoothly without a great deal of practice, feedback, and coaching about subtle points. In the production phase, practice makes the behavior smoother and more expert. Of course, if a child does not have the physical or developmental skills needed to produce the behavior, even extensive practice and feedback may not be enough. The ideal conditions for practice toward expert production will typically involve some form of feedback that compares the learner’s performance to that of the model (e.g., specific teacher feedback, explicit coaching, reviewing video of the performance, deliberate practice of the weak parts).



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MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT. Social cognitive theory distinguishes between acquisition and performance. We may acquire a new skill or behavior through observation, but we may not perform that behavior until we have some motivation or incentive to do so. Reinforcement can play several roles in observational learning. If we anticipate being reinforced for imitating the actions of a model, we may be more motivated to pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behaviors. In addition, reinforcement is important in maintaining learning through persistence. Without some kind of reinforcing consequence, new behaviors will likely disappear (Schunk, 2016). For example, if an unpopular student adopted the dress of the “in” group, but was ignored or ridiculed, it is unlikely that the imitation would continue. Similarly, learning new academic tasks is usually accompanied by some failure—and reinforcement for progressive gains helps learners maintain focus on their growth rather than on their current struggles. Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational learning. First, of course, the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and receive direct reinforcement, as when a gymnast successfully executes a front flip/roundoff combination and the coach/model says, “Excellent!” But the reinforcement need not be direct—it may be vicarious reinforcement. The observer may simply see others reinforced for a particular behavior and then increase his or her production of that behavior. For example, if you compliment two students on the attractive illustrations in their lab reports, several other students who observe your compliments may turn in illustrated lab reports next time. Most TV ads hope for this kind of effect. People in commercials become deliriously happy when they drive a particular car or drink a specific energy drink, and the viewer is supposed to do the same; the viewer’s behavior is reinforced vicariously by the actors’ obvious pleasure. Punishment can also be vicarious: You may slow down on a stretch of highway after seeing several people get speeding tickets there. A student may curb her comments on Facebook after seeing a friend teased for making a similar post. The final form of reinforcement is self-reinforcement, or controlling your own reinforcers—one aspect of self-regulation described later in this chapter. Self-reinforcers may be intrinsic (e.g., feelings of satisfaction at a job well-done) or extrinsic (e.g., rewarding yourself with a special treat after accomplishing a goal). If one goal of education is to produce people who are capable of educating themselves, then students must learn to manage their own lives, set their own goals, and provide their own reinforcement. In adult life, rewards are sometimes vague and goals often take a long time to reach. Think about how many small steps are required to complete an education and find your first job. In teaching, sometimes self-reinforcement is all that keeps you going in the face of difficult students and demanding parents. Life is filled with tasks that call for this sort of self-regulation (Rachlin, 2004). Social cognitive theory has some powerful implications for teaching. In this section, we will look more closely at using observational learning in teaching.



Observational Learning in Teaching STOP & THINK How would you incorporate observational learning into your teaching? What are the skills, attitudes, and strategies that can be modeled in teaching your subject? •



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Observational Learning (II, B2) Identify situations in which observational learning may be a wise approach, and describe the essential elements of effective observational learning.



Direct reinforcement Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task.



We have explored how observational learning takes place and examined the factors that influence it. Let’s now take a look at five possible outcomes of observational learning as they occur in classrooms: directing attention, encouraging existing behaviors, changing inhibitions, teaching new behaviors and attitudes, and arousing emotions (Schunk, 2012).



Vicarious reinforcement Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior.



DIRECTING ATTENTION. By observing others, we not only learn about actions but also notice the objects involved in the actions. For example, in a preschool class, when one child plays enthusiastically with a toy that has been ignored for days, many other children may want to have the toy, even if they play with it in different ways or simply



Self-reinforcement Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers.



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carry it around. This happens, in part, because the children’s attention has been drawn to that particular toy. I can remember trying to teach my middle school students difficult vocabulary words by providing definitions. One day I asked students take turns writing a funny sentence on the board that included the target word. Watching their peers stand in front of the class held the students in rapt attention. FINE TUNING ALREADY-LEARNED BEHAVIORS. All of us have had the experience of looking for cues from other people when we find ourselves in unfamiliar situations. Observing the behavior of others tells us which of our already learned behaviors to use: the proper fork for eating the salad, when to leave a gathering, what kind of language is appropriate, and so on. Adopting the dress and grooming styles of TV or music idols is another example of this kind of effect. STRENGTHENING OR WEAKENING INHIBITIONS. If class members witness one student breaking a class rule and getting away with it, they may learn that undesirable consequences do not always follow rule breaking. If the rule breaker is a well-liked, high-status class leader, the effect of the modeling may be even more pronounced. This ripple effect (Kounin, 1970) can work for the teacher’s benefit. When the teacher deals effectively with a rule breaker, especially a class leader, the idea of breaking this rule may be inhibited for the other students viewing the interaction. This does not mean that teachers must reprimand each student who breaks a rule, but once a teacher has called for a particular action, following through is an important part of capitalizing on the ripple effect. TEACHING NEW BEHAVIORS. William James (1899/2001) said, “The teacher who meets with the most success is the teacher whose own ways are the most imitable” (p. 26). Modeling has long been used to teach dance, sports, and crafts, as well as skills in subjects such as food science, chemistry, and welding. Cognitive modeling can also be applied deliberately in the classroom to teach mental skills and to broaden horizons—to teach new ways of thinking, such as thinking through the steps in a complex math problem. Teachers serve as models for a vast range of behaviors, from pronouncing vocabulary words to reacting to the seizure of a student with epilepsy, to being enthusiastic about learning. For example, a teacher might model critical thinking skills by thinking “out loud” about a student’s question. Or a high school teacher concerned about girls who seem to have stereotyped ideas about careers might invite women with nontraditional jobs to speak to the class or expose the girls to exemplary models in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), for example (see engineergirl.org). Teachers can share their love of reading or music or art or history by sharing their favorite books, films, artists, and so on. Studies indicate that modeling can be most effective when the teacher makes use of all the elements of observational learning—attention, retention, production, and especially reinforcement and practice. It is important to select appropriate models, however. For example, students who doubt their own abilities might be best paired with a peer who keeps trying and finally masters the material (Schunk, 2016).



Ripple effect “Contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation.



AROUSING EMOTION. Finally, through observational learning, people may develop emotional reactions to situations they have never experienced personally. Hearing, watching, or reading about a situation are powerful forms of observation. This may be most obvious through fear-inducing observations. News reports of shark attacks have many of us anxious about swimming in the ocean. The tragedies of school shootings reported on television prompt parents, teachers, and students alike to develop new concerns over safety in schools. Some terrible examples of modeling occur with “copy-cat killings” or suicide clusters in schools. When frightening things happen to people who are similar in age or circumstances to your students, they may need to be given an opportunity to talk about their emotions. But not all observations lead to negative emotions. Watching or reading about the courageous acts of others who spend their lives advocating for human and civil rights can lead to emotional responses that promote



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GUIDELINES Using Observational Learning Model behaviors and attitudes you want your students to learn. Examples 1. Show enthusiasm for the subject you teach. 2. Be willing to demonstrate both the mental and the physical tasks you expect the students to perform. I once saw a teacher sit down in the sandbox while her 4-yearold students watched her demonstrate the difference between “playing with sand” and “throwing sand.” 3. Model good problem solving—think out loud as you work through a difficult problem. A language arts teacher might stop and say, “Now let me see if I remember what happened so far,” or “That was a hard sentence. I’m going to read it again.” 4. Model coping skills, persistence, and effort. Engage with a difficult problem, even if you seem to reach a dead end. Try new strategies or take a break and return to the problem later. 5. Model your expectations. I remember seeing my fellow teachers talking to one another during a school assembly while occasionally looking up to chastise students who were doing the same thing! Students detest hypocrisy. Promote desired behaviors by engaging in them yourself. Use peers, especially class leaders, as models. Examples 1. In group work, pair students who do well with those who are having difficulties.



2. When choosing a model, alternate between coping models who work through problems slowly and correct their errors as they work and mastery models who solve problems quickly and without error. 3. Ask students to demonstrate the difference between “whispering” and “silence—no talking.” Make sure students see that positive behaviors lead to reinforcement for others. Examples 1. Point out the connections between positive behavior and positive consequences in stories. 2. Be fair in giving reinforcement. The same rules for rewards should apply to both the students with problems and the students who do not cause trouble. Enlist the help of class leaders in modeling behaviors for the entire class. Examples 1. Ask a well-liked student to be friendly to an isolated, fearful student. 2. Let high-status students lead an activity when you need class cooperation or when students are likely to be reluctant at first. Popular students can model dialogues in foreign-language classes or be the first to tackle dissection procedures in biology. For more information on observational learning, go to www. readwritethink.org/ and search for “modeling.”



social change. Indeed, diverse media have made it possible to bring unimaginable realities that we would never experience to our fingertips, both at home and at school. This can engender new forms of compassion and understanding. Seeing media portrayals of acts of kindness or heroism can arouse emotion that may prompt imitative behaviors or “faith” in humanity. The Guidelines: Using Observational Learning will give you some ideas about using observational learning in the classroom. One final thing you can do to promote healthy observational learning is to help your students select appropriate models. Bandura (2016) pointed out that the environments in which we live are not just externally imposed; we have some say in how we select and create our social environments. For example, high school students choose their classes, their peer groups, their extracurricular activities, and even their social media friends. Helping students reflect on how these social groups influence their behaviors might enable them to choose more wisely. Of course, learners must feel some sense of choice and capability in the matter. Indeed, the next central element of social cognitive theory is self-efficacy, a belief that is especially important in learning and teaching. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.2



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AGENCY AND SELF-EFFICACY Remember that social cognitive theory emphasizes the dynamic interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental events in shaping human lives. Bandura (1997) placed particular emphasis on the personal factors. Because of people’s capacity for selfinfluence, we have a role in determining what we learn, with whom we interact, and how we act. Bandura (2016) called this human agency—“To be an agent is to exert intentional influence over one’s functioning and over the course of events by one’s actions” (p. 4). Agency involves the ability to make intentional choices and plans, design appropriate courses of action, and then motivate and regulate the execution of these plans and actions. This is the major difference between social cognitive theory and behaviorism: In social cognitive theory, we can change our environments, control our own behavior, support the actions of others, and take charge of our lives. Behaviorism removes the “personal” from the equation, and focuses on predicting behaviors entirely by the reinforcing (or punishing) environment. When we discuss self-regulation later in the chapter, you will see how students and teachers can become more agentic—more self-directing and in charge of their own learning and motivation. Central to our own agency are the beliefs we hold about our own capabilities, referred to as self-efficacy. Consider how learners imagine various outcomes of their behavior. “Will I succeed or fail? Will I be liked or laughed at?” “Will I be more accepted by teachers in this new school?” How students answer these questions depends on their beliefs about their personal competence or effectiveness in a given area. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p. 3). Simply put, self-efficacy answers the question, “Can I do this?” We ask ourselves this question about all sorts of situations—Can I do math? Can I keep my cool when my friend talks about me behind my back? Can I teach this group of students? Can I do 10 pushups? Can I stop checking my phone 100 times a day for new messages? Researchers have shown that self-efficacy is essential for positive student outcomes across grade levels and content domains. Students with high self-efficacy exert greater levels of effort, persistence, and resilience when engaged in challenging tasks—as well as experience lower levels of stress and anxiety for the task (Bandura, 1997; Honicke & Broadbent, 2016; Klassen & Usher, 2010). In a study of students going from middle through high school, students with a higher level of self-efficacy for having control over their academic outcomes had higher levels of confidence in their academic abilities, earned higher grades, and were more likely to graduate (Caprara, Pastorelli, Regalia, Scabini, & Bandura, 2005).



Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem



Human agency The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals. Self-efficacy A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation.



Most people assume self-efficacy is the same as self-concept or self-esteem, but it isn’t. Although these terms refer to self-beliefs, they differ in important ways. Self-efficacy refers to a “context-specific assessment of competence to perform a specific task” (Pajares, 1997, p. 15). Self-concept, on the other hand, has historically referred to a more global self-perception. One’s self-concept is judged by both external and internal comparisons, using other people or other aspects of the self as frames of reference (Marsh, Xu, & Martin, 2012). But self-efficacy focuses on your ability to successfully accomplish a particular task with no need for comparisons—the question is whether you can do it, not whether others would be successful. Also, self-efficacy beliefs are strong predictors of behavior, but self-concept has typically shown weaker predictive power (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is “context specific,” which means it varies, depending on the subject or task. For example, my sense of efficacy for singing is really low, but I feel confident in my ability to read a map and navigate (except in certain cities like Rome that are hopeless). Even young students have different efficacy beliefs for different tasks. One study found that by the first grade, students already differentiated among their sense of efficacy for reading, for writing, and for spelling (Wilson & Trainin, 2007).



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Self-efficacy is concerned with judgments of personal competence; self-esteem is concerned with judgments of self-worth (Usher, 2015). Self-esteem is determined in large part by the value we place on our performance in a domain (math, appearance, singing, soccer, etc.) and our concern over what others think about our competence (Harter & Whitesell, 2003). Self-esteem is not affected if we feel incompetent in areas we don’t really value. There is no direct relationship between self-esteem and self-efficacy. It is possible to feel highly efficacious in one area and still not have a high level of selfesteem, or vice versa (Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004). For example, as I confessed earlier, I have very low self-efficacy for singing, but my self-esteem is not affected, probably because my life does not require singing. But if my self-efficacy for teaching a particular class (my teaching self-efficacy) started dropping after several bad experiences, I know my self-esteem would suffer because I value teaching.



Sources of Self-Efficacy How is it that we come to believe we are capable in one area and hopeless in another? Bandura (1997) identified four sources of self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional arousal. Mastery experiences refer to how we interpret our own direct experiences—usually this is the most powerful source of efficacy information. Successes raise efficacy beliefs, while failures lower them. Bandura (1997) also refers to these as “enactive” experiences, given that we do not necessarily interpret all of our performances as masterful. Sometimes we have little or no direct experience in a domain. We can therefore base our self-efficacy judgments on other sources, such as the vicarious experiences we have through observing the performances of others. Watching a model not only teaches us new ways of doing things but also alters our beliefs about what we can do. When I was young, my close friend could play a fierce Mozart sonata. With my chin perched at the end of the keyboard, I watched her fingers glide across the keys and said to myself, “If she can play this, then I can too.” When an observer feels similar to the model, the vicarious influence on self-efficacy is stronger (Schunk et al., 2014). In school, a peer’s good performance can enhance other students’ own sense of efficacy. When an esteemed model fails, observers’ self-efficacy decreases. There are some exceptions to this pattern, however. For example, watching someone struggle using poor skills might convince an observer that he can succeed at the same task by implementing better skills. The popularity of skill-based television programs that model how to cook, redesign your kitchen, improve your golf swing, or do yoga demonstrates the influence of vicarious experiences. These are particularly effective when viewers can identify with the subject in the show. In some circumstances, vicarious experiences can be a powerful source of self-efficacy. Keyser and Barling (1981) found that sixth graders relied most on modeling as a source of self-efficacy information. Similarly, models have been shown to play an important role in the self-efficacy of women who have pursued careers in science and engineering (Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008). A third source of self-efficacy, social persuasion, refers to the evaluative messages students receive from those around them. These messages take many forms, both overt, like a “pep talk” or specific performance feedback, and covert, such as a teacher’s tendency to avoid calling on certain students to answer difficult questions. Social persuasion alone may not always create enduring increases in self-efficacy, but a persuasive boost in self-efficacy can lead a student to make an effort, attempt new strategies, or try hard enough to succeed (Bandura, 1982). Social persuasion from peers or trusted experts such as teachers can counter occasional setbacks that might have instilled self-doubt and interrupted persistence. The potency of persuasion depends on the credibility, trustworthiness, expertise, and/or status of the persuader. During skill development, people may be more inclined to pay attention to what others tell them about their abilities (Bandura, 1997). Social persuasion that highlights prior successes (mastery) in similar tasks, identifies short-term goals and accomplishments, or focuses on the importance of effort are more likely to promote success in boosting



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Modeling (II, B2) Teachers often use modeling to teach students new behaviors. Identify the characteristics that tend to make models effective in instructional contexts.



MyLab Education



Podcast 11.1 Textbook author Anita Woolfolk explains the sources of self-efficacy and how teachers might use this information to invent ways of supporting their students’ sense of efficacy for learning. Why is the belief about yourself so important, and where does it come from?



Mastery experiences Our own direct experiences— the most powerful source of efficacy information. Vicarious experiences Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else. Social persuasion A “pep talk” or specific performance feedback— one source of self-efficacy.



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TABLE 11.2 • Sources of Self-Efficacy



MyLab Education



Video Example 11.3 The high school teacher in this video challenges students, but also provides supports. She gives her English learners opportunities to work collaboratively and learn from peer models. Observe the ways her teaching might help students develop a sense of selfefficacy about math skills.



SOURCE



EXAMPLE



Mastery Experiences



Past successes and failures in similar situations, as perceived by the individual. To increase self-efficacy, the success must be attributed to the ability, effort, choices, and strategies of the individual—not to luck or extensive help from others.



Vicarious Experiences



Seeing other people like you succeed on a task or reach a goal that is similar to the one you face.



Social Persuasion



Encouragement, informational feedback, useful guidance from a trusted source, evaluation.



Physiological Arousal



Positive or negative arousal—excitement and a feeling of being “psyched” and ready (increases self-efficacy) or a sense of anxiety and foreboding (decreases self-efficacy).



self-efficacy and initiating successful performance (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2008). A final source of self-efficacy is the level of physiological or emotional arousal that you experience before or during an activity. For instance, the thought of giving a public speech makes a high school student’s palms sweat and his chest tighten. He interprets this as a sign that he is not capable of speaking. We read our emotions and bodies in ways that alter our perceptions of our capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Schunk et al., 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2009). As you think about the task of teaching, are you anxious and worried (lowers self-efficacy) or excited and “psyched” (raises self-efficacy)? At times you can help students reappraise or relabel their arousal—they are not anxious, they are psyched and ready! Table 11.2 summarizes the sources of self-efficacy. Some evidence suggests that students from different group memberships interpret the source of self-efficacy in distinct ways (Usher & Pajares, 2008). For example, Butz and Usher (2015) asked 2,500 upper elementary and middle school students about the sources of their self-efficacy in reading and math. Girls were more likely to list social sources of their self-efficacy (i.e., vicarious experience and social persuasion) than were boys. The researchers also found that students reported different sources of self-efficacy in the two academic disciplines, which suggests that what makes a student confident in one subject area might not work in another. Other cultural differences can affect on how self-efficacy develops. One study found that the math self-efficacy of adolescents in Korea and the Philippines was based more on social persuasion from peers and parents; for U.S. adolescents, vicarious experience from teachers and friends was also an important source of self-efficacy (Ahn, Usher, Butz, & Bong, 2016). All four of the sources in Table 11.2 were identified as supporting self-efficacy development for third-grade students in France ( Joët, Usher, & Bressoux, 2011).



Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching



Physiological or emotional arousal Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense.



STOP & THINK On a scale from 1 to 100, how confident are you that you will finish reading this chapter today? • Let’s assume your sense of efficacy is around 90 for completing this chapter. Higher self-efficacy leads to greater effort and persistence in the face of setbacks, so even if you are interrupted in your reading, you are likely to return to the task. I believe I can finish writing this section today, so I have resumed work on it after my computer crashed and



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GUIDELINES Encouraging Self-Efficacy Emphasize students’ progress in a particular area. Examples 1. Return to earlier material in reviews, and show how “easy” it is now. 2. Encourage students to improve projects when they have learned more. 3. Keep examples of particularly good work in portfolios as well as work that shows growth and improvement over time, and periodically have students review and reflect on their improvements. Set learning goals for your students, and model a mastery orientation for them. Examples 1. Guide students to set goals that focus on gaining skill, competency, or understanding. 2. Recognize progress and improvement. Avoid nonspecific praise. 3. Share examples of how you have developed your abilities in a given area, and provide other models of achievement who are similar to your students—no supermen or superwomen whose accomplishments seem unattainable. 4. Read stories about diverse students who overcame physical, mental, or economic challenges.



5. Don’t excuse failure because a student has problems outside school. Help the student succeed inside school. Make specific suggestions for improvement, and revise grades when improvements are made. Examples 1. Return work with specific comments noting what the students did right, what they did wrong, and why they might have made the mistakes. 2. Experiment with peer editing. 3. Show students how their revised, higher grade reflects greater competence and raises their class average. Stress connections between past efforts and past accomplishments. Examples 1. Have individual goal-setting and goal-review conferences with students, in which you ask students to reflect on how they solved difficult problems. 2. Confront self-defeating, failure-avoiding strategies directly. For more information on self-efficacy, go to the “P20 Motivation and Learning Lab” at the University of Kentucky.



I had to start over on several pages. Of course, that could make for a late night, because I am going to a San Francisco Giants baseball game at 7:00 tonight and may have to finish the section after the game. Self-efficacy also influences motivation and performance through goal setting. If we have a high sense of efficacy in a given area, we will set higher goals, be less afraid of failure, and find new strategies when old ones fail. If your sense of efficacy for reading this chapter is high, you are likely to set high goals for completing it—maybe you will take some notes, too. If your sense of efficacy is low, however, you may avoid the reading altogether or give up easily when problems arise or you are interrupted with a better offer (Bandura, 1993, 1997; Schunk & Usher, 2012). Research indicates that performance in school is improved and self-efficacy is increased when students (a) adopt short-term goals so it is easier to judge progress; (b) are taught to use specific learning strategies such as outlining or summarizing that help them focus attention; and (c) receive rewards based on achievement, not just engagement, because achievement rewards signal increasing competence (Pajares, 2006). See the Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Efficacy for ideas about how you can support students’ self-efficacy (and your own!). What is the most motivating level of efficacy? Should students be accurate, optimistic, or pessimistic in their estimations? Evidence indicates that a higher sense of self-efficacy supports motivation, even when the belief is a slight overestimation. Children and adults who are optimistic about the future are more mentally and physically healthy, less depressed, and more motivated to achieve (Flammer, 1995; Seligman, 2006). After examining almost 140 studies of motivation, Sandra Graham concluded that these qualities



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MyLab Education



Podcast 11.2 There are three kinds of efficacy judgments at work in schools: student, teacher, and collective. All three kinds are related to student achievement, even after considering the powerful effects of SES. Textbook author Anita Woolfolk describes them and gives ideas for increasing each kind of efficacy.



characterize many African American students. She found that the African American students studied had strong self-concepts, resilience, and high expectations, even in the face of difficulties (Graham, 1996; Graham & Taylor, 2002). Students who show academic resilience are more likely to succeed because they can effectively manage the stressors and barriers in their academic life (Martin & Marsh, 2009). As you might expect, there are dangers in underestimating one’s capabilities because then students are more likely to put forth a weaker effort and give up more easily. But there are dangers in continually overestimating one’s efficacy as well. Students who think that they are better readers than they actually are may not be motivated to go back and repair misunderstandings as they read. They don’t discover that they didn’t really understand the material until it is too late (Pintrich & Zusho, 2002; Usher & Schunk, 2017). In schools, we are particularly interested in self-efficacy for learning mathematics, writing, history, science, sports, and other subjects, as well as self-efficacy for using learning strategies and for handling the many other challenges classrooms present. Consider a few findings from research with students. Self-efficacy is related to school performance for students from third grade through college (Fast et al., 2010; Honicke & Broadbent, 2016; Kenney-Benson, Pomerantz, Ryan, & Patrick, 2006), life satisfaction for adolescents (Vecchio, Gerbino, Pastorelli, Del Bove, & Caprara, 2007), use of deep processing learning strategies for college students (Prat-Sala & Redford, 2010), choice of college major (Pajares, 2002), and performance in college for older students (Elias & MacDonald, 2007). The value of self-efficacy seems to cut across cultural contexts. For example, self-efficacy is related to math/science goals and interests for Mexican American youth (Navarro, Flores, & Worthington, 2007), staying in school for Italian secondary students (Caprara et al., 2008), language performance for French elementary school students ( Joët et al., 2011), academic achievement in math for both male and female middle school students (Kenney-Benson et al., 2006), and mathematics achievement for both Anglo and South Asian Canadian middle school students (Klassen, 2004). Maybe you are thinking, sure, higher self-efficacy is related to higher achievement because students who have more ability have higher self-efficacy. But these relationships between self-efficacy and achievement hold even when we take ability into account. For example, when students with the same ability in math are compared, the ones with higher self-efficacy for math perform better in math (Wigfield & Wentzel, 2007). Self-efficacy encourages higher goals, persistence, and effort. People with high self-efficacy are better equipped to take charge of their own lives—they can act with agency.



Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy



Teachers’ sense of efficacy A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.



You saw in Chapter 1 that much of my own research has focused on teachers’ sense of efficacy, defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. This confidence belief appears to be one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that predict student achievement (Klassen, Tze, Betts, & Gordon, 2011; TschannenMoran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Woolfolk Hoy, Hoy, & Davis, 2009; Zee & Koomen, 2016). When teachers take responsibility for student success or failure (rather than assigning that responsibility to student ability or to external barriers), then the teachers are more “intentional” in their approaches to reaching their students and are more successful in meeting their learning needs (Putman, Smith, & Cassady, 2009). A review of 165 studies showed that teachers with higher self-efficacy report greater job satisfaction and commitment and lower feelings of burnout (Zee & Koomen, 2016; and see Klassen, Tze, Betts, & Gordon, 2011). Of course, the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and these variables is likely reciprocal—they affect each other. For example, when teachers have a higher sense of efficacy, they teach more effectively and their students learn more, and when students learn more, teacher self-efficacy grows (Holzberger, Philipp, & Kunter, 2013). As with any kind of self-efficacy, there may be both benefits and dangers in overestimating one’s capabilities. Optimistic teachers probably set higher goals, work harder, reteach when necessary, and persist in the face of problems. But when beginning teachers overrate their abilities, they don’t take the steps necessary to improve their



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skills—until they are confronted with serious problems. So some benefits might follow from having doubts about your efficacy. As Wheatley (2002) pointed out, sometimes, “doubt motivates change” (p. 18). How does a sense of one’s teaching capabilities develop? Teachers generally rely on the same four sources described earlier when judging their capabilities, although the interplay of these sources may be more complex for teachers than for students (Morris, Usher, & Chen, 2016). Building a flexible set of instructional tools and strong content knowledge helps teachers gain a sense of mastery for their craft. Social sources might be just as powerful as mastery experience when it comes to self-efficacy for teaching. After all, to find out whether we are effective as teachers, we must assess our students’ learning; teaching is an inherently social act. Evaluations by students, parents, and administrators convey important efficacy-related information. Vicarious experience is another fundamental source of teaching self-efficacy. For example, preservice teachers might watch video playbacks of their own mock lessons or pay close attention to how their cooperating teacher manages the class. Both selfmodeling and social modeling can lead to changes in teaching self-efficacy. Klassen and Durksen (2014) found that self-efficacy generally increased and stress decreased during an eight-week practicum for Canadian preservice teachers; however, this trajectory depended on the level of support the preservice teachers received from their cooperating mentor teachers. Working with a proficient model who is also supportive can boost a new teacher’s self-efficacy. Last, teachers also read their own emotional and physiological states related to teaching as a sign of their efficacy or inefficacy for the task. Feeling relaxed and energized when working with youth can convince an aspiring teacher that he or she is capable of pursuing the career. Anxious daydreaming about classroom catastrophes can undermine self-efficacy. Let’s revisit Bandura’s (1997) powerful assertion that “people’s level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true” (p. 2, emphasis added). Both teachers’ and students’ beliefs are guides to what they will do and feel. One area in which self-efficacy plays an important role is in self-regulation. Unless we believe we can regulate the many demands of being human, we will likely spend our time reacting to life’s circumstances rather than proactively exercising our own agency. We turn to this issue next. How you can help your students (and yourself) to lead a self-directed, self-regulated life? MyLab Education Self-Check 11.3



SELF-REGULATED LEARNING: SKILL AND WILL As you may remember from the beginning of this chapter, Albert Bandura said his early education in a tiny school in Canada had given him self-regulation skills that lasted a lifetime. He believes that a major goal of all education is to “equip students with the intellectual tools, self-beliefs, and self-regulatory capabilities to educate themselves throughout their lifetime” (Bandura, 2007, p. 10). Self-regulation is the process we use to activate and sustain our thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach our goals (Perry & Rahim, 2011). When the goals involve learning, we talk about self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learners have the skill and will to learn—they are “metacognitive, motived to learn, and strategic” (Perry & Rahim, 2011, p. 122). This means they have a combination of academic learning skills, self-awareness, self-control, and motivation for learning. Definitions of self-regulation have varied according to which of those features are emphasized (Burman, Green, & Shanker, 2015). To continue learning independently throughout life, you must be self-regulated— what we refer to in conversations as a self-starter. Self-regulation may be even more important today as knowledge about virtually anything is available instantly on the Internet. How do you persist and stay focused on your goal as you browse all that information



Self-regulation Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals. Self-regulated learning A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out.



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and are distracted by texts, tweets, and fascinating pictures of cute kittens . . .? Or, as one blog post asked, “Do you control your technological devices or do they control you?” STOP & THINK Think about the class you are taking where you are using this textbook. On a 7-point scale—from 1 = not at all true of me, to 7 = very true of me—answer the following questions: 1. When I study for a test, I try to put together the information from class and from the book. 2. When I do homework, I try to remember what the teacher said in class so I can answer the questions correctly. 3. I know I will be able to learn the material for this class. 4. I ask myself questions to make sure I know the material I have been studying. 5. Even when study materials are dull and uninteresting, I keep working until I finish. •



By answering the questions in the Stop & Think, you have just responded to five items from the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Midgley et al., 1998; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). This questionnaire has been used in hundreds of studies to assess students’ self-regulated learning and motivation. How did you do? The first two questions assess your use of cognitive strategies, like those we discussed in Chapter 9. The third question assesses your sense of efficacy for this class. But the last two questions (4 and 5) specifically assess self-regulation Self-regulated learners transform their mental abilities, whatever they are, into academic skills and strategies. Many studies link self-regulated strategy use to measures of academic achievement, especially for middle school and high school students. For younger students, self-regulation of attention and emotion are particularly important for learning and achieving in school (Dent & Koenka, 2016; Valiente, Lemery-Chalfant, & Swanson, 2010). In fact, one study found that when students in a first-grade class had better self-regulated learning skills, individual students in that class improved in vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. So, being in a class with peers who had good self-regulation skills supported literacy development in individual students (Skibbe, Phillips, Day, Brophy-Herb, & Connor, 2012).



What Influences Self-Regulation? The concept of self-regulated learning integrates much of what is known about effective learning and motivation. As you can see from the processes just described, three factors influence skill and will: knowledge, motivation, and self-discipline or volition. In addition, there are developmental differences among students. MyLab Education



Video Example 11.4 The teen in this video answers questions about school—what he likes and dislikes. As you listen, think about comments that indicate his level of self-regulation. Do you think he is a selfregulated learner?



KNOWLEDGE. To be self-regulated learners, students need knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task, strategies for learning, and the contexts in which they will apply their learning. “Expert” students know about themselves and can reflect on their own learning processes. This “metacognitive knowledge” (remember that metacognition refers to thinking about your own thinking) includes knowing your preferred learning approaches, what is easy and what is hard about learning certain material, coping strategies for handling difficult material, your interests and talents, and how to use your strengths (Efklides, 2011). Experts also know quite a bit about the subject being studied, and they can adapt their knowledge to meet new demands; the more they know, the easier it is to learn more (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009). They are more likely to understand that different learning tasks require different approaches on their part. A simple memory task, for example, might require a mnemonic strategy (see Chapter 8), whereas a complex comprehension task might be approached by means of concept maps of the key ideas (see Chapter 9). Also, these self-regulated learners know that learning is often difficult and knowledge is seldom absolute; there usually are different ways of looking at problems as well as different solutions (Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Winne, 2017).



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These expert students not only know what each task requires but also can apply the strategy needed. They can skim or read carefully. They can use memory strategies or reorganize the material. As they become more knowledgeable in a field, they apply many of these strategies automatically. In short, they have mastered a large, flexible repertoire of learning, help-seeking, and coping strategies (see Chapter 9). Finally, self-regulated learners think about the contexts in which they will apply their knowledge—when and where they will use their learning—so they can set motivating goals and connect their present efforts to their accomplishments (Winne, 2017). Clearly, both content knowledge and self-knowledge play an important role in whether students will be self-regulated. Teachers must therefore help students develop both content knowledge and a greater awareness of their own cognitive and learning processes. Later in the chapter, we consider some suggestions for how to do this. MOTIVATION. Knowing about what is needed to accomplish your learning goals is important, but it may not be sufficient. Motivation also influences the degree to which students regulate their own learning. In Chapter 12 you will learn about many facets of motivation, but let’s consider a few that researchers have found to be related to self-regulated learning. Students who demonstrate greater individual interest in an activity tend to be better at regulating themselves in that activity (Renninger & Hidi, 2016; Thoman, Sansone, & Geerling, in press). My neighbor, a 10-year-old basketball enthusiast, can spend hours shooting hoops in her driveway, drawing elaborate defense plans for her team, and studying the moves of her role models. Activities that are valued, whether for their utility in getting us to the next level or simply for the enjoyment they bring, can lead us to deeper and more systematic engagement (Eccles, Fredricks, & Baay, 2015). Motivational beliefs also influence self-regulation. For example, students who have higher self-efficacy for managing their learning tasks (i.e., self-efficacy for selfregulation) not only use more effective self-regulatory strategies but also perform better in school (Usher & Schunk, 2017). In addition they believe their own intelligence and abilities are improvable ( Job, Walton, Bernecker, & Dweck, 2015). Even if they are not intrinsically motivated by a particular task, they are serious about getting the intended benefit from it. Those who believe in their capabilities can better focus their attention and other cognitive and emotional resources for the task at hand. They know why they are studying, so their actions and choices feel more self-determined and less controlled by others (Zimmerman, 2011). But knowledge and motivation are not always enough. Self-regulated learners need volition or self-discipline. Lyn Corno once said, “Where motivation denotes commitment, volition denotes follow-through” (Corno, 1992, p. 72). VOLITION. I am one month behind in this project. I have been up writing at 5:00 a.m. every day since I got back from Taiwan (great place!) where I gave a series of talks. I am still jet lagged, barely awake, but I want to keep writing because the deadline for this chapter is very near (well, passed actually). I have knowledge and motivation, but to keep going I need a good dose of volition. Volition is an old-fashioned word for willpower. The more technical definition for volition is protecting opportunities to reach goals. Typically, students need volition to overcome the resistance they feel when they experience a conflict between two desired outcomes (Oettingen, Schrage, & Gollwitzer, 2015). For example, you might need an act of volition to decide between hanging out with friends or reading a book that is needed for a report due in a few weeks. In this way, an act of volition is voluntary, that is, a free will behavior. Volition is influenced by the individual’s level of perceived control for the given task (Efklides, 2011). People are more likely to exercise volitional control when they have experience in sticking with tasks to reach their goals, becoming active agents in achieving success (Metcalfe & Greene, 2007). I can stick with this writing because I have done it before and held the finished book. Self-regulated learners know how to protect themselves from distractions—where to study, for example, so they are not interrupted. They choose methods to cope, even when they feel anxious, drowsy, or lazy (Corno, 2011; Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996). And they know what to do when they are tempted to stop working and



Volition Will power; selfdiscipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?



POINT .



Most of us would agree that those who passionately persist toward their goals tend to meet with more success. Grit might be one important aspect of the volition component of self-regulation, but does it warrant all the attention it is receiving? Some education researchers have cast doubt on grit as a new construct, citing mixed evidence of its relationship to success. These scholars emphasize that other self-regulatory factors are just as (if not more) important for determining student success. Let’s look at these perspectives more closely.



Grit is essential for student success, and teachers should therefore promote it. The jacket of Paul



Tough’s 2012 bestselling book, How Children Succeed, begins with the age-old question, “Why do some children succeed while others fail?” His answer is in his subtitle: Grit, Curiosity, and the Hidden Power of Character. Tough argues that success in school requires more than outstanding intellectual abilities and talent. To end up at the top of one’s class requires not just talent but a repertoire of “soft” skills—sometimes called “noncognitive factors” (Farrington et al., 2012). For Tough, such skills may be the deciding factor in whether children can escape dire circumstances: “There is no antipoverty tool we can provide for disadvantaged young people that will be more valuable than the character strengths . . . [such as] conscientiousness, grit, resilience, perseverance, and optimism” (p. 189). Tough’s claims lean on the work of psychologist and former school teacher Angela Duckworth, who similarly wondered whether factors other than IQ or talent—things like effort, determination, self-control, persistence, and what she named grit—might actually be just as important in predicting success. To investigate this, Duckworth and her associates asked hundreds of young people to rate their grittiness by responding to items like “I finish whatever I begin,” and “I am diligent” (see www.angeladuckworth.com). They found that



students with higher grit scores also had higher SAT scores and grades (Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Grittier kids placed higher in the National Spelling Bee competition (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Chicago high school juniors with more grit were more likely to graduate on time (Eskreis-Winkler, Duckworth, Shulman, & Beal, 2014). These findings often held true even when ability measures (IQ, past GPA) were included as predictors. Teachers’ level of grit was found to predict novice teachers’ effectiveness (Duckworth, Quinn, & Seligman, 2009). How can grit predict success better than one’s previous success? Duckworth (2016) offers her theory: “When you consider individuals in identical circumstances, what each achieves depends on just two things, talent and effort … but effort factors into the calculations twice, not once” (p. 42). In their respective 2016 books, Duckworth and Tough argue that even though grit is a personality trait, it can also be cultivated. Their books highlight stories from numerous paragons of grit and offer tips for how parents, teachers, and leaders can promote gritty individuals. Although both authors have cautioned readers that promoting students’ grit may not be an easy fix, their books are flying off the shelves. The two are frequently invited keynote speakers at meetings for school leaders across the United States. Clearly, grit has found a solid fan base among educators. But grit also has its fair share of critics.



have (another) cup of coffee—the temptation I’m facing now—that, and a beautiful Florida day that beckons me to sweep out the garage (sweeping my garage always looks appealing when I face a tough writing job—cleaning closets is a close second). Volition is deliberate and effortful, but with practice it can become more automatic— a habit or a “work ethic” (Corno, 2011). William James knew this over 100 years ago. One of my favorite James quotes is about making volition a habit. He said: “Do every day or two something for no other reason than that you would rather not do it, so that when the hour of dire need draws nigh, it may find you not unnerved and untrained to stand the test” ( James, 1890, IV, p. 126). You may have heard of two concepts related to volition: self-control and grit. Both concepts have received growing attention in recent years. Self-control has been defined as “the capacity to regulate attention, emotion, and behavior in the presence of temptation” (Duckworth & Gross, 2014, p. 319). Walter Mischel’s famous delay of gratification experiment offers a glimpse into the importance of self-control (Mischel, 2014). He offered 4-yearold children an enticing marshmallow to eat, and promised to give a second marshmallow to those who could postpone eating the first marshmallow until he returned from a 15-minute errand (that’s a long time!). Most children gobbled up the first marshmallow before he returned; but others waited, employing various self-control strategies to help them resist the temptation. (You can view this experiment online in several funny YouTube videos.) Mischel and his colleagues then conducted follow-up studies with these children over a period of many years. They were shocked at what they found. Children who had exercised self-control by waiting for the second marshmallow had higher SAT scores, responded



COUNTERPOINT .



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A focus on grit as the key to success is too narrow.  2014), researchers have found considerable psychometric over-



Education policy makers and researchers have been wary about the phenomenon of grit as a key to success. Grit’s popularity has spawned contentious commentary in media outlets such as The Atlantic (“The Limitations of Teaching ‘Grit’ in the Classroom,” “Is Grit Overrated? The Downsides of Dogged, Single-Minded Persistence”), The New York Times (“Putting Grit in Its Place”), and EdWeek (“Is ‘Grit’ Racist?”). The debate has several prongs (for a summary, see Alfie Kohn’s 2014 article in the Washington Post, “Ten Concerns About the ‘Let’s Teach Them Grit’ Fad”). First, some argue that to focus on grit, an individual-level variable, as the deciding factor in student success is to blame students for their own school (mis)fortunes and to let schools off the hook; this distracts from examining systemic inequalities that place a greater burden on some students than others (Gorski, 2016). Furman University Professor Paul Thomas (2014) is among those who see the promotion of grit as veiled racism/classism: Part of the “grit” narrative includes the assumption that successful students and people (read “White”) are successful primarily because they work hard; they earn their success. The flip side of this “grit” narrative is that unsuccessful students and people (read “African American” and “Latino/a”) are unsuccessful because they simply do not try hard enough.



Second, many have noted that grit appears to be a rebranding of well-researched variables such as conscientiousness, willpower, persistence, and resilience (Rimfeld, Kovas, Dale, & Plomin, 2016). Although Duckworth and her associates have tried to draw distinctions among some of these ideas, such as between grit and self-control (Duckworth & Gross,



lap between students’ responses to grit items and to other measures of self-regulation (Muenks, Wigfield, Yang, & O’Neal, 2017). They question grit’s uniqueness. Third, about that relationship between grit and success? Some recent publications show that the relationship is not as conclusive as Duckworth and colleagues’ earlier work suggested. Researchers Credé, Tynan, and Harms (2017) recently completed a meta-analysis using reports from 66,807 students. They found that in some academic settings, grit is unrelated to students’ academic achievement. Results from a recent investigation of Boston-area eighth graders also revealed that grit was not significantly correlated with students’ achievement in math or language arts (West et al., 2016). Furthermore, when researchers have considered grit alongside other variables hypothesized to predict student performance, grit loses its predictive power (Meunks et al., 2016). For example, Usher, Li, Rojas, and Butz (2016) found that self-efficacy (perceived capability in a particular subject area), but not grit (a personality trait), predicted middle school students’ grades, standardized test scores, and teachers’ ratings in math and reading. Perhaps students are unlikely to persist at something unless they believe they can be successful. Beware of Either/Or. The idea that success is within reach to anyone willing to show dedication and persistence strikes a powerful chord. Maybe most of us believe as William James (1907) did that “we are making use of only a small part of our possible mental and physical resources.” We are intrigued by the hopeful idea that empowering (or debilitating) psychological factors can explain the different life outcomes of two people with similar ability. A quick look at Oscar-nominated films reveals our fascination—we pay money to hear and watch stories of dogged perseverance in the face of great odds. They inspire us to consider our own higher potential.



better to stress, had fewer health problems, possessed better social skills, and enjoyed a host of other benefits. Does this mean that some people are just naturally good at self-control and others are not? No, not exactly. Although some children are predisposed for greater self-control, all can learn new self-control strategies (Duckworth, Gendler, & Gross, 2014). Volition is not always a momentary affair. Sometimes it takes years to accomplish a long-term goal (college degree, anyone?). What does it take to stay committed for the long haul? Researchers have recently claimed that it takes true grit—a personality trait characterized by “perseverance and passion to pursue long-term goals” (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007, p. 1087). Angela Duckworth and her colleagues claim that students with more grit do better in school and in life (Duckworth, 2016; Duckworth et al., 2007). Over the past decade, grit has become quite a buzzword in education circles. Recent conferences and publications targeting K–12 and higher education personnel have paid a great deal of attention to the subject. Is grit really an important determinant of student success? The Point/Counterpoint looks at the evidence from diverse psychological perspectives. Ultimately, however, the research evidence does not support such a simple story. Social cognitive theory acknowledges that many factors, both internal and external to the individual, must be considered. Yes, self-regulation matters in how successful a learner will be. And a certain level of grit may be one important aspect of self-regulation. But a one-variable approach is insufficient—appealing as it might be. Focusing too much on grit might lead educators to overlook other problems that affect students’ self-regulation. As this chapter explains, how self-regulated a learner is requires the engagement of cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and volitional mechanisms, none of which casts



Grit A a personality trait characterized by determination and persistence.



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the deciding vote on whether a student will ultimately succeed. Of course, we must also consider the larger context in which learning takes place. Is what we are asking students to do worth their perseverance and effort in the first place? Does grit come at the expense of other aspects of a quality and “successful” education—such as one’s physical and psychological health, compassion for others, autonomy, and lifelong curiosity? Once again, it’s not as simple as either/or.



Co-regulation A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate selfregulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Shared regulation Students and teachers working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance.



DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-REGULATION. How do students develop knowledge, motivation, and volition? The social cognitive theory perspective emphasizes the interaction of personal factors (e.g., neurobiological development, personal beliefs, cognition), environmental/social factors (e.g., support from family, peers, teachers), and behavioral factors. Dale Schunk (1999) proposed a general model of self-regulation development. During childhood, many self-regulation skills must be learned through observation and emulation of others (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). Control is gradually transferred from the exemplary models (e.g., teachers) to the individual learner. As learners develop success in applying the skills, they begin to internalize modeled strategies and demonstrate greater levels of self-control. They can eventually engage in independent, adaptive self-regulation in novel situations (also implementing self-reinforcement strategies and enhancing their efficacy for self-regulation). Self-regulation relies on cognitive functioning too, as explained in Chapters 8 and 9. Three key executive functions that underlie successful self-regulation are inhibitory control (resisting impulsive urges), working memory (holding information in mind while performing other mental operations), and cognitive flexibility (seeing something from different perspectives). These executive functions are necessary for the self-regulation required to solve complex problems (Diamond, 2012). How can teachers and parents promote better executive functioning among learners of all ages? Adele Diamond and Daphne Ling (2016) reviewed results from 84 research studies that tested various interventions. They found that executive functions are impaired under conditions of stress, poor health, or emotional turmoil. They are enhanced when learners are relaxed, healthy (e.g., physically active), and feel a greater sense of connectedness to others. Executive functions are also sharpened when activities are challenging and when frequent opportunities for sustained practice are provided (Diamond, 2012). Teachers and parents can therefore implement various strategies to foster learners’ development of executive functions. Two social processes support the development of self-regulation: co-regulation and shared regulation. Co-regulation is a transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate and internalize self-regulated learning skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Shared regulation occurs when students and teachers work together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance (Hadwin, Järvelä, & Miller, 2017). In Chapter 14 you will read about Lyn Corno’s model of adaptive teaching that intentionally builds student self-regulation development into teaching plans. There are developmental differences in self-regulation. Self-regulation generally improves over time as learners’ neurobiological systems grow and adapt, but environmental stressors and social isolation can thwart development (Blair & Raver, 2015). Even so, early school experiences can help students get back on track. Gender differences in self-regulation have also been observed. In the early grades, girls may be better at regulating their work than boys (Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Matthews, Ponitz, & Morrison, 2009; Mischel, 2014). What does self-regulation in action look like? How do knowledge, motivation, and volition work together? Let’s examine a self-regulation model from the perspective of social cognitive theory.



A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning Albert Bandura may have gone from high school graduate to professor at Stanford in 6 years using his self-regulated learning knowledge and skills, but not all of your students will have the ability to be Banduras with established habits of cognition, motivation,



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and volition. In fact, many will be like Tracy, a high school student described here by self-regulation expert, Barry Zimmerman: An important mid-term math exam is two weeks away, and [Tracy] had begun to study while listening to popular music “to relax her.” Tracy has not set any study goals for herself—instead she simply tells herself to do as well as she can on the test. She uses no specific learning strategies for condensing and memorizing important material and does not plan out her study time, so she ends up cramming for a few hours before the test. She has only vague self-evaluative standards and cannot gauge her academic preparation accurately. Tracy attributes her learning difficulties to an inherent lack of mathematical ability and is very defensive about her poor study methods. However, she does not ask for help from others because she is afraid of “looking stupid,” or seek out supplementary materials from the library because she “already has too much to learn.” She finds studying to be anxiety-provoking, has little self-confidence in achieving success, and sees little intrinsic value in acquiring mathematical skill. (Zimmerman, 2002, p. 64)



Clearly, Tracy is unlikely to do well on the test. What would help? For an answer, let’s consider Zimmerman’s (2011) model of self-regulated learning shown in Figure 11.2. According to Zimmerman, self-regulation involves a three-phase cycle—forethought, performance, and reflection. In Phase 1, the forethought phase, Tracy needs to set clear, reasonable goals and plan a few strategies for accomplishing those goals. And Tracy’s motivational beliefs make a difference at this point, too. If Tracy had a high self-efficacy for applying the strategies that she planned, if she believed that using those strategies would lead to math learning and success on the test, if she saw some connections between her own interests and the math learning, and if she were trying to master the material—not just look good or avoid looking bad—then she would be on the road to self-regulated learning (Usher & Schunk, 2017). After thinking about the task at hand, Tracy moves into Phase 2—the performance phase. Performing brings new challenges. Now Tracy must have a repertoire of self-control (volitional) and learning strategies. She might use imagery, mnemonics, attention focusing, and other techniques such as those described in Chapters 8 and 9 to remain engaged (Duckworth et al., 2014; Kiewra, 2002). She also will need



FIGU RE 1 1.2 ZIMMERMAN’S THREE-PHASE MODEL OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING



Performance



• Task analysis • Motivation • Planning and goal setting



• Self-monitoring • Strategy use • Self-talk



• Attributions for success/failure • Self-reaction • Revision of strategies and beliefs Reflection



Forethought



At all three phases: • Self-observation • Self-evaluation • Self-reaction



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to self-observe—monitor how things are going—so she can change strategies if needed. Actual recording of time spent, problems solved, or pages written may provide clues about when or how to make the best use of study time. Turning off the music might help, too. Finally, Tracy needs to move to Phase 3—the reflection phase—by looking back on her performance and reflecting on what happened. Here, her self-regulation involves an evaluation of her performance. What worked and what didn’t? Why? If she attributes successes to effort and good strategy use and avoids self-defeating actions and beliefs, she might increase her self-efficacy for doing a similar task in the future. She might also revise her goals for next time or give herself a reward for a job well done. If, on the other hand, Tracy reflects on her own weak efforts, she might pretend not to care or assume she is “no good at math.” Each phase in Zimmerman’s model flows into the next, and the cycle continues as students encounter new learning challenges. You might recall that the capacity for self-influence is a hallmark of social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2016). At all phases of the self-regulatory cycle, learners must observe and evaluate themselves. Most of the time, learners’ self-regulation depends on their own self-set or internalized standards. On the other hand, “If adequate self-standards are lacking, people exercise little self-directedness” (Bandura, 1986, p. 363). Part of your role as a teacher is helping learners internalize reasonable standards that will help them become good self-regulators. We have looked at just one theoretical model of self-regulated learning. There are actually several models of self-regulated learning, but all agree that the cognitive processes needed for self-regulated learning require effort (Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Puustinen & Pulkkinen, 2001; Usher & Schunk, 2017; Winne, 2011, 2017). Let’s now look at two classroom examples.



Reaching Every Student: Examples of Self-Regulation in Two Classrooms Students differ in their self-regulation knowledge and skills. But teachers must work with an entire classroom, and still “reach every student.” Here are two examples of real situations where teachers did just that. The first involves writing, the second math problem solving—both complex tasks. WRITING. Carol is a second-grade student described by Nancy Perry and Lynn Drummond (2002). Ms. Lynn was Carol’s teacher; she characterizes Carol as “a very weak writer.” Carol has difficulty finding facts and then transforming those facts into meaningful prose for a research report. Also, she has difficulty with the mechanics of writing, which, according to Ms. Lynn, “holds her back.” Over the course of the year, Ms. Lynn involved her grade 2 and 3 students in three projects about animals. Through this writing, she wanted students to learn how to (a) do research, (b) write expository text, (c) edit and revise their writing, and (d) use the computer as a tool for researching and writing. For the first report, the class worked on one topic together (Chipmunks). They did the fact-finding and writing together, because Ms. Lynn needed to show them how to do research and write a report. Also, the class developed frameworks for working collaboratively as a community of learners. When they wrote the second report (on Penguins), Ms. Lynn offered students many more choices and encouraged them to depend more on themselves and one another. Finally, for the third report, students chose an animal, conducted a self-regulated research project, and wrote a report. Now that they knew how to do research and write a report, they could work alone or together and succeed at this complex task. Carol worked with a third-grade boy who was doing research on a related topic. He showed Carol how to use a table of contents and offered advice about how to phrase ideas in her report. Also, Carol underlined words she thought were misspelled so she could check them later when she met with Ms. Lynn to edit her report. Unlike many low-achieving students who have not learned strategies for self-regulating learning, Carol was not afraid to attempt challenging tasks, and she was confident about her



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ability to develop as a writer. Reflecting on her progress across the school year, Carol said, “I learned a lot from when I was in grade 1 because I had a lot of trouble then.” MATH PROBLEM SOLVING. Lynn Fuchs and her colleagues (2003) assessed the value of incorporating self-regulated learning strategies into math problem-solving lessons in real classrooms. The researchers worked with 24 teachers. All of the teachers taught the same content in their third-grade classes. The teachers were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The first taught in their usual way. The second incorporated strategies to encourage problem-solving transfer—using skills and knowledge learned in the lessons to solve problems in other situations and classes. The third group added transfer and self-regulated learning strategies to their units on math problem solving. Here are a few of the transfer and self-regulated learning strategies that were taught: • Using a key, students scored their homework and gave it to a homework collector (a peer). • Students graphed their completion of homework on a class report. • Students used individual thermometer graphs that were kept in folders to chart their daily scores on individual problems. • At the beginning of each session, students inspected their previous charts and set goals to beat their previous scores. • Students discussed with partners how they might apply problem-solving strategies outside class. • Before some lessons, students reported to the group about how they had applied problem-solving skills outside class. Both transfer and self-regulated learning strategies helped students learn mathematical problem solving and apply this knowledge to new problems. The addition of self-regulated learning strategies was especially effective when students were asked to solve problems that were very different from those they encountered in the lessons. Students at every achievement level as well as students with learning disabilities benefited from learning the strategies.



Technology and Self-Regulation In the previous chapter, we saw some examples of using technology-rich environments to explore complex concepts. Over the past decade, many schools have turned to technologymediated instruction through one-to-one laptop initiatives, online course offerings, and hybrid teaching approaches (Zheng, Warschauer, Lin, & Chang, 2016). But to learn in these rich environments, students need metacognitive and self-regulatory skills so they won’t get lost in a sea of information—and potential distraction. They need to actively evaluate the credibility and trustworthiness of information they find online. They also need motivation to stay focused in cognitively demanding, and often socially isolated, online worlds (Mayer, 2014). If the concepts they are learning are challenging and complicated, then they need some scaffolding to support their developing understandings (Azevedo, 2005; Azevedo, Johnson, Chauncey, & Graesser, 2011; Kingsley & Tancock, 2014). For example, Melissa Duffy and Roger Azevedo (2015) studied undergraduate students who were learning about the circulatory system using a hypermedia encyclopedia. The materials available included texts, diagrams, photographs, video clips, and animated examples of how the circulatory system works. There were two different conditions. One group of students was a control group. They were asked to set two sub-goals for their learning. A second group got the same instructions, but, in addition, they were prompted to use specific self-regulated learning strategies (e.g., write a summary, take notes) and then were given feedback on the quality of their strategy. The control group got no such prompts or feedback. Those who received some scaffolding spent more time viewing relevant material and used more self-regulatory strategies. Many similar studies have shown that, much like in the face-to-face learning context, the presentation of scaffolds and prompts in the online learning context can enhance students’ self-regulation. But the research evidence on how technology affects students’ self-regulation is still in its infancy. Some findings suggest that technologies may hinder self-monitoring and attention (Sana, Weston, & Cepeda, 2013). For example, students who used laptops to



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take notes wrote more, but performed worse on a subsequent exam than students who took notes by hand (Mueller & Oppenheimer, 2014). These unexpected findings are one of the reasons why some professors (even tech experts) have decided to place limits on their students’ use of digital devices in the classroom (Shirky, 2014). How could you provide self-regulation teaching or coaching for your students as described in the study summarized above? How might you model successful selfregulated learning strategies for your students while using multimedia in your classroom or in a computer lab? How can you model responsible use (and restraint from use) of technological devices when such devices might inhibit other important forms of learning? These questions are becoming increasingly critical for today’s teachers.



Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification When some psychologists were studying a behavior modification approach called self-management—using reinforcement and punishment to manage your own behavior— Donald Meichenbaum (1977) was having success teaching impulsive students to “talk themselves through” tasks. Meichenbaum called his method cognitive behavior modification (B. H. Manning & Payne, 1996). Cognitive behavior modification focuses on self-talk to regulate behavior. You may remember from Chapter 2 that there is a stage in cognitive development when young children seem to guide themselves through a task using private speech (Vygotsky, 1987a). They talk to themselves, often repeating the words of a parent or teacher. In cognitive behavior modification, students are taught directly how to use this self-instruction. Meichenbaum (1977) outlined the steps: 1. An adult model performs a task while talking to him- or herself out loud (cognitive modeling). 2. The child performs the same task under the direction of the model’s instructions (overt, external guidance). 3. The child performs the task while instructing him- or herself aloud (overt, self-guidance). 4. The child whispers the instructions to him- or herself as he/she goes through the task (faded, overt self-guidance). 5. The child performs the task while guiding his/her performance via private speech (covert self-instruction). (p. 32)



Cognitive behavior modification Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using selftalk and self-instruction. Self-instruction Talking oneself through the steps of a task.



Brenda Manning and Beverly Payne (1996) list four skills that can increase student learning: listening, planning, working, and checking. How might cognitive self-instruction help students develop these skills? One possibility is to use personal booklets or class posters that prompt students to “talk to themselves” about these skills. For example, one fifth-grade class designed a set of prompts for each of the four skills and posted the prompts around the classroom. The prompts for listening included “Does this make sense?” “Am I getting this?” “I need to ask a question now before I forget.” “Pay attention!” “Can I do what he’s saying to do?” Planning prompts were “Do I have everything together?” “Do I have my friends tuned out for right now?” “Let me get organized first.” “What order will I do this in?” “I know this stuff!” Posters for these and the other two skills, working and checking, are shown in Figure 11.3. Part of the power of this process lies in getting students involved in thinking about and creating their own guides and prompts. Many active reading programs encourage students to ask, “What do good readers do?” then use their answers as prompts. Having the discussion and posting the ideas makes students more self-aware and in control of their own learning. Cognitive behavior modification as practiced by Meichenbaum and others has many more components than just teaching students to use self-instruction. Meichenbaum’s methods also include dialogue and interaction between teacher and student, modeling, guided discovery, motivational strategies, feedback, careful matching of the task with the student’s developmental level, and other principles of good teaching. The student is even involved in designing the program (Harris, 1990; Harris & Pressley, 1991). Given all this, it is no surprise that students seem to be able to generalize the skills developed with cognitive behavior modification to new learning situations (Harris, Graham, & Pressley, 1992).



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FIGU RE 1 1.3 POSTERS TO REMIND STUDENTS TO “TALK THEMSELVES THROUGH” LISTENING, PLANNING, WORKING, AND CHECKING IN SCHOOL These four posters were designed by a fifth-grade class to help them remember to use self-instruction. Some of the reminders reflect the special world of these preadolescents.



Poster 1 While Listening: 1. Does this make sense? 2. Am I getting this? 3. I need to ask a question now before I forget. 4. Pay attention. 5. Can I do what he's saying to do?



Poster 3 While Working: 1. Am I working fast enough? 2. Stop staring at my girlfriend and get back to work. 3. How much time is left? 4. Do I need to stop and start over? 5. This is hard for me, but I can manage.



Poster 2



Poster 4



While Planning: 1. Do I have everything together? 2. Do I have my friends tuned out for right now? 3. Let me get organized first. 4. What order will I do this in? 5. I know this stuff!



While Checking: 1. Did I finish everything? 2. What do I need to recheck? 3. Am I proud of this work? 4. Did I write all the words? Count them. 5. I think I finished. I organized myself. Did I daydream too much?



Source: Manning, B.H. & Payne, B.D. Self-Talk for Teachers and Students: Metacognitive Strategies for Personal and Classroom Use, © 1996. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.



Today, entire school intervention programs are based on cognitive behavior modification. For example, the Coping Power Program includes training for both parents and their children, beginning in the last half of one academic year and continuing through the entire next school year. The training for students often focuses on anger and aggression. Different training sessions emphasize personal goal setting, awareness of feelings (especially anger), learning to relax and change the focus away from the angry feelings, making coping self-statements, developing organizational and study skills, seeing the perspectives of others, developing social problem-solving skills, and dealing with peer pressure by practicing how to say no (Lochman & Wells, 2003). Another similar approach is Tools for Getting Along (Daunic, Smith, Brank, & Penfield, 2006). Both programs have been effective in helping aggressive middle school students to “get along” with their classmates and teachers. In addition, in psychotherapy, tools based on cognitive behavior modification have proved to be some of the most effective ways of dealing with psychological problems such as depression. Both the Coping Power Program and Tools for Getting Along programs include emotional self-regulation skills. We turn to this area of self-regulation next.



Emotional Self-Regulation Social and emotional competencies and self-regulation are critical for both academic and personal development (Weissberg, Durlak, Domitrovich, & Gullotta, 2015). Individuals who effectively interpret emotions in themselves and others (e.g., anxiety, anger,



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Self-Regulation (II, A1) Take a look at The Merton Ethel Harris Research and Training Centre (mehritcentre.com) for tips to help students develop the goals, metacognitive skills, and self-regulatory practices that can support a lifelong devotion to learning.



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frustration, excitement), identify effective goals that incorporate those emotional signals, and eventually regulate emotion and behavior in ways that maximize successful engagement in social situations are characterized as having high emotional intelligence (Cassady & Boseck, 2008). School days can be filled with all kinds of emotions—some are helpful for learning, but some are not. Teachers and students need effective coping strategies to address the emotional aspects of a social or learning situation so that emotions become assets, and not barriers, to successfully achieving educational goals. These coping strategies include a broad range of skills including emotional self-regulation (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). To illustrate these important strategies, the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) lists five core social and emotional skills and competencies: • Self-awareness—accurately assessing your feelings, interests, values, and strengths; maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence • Self-management—regulating your emotions to handle stress, control impulses, and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately • Social awareness—taking the perspective of and empathizing with others; recognizing and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; recognizing and using family, school, and community resources • Relationship skills—establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; seeking help when needed • Responsible decision making—making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely consequences of various actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; contributing to the well-being of one’s school and community (www.casel.org/) A number of studies that followed students over several years in both the United States and Italy have found that prosocial behaviors and social competence in the early grades are related to academic achievement and popularity with peers as many as 5 years later (Elias & Schwab, 2006). Developing emotional self-regulation is especially important in the early years when students are learning how to learn in schools. For example, Carlos Valiente and his colleagues (2010) followed almost 300 students through kindergarten to assess the relations between effortful self-control, emotionality, and academic achievement. They found that students’ anger, sadness, and shyness were negatively related to achievement and that self-control was positively related to achievement, particularly for students who showed lower levels of negative emotions. Clearly, helping students develop emotional self-regulation can set them on a good path for learning in school, increase their resilience, and probably can help them in social relations with their peers as well. How can teachers help? The first way, says Daniel Goleman (2015), is by setting an example. “The teacher (and entire school staff, for that matter) ideally would model emotional and social competence for students” (p. 594). Teachers therefore need to receive emotional and social regulation instruction as part of their training. A 2017 review of U.S. teacher education programs points to the need for greater incorporation of social-emotional learning components (Schonert-Reichl, Kitil, & Hanson-Peterson, 2017). Although some colleges of education offer little in the way of social-emotional training, several outstanding programs are designed to equip preservice teachers with skills to help themselves and their students become better at regulating emotions (see, for example, The Center for Reaching and Teaching the Whole Child, http://crtwc.org; The Academy for Social-Emotional Learning in Schools, http://sel.cse.edu). The Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation give some ideas of practices that promote emotion regulation. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.4



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GUIDELINES Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation Create a climate of trust in your classroom. Examples 1. Avoid listening to “tattle tale” stories about students. 2. Follow through with fair consequences. 3. Avoid unnecessary comparisons, and give students opportunities to improve their work. Help students recognize and express their feelings. Examples 1. Provide a vocabulary of emotions, and note descriptions of emotions in characters or stories. 2. Be clear and descriptive about your own emotions. 3. Encourage students to write in journals about their own feelings. Protect the privacy of these writings (see trust above). Help students recognize emotions in others, and develop empathy and compassion. Examples 1. For young children, “Look at Chandra’s face. How do you think she feels when you say those things?”



2. For older students, use readings, analysis of characters in literature, films, or role reversals to help them identify the emotions of others. Provide strategies for coping with emotions. Examples 1. Discuss or practice alternatives such as stopping to think how the other person feels, seeking help, or leaving the scene. 2. Use centering practices such as self-talk, deep breathing, or mindful movement to diffuse or prevent emotional outbursts. 3. Model strategies for students. Talk about how you handle anger, disappointment, or anxiety. Help students recognize cultural differences in emotional expression. Examples 1. Have students write about or discuss how they show emotions in their family. 2. Teach students to “check it out.”Ask the other people how they are feeling. For ideas about promoting emotional competence, see casel.org



TEACHING TOWARD SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-REGULATED LEARNING Teacher stress is an area of considerable concern for teachers, school leaders, and researchers. In the first years of teaching, high levels of stress lead to “burnout” for teachers who are not able to develop effective coping strategies to handle the many pressures that they face (Chang, 2009).



Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning Those teachers who are most effective at handling stressors in the classroom demonstrate both the high levels of teaching self-efficacy discussed earlier and a positive level of emotional self-regulation (Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2017). The most commonly reported sources of teacher stress are student misbehaviors, interpersonal challenges, and work-related pressure—such as meeting standards (Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Munoz, & Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005; Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999). Teachers are more likely to maintain a healthy professional life if they can manage professional stressors such as student disruptions and pressures from parents without becoming emotionally charged, keep things in perspective, and seek support from their peers (Collie, Shapka, & Perry, 2012; Jennings & Frank, 2015; Wilkinson, 1988; Woolfolk Hoy, 2013). One promising practice that has received recent support in research is providing teachers “mindfulness training,” which helps teachers focus attention and emotional resources on the present situation without judgment, recognizing and releasing unnecessary expectations and biases, and developing greater compassion for self and others (Roeser et al., 2013). Teachers who were randomly assigned to receive emotional skills, mindfulness stress reduction, and compassion training showed significant gains in well-being, self-efficacy,



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and mindfulness, along with reduced burnout compared with teachers assigned to a control group (Jennings, Frank, Snowberg, Coccia, & Greenberg, 2013).



Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation STOP & THINK How are you studying right now? What goals have you set for your reading today? What is your plan for learning, and what strategies are you using right now to learn? How did you learn those strategies? • Fortunately, a growing body of research offers guidance about how to design tasks and structure classroom interactions to support students’ development of and engagement in self-regulated learning (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Diamond & Ling, 2016; Perry, 1998; Stoeger & Ziegler, 2011; see Schunk & Greene, 2017). This research indicates that students develop academically effective forms of self-regulated learning and a sense of efficacy for learning when teachers involve them in complex, meaningful tasks that extend over long periods of time, much like the constructivist activities described in Chapter 10. Also, to develop self-regulated learning and self-efficacy for learning, students need to have some control over their learning processes and products; they need to make choices about what to work on, where, and with whom. They also need to have control over the difficulty of the task—how much to read or write, at what pace, and with what level of support. And because self-monitoring and self-evaluation are key to effective self-regulated learning and a sense of efficacy, teachers can help students develop self-regulated learning by involving them in setting criteria for evaluating their learning processes and products, and then giving them opportunities to reflect on and make judgments about their progress using those standards. It helps to work in collaboration with peers and seek feedback from them. As you saw earlier, this has been called shared regulation. Throughout the entire process, teachers must co-regulate the task by “providing just enough and just in time information and support to facilitate students’ acquisition and application of” self-regulated learning (Perry & Rahim, 2011, p. 130). Let’s examine each of these research-based ways to support self-regulation development more closely.



Complex Tasks Teachers don’t want to assign students tasks that are too difficult and that lead to frustration. This is especially true when students have learning struggles or disabilities. In fact, research indicates that the most motivating and academically beneficial tasks for students are those that challenge but don’t overwhelm them (Mayer, 2014). Remember what you learned in Chapter 8 about extraneous cognitive load. The term complex refers to the design of tasks, not their level of difficulty. From a design point of view, tasks are complex when they address multiple goals and involve large chunks of meaning—for example, projects and thematic units. Furthermore, complex tasks extend over long periods of time, engage students in a variety of cognitive and metacognitive processes, and allow for the production of a wide range of products (Perry, VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). For example, a study of Egyptian pyramids might result in the production of written reports, maps, diagrams, skits, models, and even an Egyptian “museum.” Even more important, complex tasks provide students with information about their learning progress. These tasks require them to engage in deep, elaborative thinking and problem solving. In the process, students develop and refine their cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Furthermore, succeeding at such tasks increases students’ self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation (McCaslin & Good, 1996; Turner, 1997). Learning to cope with stressful situations, regulate emotions, and make adaptations is an important educational goal (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). Remember from Chapter 4 that, according to Sternberg (2004), one aspect of intelligence is choosing or adapting environments so that you can succeed. Bandura (2016) would agree—one way to be an agent is to select environments that work best for you.



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Control Teachers can share control with students by giving them choices. When students have choices (e.g., about what to produce, how to produce it, where to work, whom to work with), they are more likely to anticipate a successful outcome (increased self-efficacy) and consequently increase effort and persist when difficulty arises (Turner & Paris, 1995). Also, by involving students in making decisions, teachers invite them to take responsibility for learning by planning, setting goals, monitoring progress, and evaluating outcomes (Turner, 1997). Finally, when students perceive they have control over their learning activities, they maintain higher levels of motivation to complete the task, as predicted by theories of motivation presented in Chapter 12 (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These are qualities of highly effective, self-regulating learners. Giving students choices creates opportunities for students to adjust the level of challenge that particular tasks present (e.g., they can choose easy or more challenging reading materials, determine the nature and amount of writing in a report, supplement writing with other expressions of learning). But what if students make poor academic choices? Highly effective teachers who are high in self-regulated learning carefully consider the choices they give to students. They make sure students have the knowledge and skills they need to operate independently and make good decisions (Perry & Rahim, 2011). For example, when students are learning new skills or routines, teachers can offer choices with constraints (e.g., students must write a minimum of four sentences/paragraphs/pages, but they can choose to write more; they must demonstrate their understanding of an animal’s habitat, food, and babies, but they can write, draw, or speak their knowledge). Highly effective teachers also teach and model good decision making. For example, when students are choosing partners, teachers can ask them to consider what they need from their partner (e.g., shared interest and commitment, perhaps knowledge or skills that they need to develop). When students are making choices about how best to use their time, these teachers ask, “What can you do when you’re finished? What can you do if you are waiting for my help?” Often, lists are generated and posted, so students can refer to them while they work. Finally, highly effective teachers give students feedback about the choices they make and tailor the choices they give to suit the unique characteristics of particular learners. For example, they might encourage some students to select research topics for which resources are readily available and written at a level that is accessible to the learner. Alternatively, they might encourage some students to work collaboratively versus independently to ensure they have the support and shared regulation they need to be successful.



Self-Evaluation Evaluation practices that support self-regulated learning are nonthreatening. They are embedded in ongoing activities, emphasize process as well as products, focus on personal progress, and help students to interpret errors as opportunities for learning to occur. In these contexts, students enjoy and actually seek challenging tasks because the risk of participation—or perceived risk—is low (Paris & Ayres, 1994). Involving students in generating evaluation criteria and evaluating their own work also reduces the anxiety that often accompanies assessment by giving students a sense of control over the outcome. Students can judge their work in relation to a set of qualities both they and their teachers identify as “good” work. They can consider the effectiveness of their approaches to learning and alter their behaviors in ways that enhance it (Winne, 2011; Winne & Perry, 2000). Classrooms that are high in self-regulated learning have both formal and informal opportunities for students to evaluate their learning. For example, one student teacher asked fourth- and fifth-grade students to submit reflection journals describing the games they designed with a partner or a small group of collaborators for a probability and statistics unit (Perry, Phillips, & Dowler, 2004). Their journals explained their contribution to the group’s process and product and also described what they learned from participating. The student teacher took these reflections into account when she evaluated the games. More informally, teachers ask students, “What have you learned about yourself as a writer today?” “What do good researchers and writers do?” “What can we do that we couldn’t do before?” Questions



MyLab Education



Video Example 11.5 In this class, students choose work to include in their portfolios by identifying their best work and explicitly stating how each sample reflects improvement. They are involved in self-evaluation and see evidence of their growth.



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like these, posed to individuals or embedded in class discussions, prompt students’ metacognition, motivation, and strategic action—the components of self-regulated learning.



Collaboration The Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn (2004) concluded that when students can put their heads together, they are more receptive to challenging assignments—the very kind of complex task that develops selfregulation. The most effective uses of cooperative/collaborative relationships to support self-regulated learning are those that reflect a climate of community and shared problem solving (Perry & Drummond, 2002; Perry, VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). In these contexts, teachers and students actually co-regulate one another’s learning (McCaslin & Good, 1996), offering support, whether working alone, in pairs, or in small groups. This support is instrumental to individuals’ development and use of metacognition, intrinsic motivation, and strategic action (e.g., sharing ideas, comparing strategies for solving problems, identifying everyone’s area of expertise). Teachers who are high in self-regulated learning spend time at the start of each school year teaching routines and establishing norms of participation (e.g., how to give constructive feedback and how to interpret and respond to peers’ suggestions). As you will see in Chapter 13, developing useful management and learning procedures and routines takes time at the beginning of the year, but it is time well spent. Once routines and patterns of interaction are established, students can focus on learning and teachers can attend to teaching academic skills and the curriculum. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.5



BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: THEORIES OF LEARNING How can we make sense of the diversity in perspectives on learning we have explored for the last four chapters? We have considered behavioral, cognitive, constructivist (individual and social), and social cognitive explanations of what people learn and how they learn it. Table 11.3 presents a summary of these perspectives on learning. Rather than debating the merits of each approach in Table 11.3, consider their contributions to understanding learning and improving teaching. Don’t feel that you must choose the “best” approach—there is no such thing. Chemists, biologists, and nutritionists rely on different theories to explain and improve health. Different views of learning can be used together to create productive learning environments for the diverse students you will teach. Behavioral theory helps us understand the role of cues in setting the stage for behaviors and the role of consequences and practice in encouraging or discouraging particular behaviors. But much of humans’ lives and learning is more than behaviors. Language and higher-order thinking require complex information processing and memory—something the cognitive models help us understand. And what about the person as a creator and constructor of knowledge, not just a processor of information? Here, constructivist perspectives have much to offer. Social cognitive theory illustrates the powerful learning opportunities afforded through modeling and observational learning and highlights the important roles of agency and self-direction. Finally, life requires self-regulated learning, and promoting effective self-regulation skills promotes greater success in learning regardless of the operational process of learning. I like to think of the four main learning theories in Table 11.3 as four pillars for teaching. Students must first understand and make sense of the material (constructivist); then, they must remember what they have understood (cognitive—information processing); then, they must practice and apply (behavioral) their new skills and understanding to make them more fluid and automatic—a permanent part of their repertoire. Finally, they must take charge of their own learning (social cognitive). Failure to attend to any part of the process results in lower quality learning. MyLab Education Self-Check 11.6



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TABLE 11.3 • Four Views of Learning There are variations within each of these views of learning and overlaps as well, especially in constructivist views. BEHAVIORAL



COGNITIVE



CONSTRUCTIVIST



SOCIAL COGNITIVE



APPLIED BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS B. F. SKINNER



INFORMATION PROCESSING J. ANDERSON



INDIVIDUAL JEAN PIAGET



SOCIAL/SITUATED LEV VYGOTSKY



SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY ALBERT BANDURA



Knowledge



Fixed body of knowledge to acquire Stimulated from outside



Fixed body of knowledge to acquire Stimulated from outside Prior knowledge influences how information is processed



Changing body of knowledge, individually constructed in social world Built on what learner brings



Socially constructed knowledge Built on what participants contribute, construct together



Changing body of knowledge, constructed in interaction with others and the environment



Learning



Acquisition of facts, skills, concepts Occurs through drill, guided practice



Acquisition of facts, skills, concepts, and strategies Occurs through the effective application of strategies



Active construction, restructuring prior knowledge Occurs through multiple opportunities and diverse processes to connect to what is already known



Collaborative construction of socially defined knowledge and values Occurs through socially constructed opportunities



Active construction of knowledge based on observation, interacting in the physical and social world, and developing agency— becoming more self-regulating



Teaching



Transmission presentation (Telling)



Transmission Guide students toward more “accurate” and complete knowledge



Challenge, guide thinking toward more complete understanding



Co-construct knowledge with students



Presenting models, demonstrating, supporting selfefficacy and self-regulation



Role of Teacher



Manager, supervisor Correct wrong answers



Teach and model effective strategies Correct misconceptions



Facilitator, guide Listen for student’s current conceptions, ideas, thinking



Facilitator, guide Co-participant Co-construct different interpretation of knowledge; listen to socially constructed conceptions



Model, facilitator, motivator Model of self-regulated learning



Role of Peers



Not usually considered



Not necessary but can influence information processing



Not necessary but can stimulate thinking, raise questions



Ordinary and necessary part of process of knowledge construction



Serve as models Ordinary and necessary part of process of knowledge construction



Role of Student



Passive recipient of information Active listener, directionfollower



Active processor of information, strategy user Organizer and reorganizer of information Rememberer



Active construction (within mind) Active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner



Active co-construction with others and self Active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner Active social participator



Active co-construction with others and self Active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner Active social participator



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. SUMMARY Social Cognitive Theory (pp. 426–429) Distinguish between social learning and social cognitive theories.  Social learning theory expanded behavioral views of reinforcement and punishment. In behavioral views, reinforcement and punishment directly affect behavior. In social learning theory, observing another person, a model, and being reinforced or punished can have similar effects on the observer’s behavior. Social cognitive theory expands social learning theory to include cognitive factors such as beliefs, expectations, and perceptions of self. Current social cognitive theory is a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning, and motivation. The theory addresses how people develop social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral capabilities; how people regulate their own lives; and what motivates them. What is triadic reciprocal causality? Triadic reciprocal causality is the dynamic interplay among three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral. Personal factors (beliefs, expectations, cognitive abilities, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge), the physical and social environment (resources, consequences of actions, other people, models and teachers, and physical settings), and behavior (individual actions, choices, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by each other.



Modeling: Learning by Observing Others (pp. 429–433) What is modeling? Learning by observing others is a key element of social cognitive theory. Modeling is influenced by the developmental characteristics of the observer, the status and prestige of the model, the consequences of the model’s actions as seen by the observer, the observer’s expectations about performing the observed behaviors (will I be rewarded?), the links that the observers perceive between their goals and the models’ behaviors (will doing what the model does get me what I want?), and the observer’s self-efficacy (can I do it?). What kinds of outcomes can observational learning encourage?  Observational learning can lead to five possible outcomes: directing attention, encouraging existing behaviors, changing inhibitions, teaching new behaviors and attitudes, and arousing emotions. By directing attention, we gain insight into how others do things and what objects are involved in their actions. Encouraging or fine tuning existing behaviors can lead to the development of good habits or can make work more efficient. Observing others also has the capacity to cue us in to others’ attention, which can cause us to become more or less “self-conscious” about our behavior; when others are doing something, it’s easier for us to do the same. Young children in particular learn by watching and emulating others, but everyone can gain insight into how something is done well (or poorly) by observing someone else do it. Finally, observing can lead to the association of emotions with certain activities. If others are observed enjoying an activity, the observer may learn to enjoy the activity as well.



many perceptions about the self, including self-efficacy. Compared to self-esteem, self-efficacy is concerned with judgments of personal capabilities; self-esteem is concerned with judgments of self-worth. What are the sources of self-efficacy?  Four sources of self-efficacy are direct experiences (of mastery or failure), vicarious experiences (performances that are modeled by someone else), social persuasion (evaluative judgments by others or specific performance feedback), and level of emotional or physiological arousal you experience as you face the task. How does self-efficacy affect motivation? Greater self-efficacy leads to greater effort, persistence in the face of setbacks, higher goals, and finding new strategies when old ones fail. If sense of efficacy is low, however, people may avoid a task altogether or give up easily when problems arise. What is teachers’ sense of efficacy? One of the few personal characteristics of teachers related to student achievement is a teacher’s sense of self-efficacy—the belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder, persist longer, and are less likely to experience burnout. Teachers’ sense of efficacy is higher in schools where the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and where teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems. Self-efficacy grows from real success with students, so any experience or training that helps you succeed in the day-to-day tasks of teaching will give you a foundation for developing a sense of efficacy in your career. There may be some benefits to a lower sense of efficacy, if this encourages teachers to pursue professional development and improvement.



Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will (pp. 439–450) What factors are involved in self-regulated learning?  One important goal of teaching is to prepare students for lifelong learning. To reach this goal, students must be self-regulated learners; they must have a combination of the knowledge, motivation to learn, and volition that provides the skill and will to learn independently and effectively. Knowledge includes an understanding of self, subject, task, learning strategy, and contexts for application. Motivation to learn provides the commitment and includes self-beliefs and interest. Volition is the follow-through that stays the course despite distraction. Personality characteristics such as grit, conscientiousness, and self-control are important here.



Self-Efficacy and Agency (pp. 434–439)



What is the self-regulated learning cycle? Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated learning notes three phases: forethought (which includes setting goals, making plans, self-efficacy, and motivation); performance (which involves self-control and self-monitoring); and reflection (which includes self-evaluation and adaptations, leading to the forethought/planning phase again).



What is self-efficacy, and how is it different from other self-schemas? Self-efficacy is distinct from other self-schemas in that it involves judgments of capabilities specific to a particular task. Self-concept is a more global construct that contains



What are some examples of teaching students to be more self-regulating?  Self-regulating learners engage in four types of activities: analyzing the task, setting goals and designing plans, engaging in learning, and adjusting their approach to



S O C I A L C OGN I T I V E V I E W S OF LE AR N I N G AN D MOT IVATI ON learning. Teaching students to be more self-regulating might take the form of providing opportunities to identify and analyze the task at hand. Students should ask themselves: What is the task? What is an ideal outcome of the task? Students may also benefit from goal-setting practice; they may ask: What are my short-term goals? What are my long-term goals? Learning strategies such as identifying important details and developing a big picture of material is the next step in the process. Finally, students need to reflect on whether they were successful and devise strategies for overcoming shortcomings in their self-regulation process. They may ask themselves: Where was I successful? Where do I need to improve in order to meet my goals in the future? What is cognitive behavior modification? Cognitive behavior modification is a process in which self-talk is used to regulate behavior. Cognitive behavior modification may take many forms, including helping to keep students engaged in their learning or helping them deal effectively with anger and aggression. Some research has identified four skills that are particularly helpful self-talk strategies: listening, planning, working, and checking. Cognitive behavior modification can be used with students of all ages, but helping students engage in self-talk may require more adult assistance and guidance for younger children, or those who have not had opportunities to practice good self-regulation strategies. What are the skills involved in emotional self-regulation?  Emotionally self-regulating individuals are aware of their own emotions and the feelings of others—realizing that inner emotions can differ from outward expressions. They can talk about and express emotions in ways that are appropriate for their cultural group. They can feel empathy for others in distress and also cope with their own distressing emotions—they can handle stress. Emotional self-regulators can also employ a



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variety of problem-solving and coping strategies to help them manage the personal and social emotional stimuli to promote optimal performance. These individuals know that relationships are defined in part by how emotions are communicated within the relationship. All these skills come together to produce a capacity for emotional self-regulation.



Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning (pp. 451–454) How can teachers support the development of self-efficacy and self-regulated learning? Teachers should involve students in complex meaningful tasks that extend over long periods of time. Teachers should provide students control over their learning processes and products, allowing them to make choices. They should involve students in setting criteria for evaluating their learning processes and products, and then give them opportunities to make judgments about their progress using those standards. Finally, teachers should encourage students to work collaboratively with and seek feedback from peers.



Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning (pp. 454–455) What is the value of the four different perspectives on learning?  The behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, and social cognitive learning theories are four pillars for teaching. Students must first understand and make sense of the material (constructivist); then, they must remember what they have understood (cognitive—information processing); then, they must practice and apply (behavioral) their new skills and understanding to make them more fluid and automatic—a permanent part of their repertoire. Finally, they must take charge of their own learning (social cognitive). Failure to attend to any part of the process results in lower-quality learning.



. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Observational Learning



Fostering Self-Efficacy



Fostering Self-Regulated Learning



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 11.1



Application Exercise 11.2



Application Exercise 11.3



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. KEY TERMS Cognitive behavior modification (p. 448) Co-regulation (p. 444) Direct reinforcement (p. 431) Grit (p. 443) Human agency (p. 434) Mastery experiences (p. 435) Modeling (p. 427) Physiological or emotional arousal (p. 436)



.



Ripple effect (p. 432) Self-efficacy (p. 434) Self-instruction (p. 448) Self-regulated learning (p. 439) Self-regulation (p. 439) Self-reinforcement (p. 431) Shared regulation (p. 444) Social cognitive theory (p. 427)



Social learning theory (p. 427) Social persuasion (p. 435) Teachers’ sense of efficacy (p. 438) Triadic reciprocal causality (p. 427) Vicarious experiences (p. 435) Vicarious reinforcement (p. 431) Volition (p. 441)



CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE



MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. “I believe I will do well in this class,” Chris declared to her brother. “I received a perfect score on the verbal part of the SAT, and I have always excelled in my literature classes.” Chris is demonstrating which of the following? A. B. C. D.



High self-esteem High levels of empathy High self-efficacy in English Low self-efficacy in English



2. Modeling is defined as changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person. Which theory and theorist are associated with learning through observation? A. B. C. D.



Behaviorist theory, Skinner Constructivist theory, Piaget Social cognitive theory, Bandura Sociocultural theory, Vygotsky



3. Miss Hutton turned around with a scowl on her face and addressed her second graders. “What do you think you’re doing, Johnny? Did I tell you to get out of your seat? Don’t you ever let me catch you up without permission.” The class sat silently with their eyes wide. When the lunch bell rang an hour later, not one of the children dared to move from their seats. This is an example of which one of the following? A. B. C. D.



Self-regulation Self-efficacy Reciprocal causality Vicarious learning



4. Through observational learning, one learns how to perform a behavior and also what will happen in specific situations if one performs it. Observation can be a very efficient learning process. What four elements must be met in order to learn from observation? A. Attention, retention, production, and motivation/reinforcement B. Attention, cognition, belief, and value C. Observation, desire, developmental capability, and suitability D. Observation, motivation, abstraction, and reinforcement



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case “Marcus! Look how well you did on your spelling test!” Mr. Bonner smiled at Marcus, who beamed in response. “I knew when we started to chart your progress you would really do well. You have had three perfect scores on the last three tests. It just goes to show, you studied every night for a few minutes, and your grade has gone up, up, up! I’m looking at the chart we made at the beginning of the year, and I think it really helped.” “Mr. Bonner, I would like to do the same thing in math. I think if I practice every night and chart my progress, I’ll get perfect grades in math, too! I’ll make a chart and pick out some math games I can play at home to improve. 5. How is Mr. Bonner encouraging Marcus’s self-efficacy? 6. How is Marcus’s response to Mr. Bonner an example of self-regulated learning?



MyLab Education Licensure Exam



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Failure to Self-Regulate Here is how several expert teachers responded to the situation at the beginning of the chapter of the teacher with a class of disorganized students. JANE W. CAMPBELL • Second-Grade Teacher John P. Faber Elementary School, Dunellen, NJ



To begin the year, I teach several routines that help students to become more independent and successful. First they are introduced to a homework folder labeled with the classroom number and school name. Ownership is important, so they write their own names on the label, too. There are also designated sections for parent signatures, homework to be returned to school, and homework to be kept at home. Each day students put their things into the proper section. I check the students’ success by walking through the room and looking at their folders. As different students become proficient, they become student helpers to help spot check other students as well. Organizing the students takes time, but once the routine is established, most students can successfully complete the task. As the routine is practiced and established, the students become successful and more self-reliant. Everyone is happy: the students, the parents, and the teacher. CARLA S. HIGGINS • K–5 Literacy Coordinator Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH



I don’t make assumptions about my students’ organizational skills. Instead, I explicitly teach them skills that work for our class and support future organization such as using a structured folder for class paperwork, frequent checkpoints, and an assignment calendar or agenda. I include students in planning due dates by considering what it would take to complete each assignment. For longer assignments, I ask students to help create a reasonable timeline for completing steps of the project and offer frequent checks for completion of the steps. Finally, since we live in a culture where technology drives much of our communication, I set up a Web site or e-mail reminder system to provide additional support for students and to communicate with parents to keep them involved. MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • Eighth-Grade Foreign-Language Teacher (German and French) Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH



Part of being a good teacher is learning how to teach the “process” of learning alongside the required content material. In the grand scheme of teaching, content-specific learning is only a small percentage of what I teach—something I didn’t expect when I started my career in education. A large part of succeeding in life (and on achievement tests!), rather than just knowing how to conjugate a French verb, is knowing the habits, routines, and learning skills that students master while learning those French verbs. With this in mind, it is much easier



to keep the task at hand in perspective. If a teacher focuses on fundamental strategies such as organization and planning, and inextricably links these strategies to the operation of the classroom, these concepts become second nature to the students. Students are better able to absorb and learn the content-specific material because they have the tools necessary to do so. KELLY L. HOY • Fifth Grade Humanities Teacher Katherine Delmar Burke School, San Francisco, CA



In an elementary school classroom, organizational skills are central to alleviating stress for students, teachers, and even parents. From the desk to the binder to the backpack, somehow students’ paperwork mysteriously disappears. There are ways to battle the infamous “black hole” book bag or desk. Teachers should take time at the end of each period to clearly state where the assignment should be placed, and each child can give a signal that his or her paper is in the correct place. For time-sensitive projects, having different dates in which notes, drafts, and final projects are due will help students learn time management. Students can check off that they have the correct materials in assignment logs and get a teacher’s initials. Periodic “book bag checks” can help students organize their book bags for homework. PATRICIA A. SMITH • High School Math Teacher Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX



In my high school mathematics classes, I spend the first 2 months of the school year training my students in organizational skills. All of my students are given a schedule that outlines topics of discussion, assignment due dates, and quiz and test dates. I also give each of them a “scorecard” where they keep track of their own grades. This serves as a double check for me as the teacher and also provides a sense of ownership of earned grades to the students. All my students have a three-ring binder with a plastic cover–; their schedule fits inside the plastic cover. Early in the year, I start every class with a look at the schedule and question students on assignment due dates. In addition, I collect all assignments and tests in colored folders unique to each class section. When the students walk into my classroom and see their designated color of folder on my desk, they know that something is due. Most of my quizzes are the take-home variety. I place them on a table in the back of the room, and students are responsible for locating, completing, and returning them. In fact, I put them out several days in advance and do not accept late quizzes, thereby increasing student responsibility and organization. Graded papers are also processed in the same manner, thereby perpetuating the new and orderly system and disabling the old unorganized ways.



chapter twelve MOTIVATION IN LEARNING AND TEACHING WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin It is July, and you finally have a teaching position. The district wasn’t your first choice, but job openings are really tight, so you’re pleased to have a job in your field. You are discovering that the teaching resources in your school are slim to none; the only materials available are some aging texts and the workbooks that go with them. Every idea you have suggested for software, learning apps, simulation games, DVDs, science project supplies, field trips, or other more active teaching materials has been met with the same response, “There’s no money in the budget for that.” As you look over the texts and workbooks, you wonder how the students could be anything but bored by them. To make matters worse, the texts look pretty high level for your students. But the objectives in the workbooks are important. Besides, the district curriculum requires these units. Students will be tested on them in district-wide assessments next spring. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you arouse student curiosity and interest about the topics and tasks in the workbooks? • How would you establish the value of learning this material? • How would you handle the difficulty level of the texts? • What do you need to know about motivation to solve these problems? • What do you need to know about your students to motivate them?



Anastasiia Stepanova/Shutterstock



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Most educators agree that motivating students is one of the critical tasks of teaching. To learn, students must be cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally engaged in productive class activities. We begin with the question “What is motivation?” and examine many of the answers that have been proposed, including a discussion of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. You already know quite a bit that applies to motivation based on your understanding of behavioral, cognitive, social cognitive, and sociocultural theories of learning. Next, we consider more closely five broad factors or themes that frequently appear in discussions of motivation: needs and self-determination, goal orientations, expectancies and values, attributions and beliefs, and feelings such as interests, curiosity, flow, or anxiety. How do we put all this information together in teaching? How do we create environments, situations, and relationships that encourage motivation and engagement in learning? First, we consider how the influences on motivation come together to support motivation to learn. Then, we use the TARGET model examine how motivation is influenced by task, autonomy, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time. Finally, we discuss a number of strategies for developing motivation as a constant state in your classroom and as a permanent trait in your students. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 12.1



Define motivation and contrast intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, including four kinds of extrinsic motivation.



Objective 12.2



Explain how learners’ needs—including the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence their motivation to learn.



Objective 12.3



Describe the different kinds of goal orientations and examine their influences on motivation.



Objective 12.4



Discuss how students’ beliefs about expectations for success, value of the task, and costs can influence motivation.



Objective 12.5



Discuss how students’ beliefs and attributions about control, the nature of knowledge, mindsets, and self-worth can influence motivation.



Objective 12.6



Describe the roles of interests, curiosity, flow, emotions, and anxiety in motivation.



Objective 12.7



Explain how teachers can influence and encourage students’ motivation to learn.



We began our examination of motivation in the previous chapter when we explored students’ beliefs about their capabilities—their self-efficacy. I have included another chapter on motivation because students’ motivation has a direct and powerful impact on their social interactions and academic achievement in your classroom. Students with the same abilities and prior knowledge may perform quite differently, based on their motivation (Wigfield & Wentzel, 2007). So how does that work? Let’s start with a basic question. What is motivation?



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives What Is Motivation? Meeting Some Students Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation What You Already Know About Motivation Needs and Self-Determination Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness Needs: Lessons for Teachers Goals and Goal Orientations Types of Goals and Goal Orientations Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance Goals: Lessons for Teachers Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations Costs Task Value Lessons for Teachers Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth Attributions in the Classroom



WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation is usually defined as the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. Motivated students put out more effort, persist longer, learn more, and score higher on tests (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016). Psychologists studying motivation have focused on five basic questions:



1. What choices do people make about their behavior? Why do some students, for example, focus on their homework, while others play video games? 2. How long does it take to get started? Why do some students start their homework right away, while others procrastinate? 3. What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity? Once the backpack is opened, is the student engrossed and focused or is he just going through the motions? 4. What causes someone to persist or to give up? Will a student read the entire Shakespeare assignment or just a few pages? 5. What is the person thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity? Is the student enjoying Shakespeare, feeling competent, or experiencing anxiety about an upcoming test (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; S. Graham & Weiner, 1996; Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993)?



Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers Beliefs About Self-Worth Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers How Do You Feel about Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety Tapping Interests Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity Flow Emotions and Anxiety Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET Tasks for Learning Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment Grouping, Evaluation, and Time Diversity in Motivation Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would They Do?



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Meeting Some Students Many factors influence motivation and engaged learning. To get a sense of the complexity of motivation, let’s step into a high school science classroom just after the teacher has given directions for a lab activity. The student profiles are adapted from Stipek (2002). Hopeless Geraldo won’t even start the assignment—as usual. He just keeps saying, “I don’t understand,” or “This is too hard.” When he answers your questions correctly, he “guessed” and he “doesn’t really know.” Geraldo spends most of his time staring into space; he is falling farther and farther behind. Safe Sumet checks with you about every step—he wants to be perfect. You once gave him bonus points for doing an excellent color drawing of the apparatus, and now he produces a work of art for lab every time. But Sumet won’t risk getting a B. If it isn’t required or on the test, Sumet isn’t interested in doing the work. Satisfied Sophia, on the other hand, is interested in this project. In fact, she knows more than you do about it. Evidently she spends hours reading about chemistry and performing experiments. But her overall grade in your class is between B- and C because she never turns in homework. Sophia is satisfied with the C she can get on tests without even trying. Defensive Damond doesn’t have his lab manual—again, so he has to share with another student. Then he pretends to be working, but spends most of his time making fun of the assignment or trying to get answers from other students



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when your back is turned. He is afraid to try because if he makes an effort and fails, he fears that everyone will know he is “dumb.” Anxious Aimee is a good student in most subjects, but she freezes on science tests and “forgets” everything she knows when she has to answer questions in class. Her parents are scientists and expect her to become one too, but her prospects for this future look dim. STOP & THINK Each of these students has problems with at least one of the five areas of motivation: (1) choices, (2) getting started, (3) intensity, (4) persistence, or (5) thoughts and feelings. Can you diagnose the problems? The answers are on page 464. • Each student presents a different motivational challenge, yet you have to figure out how to motivate and teach the entire class. In the next few pages, we will look more closely at the meaning of motivation so we can better understand these students.



Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation We all know how it feels to be motivated, to move energetically toward a goal or to work hard, even if we are not thrilled by the task. What initiates, directs, and sustains our behavior? Some psychologists have explained motivation in terms of personal traits or individual characteristics. Certain people, so the theory goes, are interested in cars or art, so they spend hours in garages or galleries. Other psychologists see motivation more as a state, a temporary situation. If, for example, you are reading this paragraph because you have a test tomorrow, you are motivated (at least for now) by the situation. Of course, the motivation we experience at any given time usually is a combination of trait and state. You may be studying because you value learning and because you are preparing for a test. A classic distinction is made about amotivation, intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation. Amotivation is a complete lack of any intent to act—no engagement at all. Intrinsic motivation is the natural human tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise our capabilities. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments, because the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reiss, 2004). Satisfied Sophia studies chemistry outside school simply because she loves learning about chemistry; no one makes her do it. In contrast, when we do something to earn a grade, avoid punishment, please the teacher, or for some other reason that has very little to do with the task itself, we experience extrinsic motivation. We are not really interested in the activity for its own sake; we care only about what it will gain us. Safe Sumet works for the grade; he has little interest in the subject itself. Extrinsic motivation has been associated with negative emotions, poor academic achievement, and maladaptive learning strategies (Corpus et al., 2009). However, extrinsic motivation also has benefits if it provides incentives as students try new things, gives them an extra push to get started, or helps them persist to complete a mundane task. Beware of either/or! According to psychologists who adopt the intrinsic/extrinsic concept of motivation, it is impossible to tell just by looking if a behavior is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. The essential difference between the two types of motivation is the student’s reason for acting—whether the locus of causality for the action (the location of the cause) is internal or external—inside or outside the person. Students who read or practice their backstroke or paint may be reading, swimming, or painting because they freely chose the activity based on personal interests (internal locus of causality/intrinsic motivation), or because someone or something else outside is influencing them (external locus of causality/extrinsic motivation) (Reeve, 2002; Reeve & Jang, 2006a, 2006b). As you think about your own motivation, you probably realize that the dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is too either/or—too all-or-nothing. Two



MyLab Education



Video Example 12.1 Students in this classroom are taking turns reading their creative writing to the class and receiving feedback to become better writers. Observe the use of extrinsic motivators as one child reads and receives feedback.



Motivation An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. Amotivation A complete lack of any intent to act— no engagement at all. Intrinsic motivation Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward. Extrinsic motivation Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. Locus of causality The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior.



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explanations of motivation avoid either/or thinking. The first explanation is that our activities fall along a continuum from fully self-determined (intrinsic motivation) to fully determined by others (extrinsic motivation). Four types of extrinsic motivation are based on the level of internal drive to engage in the activity (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). Starting with the most extrinsic, these four types are: • external regulation (completely controlled by outside consequences) • introjected regulation (engaging in the task to avoid guilt or negative self-perceptions) • identification (participating despite lack of interest because it serves a larger goal that is personally motivating) • integrated regulation (participating in a task because it is both interesting and has extrinsic reward value)



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Promoting Intrinsic Motivation to Learn (I, C2, 3) For a set of practical tips, guidelines, and suggestions for boosting and maintaining motivation to learn, go to Promoting Academic Engagement Through 21st Century Community Learning Centers: The Oregon Experience (educationnorthwest.org/ events/promoting-academicengagement-through-21stcentury-community-learningcenters-oregon).



As an example of integrated regulation, students may freely choose to work hard on activities that they don’t find particularly enjoyable because they know the activities are important in reaching a valued goal—such as spending hours studying educational psychology to become a good teacher. Those students are freely choosing to accept outside causes such as licensure requirements and then trying to get the most benefit from the requirements (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). A second explanation that avoids either/or thinking is that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not two ends of a continuum. Instead, intrinsic and extrinsic tendencies are two independent possibilities, and at any given time, we can be motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Covington & Mueller, 2001; Vansteenkiste & Mouratidis, 2016). STOP & THINK Hopeless Geraldo has trouble with getting started (2) and with a sense of despair (5); during the activity he feels defeated and helpless. Safe Sumet makes good choices (1), gets started right away (2), and persists (4). But he is not really engaged and takes little pleasure in the work (3 and 5). As long as she is following her own choices (1), Satisfied Sophia is prompt in getting started (2), engaged (3), persistent (4), and enjoys the task (5). Defensive Damond makes poor choices (1), procrastinates (2), avoids engagement (3), and gives up easily (4) because he is so concerned about how others will judge him (5). Anxious Aimee’s problems have to do with what she thinks and how she feels as she works (5). Her worry and anxiety may lead her to make poor choices (1) and procrastinate (2), which only makes her more anxious at test time. •



INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION: LESSONS FOR TEACHERS. Did you find fractions inherently interesting? Was your curiosity piqued by irregular verbs? If teachers count on intrinsic motivation to energize all their students all of the time, they will be disappointed. There are situations where incentives and external supports are necessary. Teachers must encourage and nurture intrinsic motivation, while making sure that extrinsic motivation supports learning (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Brophy, 2003). This may become more challenging in the upper grades because both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation decline as students move up in grade levels (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). To combat these trends, teachers need to know about the factors that influence motivation—and there are many. Read on.



What You Already Know About Motivation Motivation is a vast and complicated subject encompassing many theories and explanations. Some theories were developed through work with animals in laboratories. Others are based on research with humans in situations that used games or puzzles. The work done in clinical or industrial psychology inspired additional theories as well. But you already know a bit about motivation based on the theories of learning and cognition we discussed earlier in this book. Behaviorists tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment. Cognitive views stress a person’s active search for meaning, understanding, and competence, and the power of the individual’s



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attributions and interpretations. In social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and agency are central factors in motivation. Self-efficacy is your belief that you can execute particular behaviors at a particular level in a given situation. Sociocultural views emphasize engaged participation and maintaining your identity within a community. Even though you already have some good ideas about motivation, today there are many more specific explanations for motivation that have implications for teaching. Our examination of these explanations will be selective; otherwise we would never finish. Let’s start with some more of your personal experiences with motivation. STOP & THINK Why are you reading this chapter? Are you curious about motivation and interested in the topic? Or is there a test in your near future? Do you need this course to earn a teaching license or to graduate? Maybe you believe that you will do well in this class, and that belief keeps you working. Maybe you just got caught up in the ideas and can’t put the book down. Perhaps it is some combination of these reasons. What motivates you to study motivation? • To organize the many ideas about motivation in a way that is useful for teaching, we will examine these five broad themes or approaches. Most contemporary explanations of motivation include a discussion of needs and self-determination, goals, expectancies and values, attributions and beliefs, and finally, the emotional “hot” side of motivation—interests, curiosity, and anxiety (Murphy & Alexander, 2000). Could your answers to the Stop & Think questions be sorted into any of these explanations of motivation? If you don’t know now, you will by the end of this chapter. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.1



NEEDS AND SELF-DETERMINATION Early research in psychology viewed motivation in terms of trait-like needs. Three of the main needs studied extensively in this earlier work were the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation (Pintrich, 2003). Abraham Maslow’s influential theory emphasized a hierarchy that included all these needs and more.



Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow (1970) suggested that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower-level needs for survival and safety to higher-level needs for knowledge and understanding and finally self-actualization (see Figure 12.1 on the next page). Self-actualization is Maslow’s term for self-fulfillment, the realization of personal potential—“being all that you can be.” Each of the lower-level needs must be met before the next higher need can be addressed. Maslow (1968) called the four lower-level needs—for survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem—deficiency needs. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs—cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and finally self-actualization—being needs. When they are met, a person’s motivation does not cease but instead increases because these being needs can never be completely filled. For example, the more successful you are in your efforts to develop as a teacher, the harder you are likely to strive for even greater improvement. Maslow’s theory has been criticized for the very obvious reason that people do not always behave as the theory would predict. Most of us move back and forth among different types of needs and may even be motivated by many needs at the same time. Some people deny themselves safety or friendship to achieve knowledge or greater self-esteem. Criticisms aside, Maslow’s theory does give us a way of looking at the whole student, whose physical, emotional, and intellectual needs are all interrelated. When children are hungry, they will have trouble focusing on academic learning. A child whose feelings of safety and sense of belonging are threatened by divorce may have little interest in learning how to divide fractions. If school is a fearful, unpredictable place where neither teachers nor students are emotionally safe, they are likely to be more concerned



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Video Example 12.2 Compare the notions of significance, competence, and power described in this video to the ideas of relatedness, competence, and autonomy in selfdetermination theory or to the concept of self-efficacy. Where are the overlaps and similarities in all these explanations of motivation? Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Maslow (I, C1) Consider how problems with satisfying Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can affect student learning. Link these ideas to direct or vicarious experiences you might have had in school.



Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization. Self-actualization Fulfilling one’s potential. Deficiency needs Maslow’s four lowerlevel needs, which must be satisfied first before higher-level needs can be addressed. Being needs Maslow’s three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs.



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FIGUR E 12 .1 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslow’s four lower-level needs—for survival, then safety, followed by belonging, and then self-esteem—are called deficiency needs, because when these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs—cognitive needs, then aesthetic needs, and finally self-actualization—being needs, because when they are met, a person’s motivation does not cease.



Selfactualization Realizing your full potential, “becoming everything one is capable of becoming.” Aesthetic needs Beauty—in art and nature— symmetry, balance, order, form. Cognitive needs Knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. Esteem needs The esteem and respect of others and self-esteem and self-respect. A sense of competence. Love and belongingness Receiving and giving love, affection, trust, and acceptance. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work). Safety needs Protection from potentially dangerous objects or situations (e.g., the elements, physical illness). The threat is both physical and psychological (e.g., “fear of the unknown”). Importance of routine and familiarity. Physiological needs Food, drink, oxygen, temperature regulation, elimination, rest, activity, sex. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Self-Determination (I, C3) Understand how selfdetermination can boost or diminish motivation and describe practical steps that teachers can take to establish a sense of self-determination in students.



with security and less with learning or teaching. Belonging to a social group and maintaining self-esteem within that group are important to students. If doing what the teacher says conflicts with group rules, students may choose to ignore the teacher’s wishes or even defy the teacher. Self-determination theory is a more recent approach to motivation that focuses on human needs (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reeve, 2009).



Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness Need for competence The individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand.



Self-determination theory suggests that we all need to feel competent and capable, to have a sense of autonomy and control over our lives, and to be connected to others in relationships. Notice that these are similar to early conceptions of basic needs for achievement (competence), power (autonomy and control), and affiliation (relatedness). In terms of formal definitions, need for competence is the individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand. Satisfying this need results in a sense



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of accomplishment, promotes self-efficacy, and helps learners establish better learning goals for future tasks ( J. Kim, Schallert, & Kim, 2010). Need for autonomy is central to self-determination because autonomy is the desire to have our own wishes and choices, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reeve, 2009). People constantly struggle against pressure from external controls such as the rules, schedules, deadlines, orders, and limits imposed by others. Sometimes, even help is rejected so that the individual can remain in control (deCharms, 1983). The need for relatedness is the desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Because different cultures have divergent conceptions of self, some psychologists have asked whether the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are universal. In a series of studies, Hyungshim Jang and her colleagues (2009) found that experiences of competence, autonomy, and relatedness were associated with satisfying learning experiences for Korean high school students, so even in a collectivistic culture, these needs may be important. SELF-DETERMINATION IN THE CLASSROOM. Student self-determination is influenced by several factors. For instance, research in both U.S. and Korean schools demonstrated that students’ motivational profiles for learning were influenced by both classroom goal structure (teachers’ messages about autonomy and demonstrating competence) and the level of autonomy support offered by parents (Friedel, Cortina, Turner, & Midgley, 2007; J. Kim et al., 2010). However, the findings also suggest that for older students, the direct impact of parental attitudes and support tends to decline, whereas the influence of teachers’ messages remained. Classroom environments that support student self-determination and autonomy are associated with greater student interest and curiosity (even interest in homework assignments), sense of competence, creativity, conceptual learning, grades, school attendance and satisfaction, engagement, use of self-regulated learning strategies, psychological well-being, and preference for challenge. These relationships appear to hold from first grade through graduate school (Hafen et al., 2012; Jang, Kim, & Reeve, 2012; Moller, Deci, & Ryan, 2006; Pulfrey, Darnon, & Butera, 2013; Reeve, 2009; Shih, 2008). Autonomy may also interact with interest. In one study with college students, choice enhanced interest, sense of competence, and valuing of a reading task only when the reading passage was boring (Patall, 2013), so choice may be less important when the reading is engaging and interesting already. But in general, when students have the authority to make choices, they are more likely to believe that the work is important, even if it is not “fun.” Thus, they tend to internalize educational goals and take them as their own. In contrast to autonomy-supporting classrooms, controlling environments tend to improve performance only on rote recall tasks. When students are pressured to perform, they often seek the quickest, easiest solution. But even though controlling styles of teaching are less effective, teachers are under pressure from administrators, accountability requirements, and cultural expectations to be “in charge,” and parents expect good class “discipline.” In addition, students often are passive and unengaged or even defiant. Finally, some teachers equate control with efficient classroom structure or feel more comfortable with a controlling style (Reeve, 2009). Assuming you are willing to resist those pressures, how can you support student autonomy? One answer is to focus on information, not control, in your interactions with students. INFORMATION AND CONTROL. Cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002) explains how students’ experiences such as being praised or criticized, reminded of deadlines, assigned grades, given choices, or lectured about rules can influence their intrinsic motivation by affecting their sense of self-determination and competence. According to this theory, all events have two aspects: controlling and informational. If an event is highly controlling—if it pressures students to act or feel a certain



Need for autonomy The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions. Need for relatedness The desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Cognitive evaluation theory Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information.



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way—then students will experience less control, and their intrinsic motivation will be diminished. If, on the other hand, the event provides information that increases the students’ sense of competence, then intrinsic motivation will increase. Of course, if the information provided makes students feel less competent, it is likely that motivation will decrease (Pintrich, 2003). Here is an example of a more controlling communication: Your paper is due on Monday. Today, we are going to the school library. In the library, you will find information from books and Internet sites to use for your paper. Don’t waste your time; don’t goof off; make sure to get your work done. In the library, you may work by yourself or with a partner. (Reeve, 2009, p. 169)



This teacher may believe that he is supporting autonomy because he offered a choice. Contrast his message with the following statement that gives information about why the library visit is valuable: Your paper is due on Monday. As a way of helping you write a well-researched paper, we are going to where the information is—the school library. The reason we are going to the library is to find the information you need from books and Internet sites. While there, you may be tempted to goof off, but students in the past have found that a trip to the library was a crucial part of writing an excellent paper. To help you write your best possible paper, you may work in the way you wish—by yourself or with a partner. (Reeve, 2009, p. 169)



As a teacher, what can you do to support student needs for autonomy and competence? An obvious first step is to limit your controlling messages to students because controlling language (must, ought, have to, should . . .) can undermine student motivation (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004). Make sure the information you provide highlights students’ growing competence by emphasizing gains made through persistence and practice and by encouraging student reflection, for example, on portfolio entries or work samples. The Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy give some more ideas. THE NEED FOR RELATEDNESS. Think about your best teachers over the years. What were the qualities that made them great? I bet you remember teachers who cared and forged emotional connections with you. Students who feel a sense of connection and relatedness to teachers, parents, and peers are more emotionally engaged in school and more intrinsically motivated (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Lawson & Lawson, 2013). All students need caring teachers, but students placed at risk have an even greater need for this kind of teacher. Positive relationships with teachers increase the likelihood that students will succeed in high school and go on to college (G. Thompson, 2008; Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). In addition, emotional and physical problems—ranging from eating disorders to suicide—are more common among individuals who lack social relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Relatedness is similar to a sense of belonging, discussed in Chapter 3 (Osterman, 2000) as well as to Maslow’s basic need for belonging described earlier in this chapter.



Needs: Lessons for Teachers From infancy to old age, people want to be competent, connected, and in control. Students are more likely to participate in activities that help them grow more competent and less likely to engage in activities that hold the possibility of failure. This means that your students need choices and appropriately challenging tasks—not too easy, but not impossible either. They also benefit from watching their competence grow, perhaps through self-monitoring systems or portfolios. To be connected, students need to feel that people in school care about them and can be trusted to help them learn. What else matters in motivation? Many theories include goals as key elements. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.2



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GUIDELINES Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy Allow and encourage students to make choices. Examples 1. Design several different ways to meet a learning objective (e.g., a paper, a compilation of interviews, a test, a news broadcast), and let students choose one. Encourage them to explain the reasons for their choice. 2. Appoint student committees to make suggestions about streamlining procedures such as caring for class pets or distributing equipment. 3. Provide time for independent and extended projects. 4. Allow students to choose work partners as long as they focus on the task. Help students plan actions to accomplish self-selected goals. Examples 1. Experiment with goal cards. Students list their short- and long-term goals and then record three or four specific actions that will move them toward the goals. Goal cards are personal—like credit cards. 2. Encourage middle and high school students to set goals in each subject area, record them in a goal book or on a thumb drive, and check progress toward the goals on a regular basis. Hold students accountable for the consequences of their choices. Examples 1. If students choose to work with friends and do not finish a project because too much time was spent socializing, grade the project as it deserves, and help the students see the connection between lost time and poor performance. 2. When students choose a topic that captures their imagination, discuss the connections between their



investment in the work and the quality of the products that follow. Provide rationales for limits, rules, and constraints. Examples 1. Explain reasons for rules. 2. Respect rules and constraints in your own behavior. Acknowledge that negative emotions are valid reactions to teacher control. Examples 1. Communicate that it is okay (and normal) to feel bored waiting for a turn, for example. 2. Communicate that sometimes important learning involves frustration, confusion, weariness. 3. Acknowledge students’ perspective: “Yes, this problem is difficult.” Or “I can understand why you might feel that way.” Use noncontrolling, positive feedback. Examples 1. See poor performance or behavior as a problem to be solved, not a target of criticism. 2. Avoid controlling language, “should,” “must,” “have to.” 3. Provide unexpected, spontaneous, and genuine praise. For more information on self-determination theory, see selfdeterminationtheory.org Source: From 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom, by James P. Raffini. Copyright © 1996, by Pearson Education, and from Motivating Others: Nurturing Inner Motivational Resources, by Johnmarshall Reeve. Copyright © 1996 by Pearson Education. Adapted by permission of the publisher.



GOALS AND GOAL ORIENTATIONS When students strive to read a chapter or make a 4.0 GPA, they are involved in goaldirected behavior. In pursuing goals, students are generally aware of some current condition (I haven’t even opened my book), some ideal condition (I have understood every page), and the discrepancy between the two. Goals motivate people to act in order to reduce the discrepancy between “where they are” and “where they want to be.” Goal setting is usually effective for me. In addition to the routine tasks, such as eating lunch, which will happen without much attention, I often set goals for each day. For example, today I intend to finish this section, walk to the grocery store, order presents for my nieces from Amazon, and wash another load of clothes (I know—not too exciting). Having decided to do these things, I will feel uncomfortable if I don’t complete the list.



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According to Locke and Latham (2002), there are four main reasons why goal setting improves performance. Goals:



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Video Example 12.3 In this video, high school students work in groups to solve problems and win points in algebra class. Consider the various goal orientations that play a part in motivating students to participate and learn.



1. Direct attention to the task at hand and away from distractions. Every time my mind wanders from this chapter, my goal of finishing the section helps snap me back. 2. Energize effort. The more challenging the goal, to a point, the greater the effort. 3. Increase persistence. When we have a clear goal, we are less likely to give up until we reach the goal: Hard goals demand effort, and tight deadlines lead to faster work. 4. Promote the development of new knowledge and strategies when old strategies fall short. For example, if your goal is making an A and you don’t reach that goal on your first quiz, you might try a new study approach for the next quiz, such as explaining the key points to a friend.



Types of Goals and Goal Orientations Goals that are specific, elaborated, moderately difficult, and proximal (likely to be reached in the near future) tend to enhance motivation and persistence (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). Specific, elaborated goals provide clear standards for judging performance. If performance falls short, we keep going. For example, Ralph Ferretti and his colleagues (2009) gave fourth- and sixth-grade students either a general goal for writing a persuasive essay (“write a letter to a teacher about whether or not students should be given more out-of-class assignments . . .”) or the general goal elaborated with specific subgoals such as: • You need to say very clearly what your opinion or viewpoint is. • You need to think of two or more reasons to back up your opinion. • You need to explain why those reasons are good reasons for your opinion. (p. 580) Students both with and without learning disabilities wrote more persuasive essays when they were given specific subgoals. Moderate difficulty provides a challenge, but not an unreasonable one. Finally, goals that can be reached fairly soon are not likely to be pushed aside by more immediate concerns. Groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous show they are aware of the motivating value of short-term goals when they encourage their members to stop drinking “one day at a time.” Also, breaking a long-term assignment into short-term steps is a way to take advantage of the motivating power of proximal goals. STOP & THINK On a scale from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree), answer these questions: I feel really pleased in school when —— All the work is easy —— I solve problems by working hard —— I know more than the others —— I learn something new —— I am the only one who gets an A —— I don’t have to work hard —— I keep busy —— I am with my friends • —— I finish first



Goal orientations Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school.



FOUR ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN SCHOOL. Goals are specific targets. Goal orientations are the reasons we pursue goals and the standards we use to evaluate progress toward those goals. For example, your target might be to make an A in this course. Are you doing so in order to master educational psychology—to learn all about it—or to perform—to look good in the eyes of your friends and family? There are four main goal orientations—mastery (learning), performance (looking good), work-avoidance, and social (Dweck, 1986; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016; Schunk et al., 2014). In the Stop & Think exercise you just completed, can you tell which goal



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orientations are reflected in the different answers? Most of the questions were adapted from a study on students’ theories about learning mathematics (Nicholls, Cobb, Wood, Yackel, & Patashnick, 1990). The most common distinction in research on students’ goals is between mastery goals (also called task goals or learning goals) and performance goals (also called ability goals or ego goals). The point of a mastery goal is to improve, to learn, no matter how awkward you appear. When students set mastery goals, they are more invested, especially if they feel they have choices and a sense of autonomy (Benita, Roth, & Deci, 2014; Michou et al., 2016). Students with mastery goals tend to seek challenges, persist when they encounter difficulties, and feel better about their work (Rolland, 2012). They focus on the task at hand and are not worried about how their performance “measures up” in comparison to that of others in the class. We often say that these people “get lost in their work.” In addition, they are more likely to seek appropriate help, use deeper cognitive processing strategies, apply better study strategies, and generally approach academic tasks with confidence (Anderman & Patrick, 2012; Senko et al., 2011). Students with performance goals care about demonstrating their ability to others. They may be focused on getting good test scores and grades, or they may be more concerned with winning and beating other students. Students whose goal is outperforming others may do things to look smart, such as reading easy books in order to “read the most books.” Students with performance goals may act in ways that actually interfere with learning. For example, they may cheat or use short-cuts to get finished, work hard only on graded assignments, be upset and hide papers with low grades, choose tasks that are easy, avoid collaborating with other students, and be very uncomfortable with assignments that have unclear evaluation criteria (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Senko et al., 2011). WAIT—ARE PERFORMANCE GOALS ALWAYS BAD? Performance goals sound pretty dysfunctional, don’t they? Earlier research indicated that performance goals generally were detrimental to learning, but like extrinsic motivation, a performance goal orientation may not be all bad, all of the time. In fact, some research indicates that both mastery and performance goals are associated with using active learning strategies and high self-efficacy (Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). For college students, pursuing performance goals has been related to higher achievement. And, as is the case with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, students can, and often do pursue mastery and performance goals at the same time. For example, you may want to really understand educational psychology but also get a top grade in your class (Anderman & Patrick, 2012). To account for these recent findings, educational psychologists have added an approach versus avoidance focus to the mastery/performance distinction. In other words, students may be motivated to either approach mastery or avoid misunderstanding. They may approach performance or avoid looking dumb. Table 12.1 on the next page shows examples and the effects of each kind of goal orientation. Where do you see the most problems? Do you agree that the real problems are with avoidance? Students who fear misunderstanding (mastery-avoidance) may be perfectionists—focused on getting it exactly right or afraid they will never live up to their potential. Students who try to avoid looking dumb (performance-avoidance) may adopt defensive, failure-avoiding strategies like Defensive Damond, described earlier—they cheat, pretend not to care, or make a show of “not really trying,” so they have an excuse for failure (Harackiewicz & Linnenbrink, 2005; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). Research in both Eastern and Western cultures has demonstrated that failure-avoiding strategies are associated with student helplessness, truancy, disengagement from school, and lower academic achievement (De Castella, Byrne, & Covington, 2013; Huang, 2012). Two final cautions—performance-approach goals can turn into performanceavoidance goals if students are not successful in looking smart or winning. The path might lead from performance approach (trying to win), to performance avoidance (saving face and trying not to look dumb), to learned helplessness (I give up!). So teachers are wise to avoid trying to motivate using competition and social comparisons



Mastery goal A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. Performance goal A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others.



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TABLE 12.1 • Goal Orientations Students may have either an approach or an avoidance focus for mastery and performance goal orientations, and also may hold several orientations at once. GOAL ORIENTATION



APPROACH FOCUS



AVOIDANCE FOCUS



Mastery



Focus: Mastering the task, learning, understanding Standards Used: Selfimprovement, progress, deep understanding



Focus: Avoiding misunderstanding; fear of not living up to potential Standards Used: Just don’t be wrong; Perfectionists don’t make mistakes; Will I ever be what I should be?



Performance



Focus: Being superior, winning, being the best Standards Used: Normative— getting the highest grade, beating the competition, being number 1



Focus: Avoiding looking stupid, avoiding losing, avoiding being last Standards Used: Normative—don’t be the worst, get the lowest grade, be the slowest, or look incompetent



Source: Based on Schunk, D. H., Meece, J., & Pintrich, P. R. (2014). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications (4th ed). Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission of the publisher.



(Brophy, 2005). In addition, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals tend to be moderately correlated, so students may pursue both types of performance goals at once (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2012).



Work-avoidant learners Students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work. Social goals A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group.



SOCIAL AND WORK-AVOIDANCE GOALS. Some students don’t want to learn, look smart, or avoid looking dumb. They just want to finish fast or escape work altogether, perhaps because they expect to fail or maybe because they just are not interested (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). John Nicholls called these students work-avoidant learners—they feel successful when they don’t have to try hard, when the work is easy, or when they can “goof off” (Nicholls & Miller, 1984). To escape work, these students may say the assignment is too hard or too long, disrupt class, make excuses for not working, or cheat. Of course, if you avoid work using these strategies, you don’t learn much and probably don’t enjoy school either (King & McInerney, 2014). A final category of goals becomes more important as students move into middle and high school—social goals. Adolescents try to “fit in” with their peers, but also “stand out” in some way from the crowd—a balancing act that absorbs much of their time and energy (Gray, 2014). Nonacademic activities such as athletics, dating, and “hanging out” compete with schoolwork. Some social goals support learning, but others hinder. For example, adolescents’ goal of maintaining friendly relations can get in the way of learning when cooperative learning group members don’t challenge wrong answers or misconceptions because they are afraid of hurting each other’s feelings (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2000). Certainly, pursuing social goals such as having fun with friends or avoiding being labeled a “nerd” can get in the way of learning. But the goal of bringing honor to your family or team by working hard or being part of a peer group that values academics certainly can support learning (Pintrich, 2003; A. Ryan, 2001; Urdan & Maehr, 1995; Zusho & Clayton, 2011). Social goals also are associated with students’ emotional well-being and self-esteem. In one study, students who sought out social relationships were more likely to report positive emotional conditions such as joy, whereas students who avoided relationships reported higher levels of fear, shame, and sadness (Shim, Wang, & Cassady, 2013). We talk about goals in separate categories, but students can and do pursue several, often competing goals at once (Darnon, Dompnier, Gillieron, & Butera, 2010; Vansteenkiste & Mouratidis, 2016). Students have to coordinate their goals so they can make decisions about what to do and how to act. What if interest in doing homework is overtaken by interest in a videogame? What if students do not see a connection between



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achievement in school and success in life, particularly because discrimination prevents them from succeeding? They are not likely to set academic mastery as a goal. The need for peer relationships is basic and strong for most people, but what if social and academic goals are incompatible because peer groups do not value school? Sometimes, “fitting in” with the peer group means not achieving in school—and succeeding in the peer group is more important (Gray, 2014). Such anti-academic peer groups probably exist in every high school (Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004; Lawson & Lawson, 2013). GOALS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT. As you know, current thinking in educational psychology puts people in context. Goal orientation theory is no exception. So, in a highly competitive classroom climate, students might be more likely to adopt performance goals. In contrast, in a supportive, learner-centered classroom, even a student with a lower sense of self-efficacy might be encouraged to aim for higher mastery goals. Goals are constructed as part of the reciprocal interactions of person, environment, and behavior described by social cognitive theory (A. Kaplan & Maehr, 2007; Zusho & Clayton, 2011). The way students perceive their class defines the classroom goal structure—the goals students think are emphasized in that class (Murayama & Elliot, 2009). In one study, teachers who adopted a mastery goal orientation toward their teaching practice (e.g., become an excellent teacher) were more likely to report beliefs that all students could be successful in their classroom and to foster positive mastery goal structure. In contrast, teachers with performance-oriented goals (e.g., demonstrate they were good for the purpose of meeting state standards or job review criteria) promoted performanceoriented classroom goal structures and tended to see student ability as a fixed trait that was often outside their direct control (Shim, Cho, & Cassady, 2012). Mastery-oriented classroom goal structures matter for students. Lisa Fast and her colleagues (2010) found that fourth-through sixth-grade students had significantly higher levels of self-efficacy and mathematics achievement when they perceived their math classes as caring, challenging, and mastery oriented. So challenge, support, and a focus on learning, not looking good, seem to create a positive classroom environment.



Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance In addition to having specific goals and creating supportive social relationships, three factors make goal setting in the classroom effective. The first is feedback. To be motivated by a discrepancy between “where you are” and “where you want to be,” you must have an accurate sense of both your current status and how far you have to go. Evidence indicates that feedback emphasizing progress is the most effective. In one study, feedback to adults emphasized either that they had accomplished 75% of the standards set or that they had fallen short of the standards by 25%. When the feedback highlighted accomplishment, the subjects’ self-confidence, analytic thinking, and performance were all enhanced (Bandura, 1997). The second factor affecting motivation to pursue a goal is goal framing. When activities are linked to students’ intrinsic goals of becoming more competent, selfdirected, and connected with others, then the students process information more deeply and persist longer to gain a conceptual (not superficial) understanding. Linking activities to the extrinsic goals of meeting someone else’s standards promotes rote learning—not deep understanding or persistence (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). The third factor is goal acceptance. Commitment matters: The relationship between higher goals and better performance is strongest when people are committed to the goals (Locke & Latham, 2002). If students reject goals set by others or refuse to set their own goals, then their motivation will suffer. Generally, students are more willing to commit to the goals of others if the goals seem realistic, reasonably difficult, and meaningful— and if the goals are validated by connecting activities to students’ intrinsic interests (Grolnick, Gurland, Jacob, & Decourcey, 2002). So, rather than establishing the goals for the students directly, teachers can promote higher goal acceptance if the students are involved in setting goals and make an active commitment to the goal—for instance, by writing goals down and checking them off as they reach them.



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Goals: Lessons for Teachers Students are more likely to work toward goals that are clear, specific, reasonable, moderately challenging, and attainable within a relatively short period of time. If teachers focus on student performance, high grades, and competition, they may encourage students to set performance avoidance goals. This could undermine the students’ ability to get deeply engaged in the task and set them on a path toward alienation from learning in school and learned helplessness (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Brophy, 2005). Students may not yet be expert at setting their own goals or keeping these goals in mind, so encouragement and coaching are necessary. Feedback should compare students to themselves, not to others in the class—other-comparisons encourage students to avoid looking bad instead of striving to learn. If you use any reward or incentive systems, be sure the goal you set is to learn and improve in some area, not just to perform well or look smart. And be sure the goal is not too difficult. Students, like adults, are unlikely to stick with tasks or respond well to teachers who make them feel insecure or incompetent, which leads us to our next topic—the power of expectations in motivation.



MyLab Education Self-Check 12.3



EXPECTANCY-VALUE-COST EXPLANATIONS Many influential explanations of motivation can be characterized as expectancy 3 value theories. This means that motivation is seen as the product of two main forces: the individual’s expectation of reaching a goal and the individual’s value of that goal. In other words, the important questions are, “If I try hard, can I succeed?” and “If I succeed, will the outcome be valuable or rewarding to me?” Notice that both expectancy and value are personal interpretations—maybe I really won’t succeed, or perhaps the success won’t be rewarding—but my perception is more powerful than reality in influencing motivation (Barom & Hulleman, 2015). Motivation is a product of expectancy and value, because if either factor is zero, then there is no motivation to work toward the goal. For example, if I believe I have a good chance of making the basketball team (high expectation), and if making the team is very important to me (high value), then my motivation should be strong. But if either factor is zero (I believe I haven’t a prayer of making the team, or I couldn’t care less about playing basketball), then my motivation will be zero, too (Tollefson, 2000).



Costs



Expectancy 3 value theories Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal.



Jacqueline Eccles and Allan Wigfield added the element of cost to the expectancy 3 value equation. Values have to be considered in relation to the cost of pursuing them. How much energy/effort will be required? What could I be doing instead? What are the risks if I fail? Will I look stupid? Is the cost worth the possible benefit (Eccles, 2009; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)? Acknowledging the cost reminds us that motivation involves not only what “pulls” us toward an activity but also what “pushes” us away because “the price is not worth it.” For example, a student might be “pushed” away from completing an assignment as an act of rebellion against the teacher—the price of cooperation is too high in terms of the student’s identity as a rebel (Vansteenkiste & Mouratidis, 2016). So the strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation that we can succeed, the value of that success to us, and the cost of pursuing the goal (Baron, & Hulleman, 2015). We talked quite a bit about expectations in Chapter 11 when we discussed social cognitive theory and self-efficacy. We will explore a related concept, mindsets, later in this chapter. Efficacy expectations and mindsets predict achievement in actually doing a task, but what about the value side of the equation?



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Tasks Value Value is an individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally



useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important (Conradi, Jang, & McKenna, 2014). Perceptions of value predict the choices students make about participating in a task or activity in the first place, such as whether to work hard on an assignment, enroll in advanced science classes, or join the track team (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). We can think of task value as having five possibilities: importance, interest, utility, pleasing others, and cost (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman & Barron, 2016). Importance or attainment value is the significance of doing well on the task; this is closely tied to the needs of the individual (the need to be well liked, athletic, masculine, etc.). For instance, if someone has a strong need to appear smart and believes that a high grade on a test proves you are smart, then the test has high attainment value for that person. A second component is interest or intrinsic value. This is simply the enjoyment we get from the activity itself. Some people like the experience of learning. Others enjoy the feeling of hard physical effort or the challenge of solving puzzles. Tasks also can have utility value; that is, they help us achieve a short-term or long-term goal such as earning a degree. Also, a task might be valuable because the activity is a way of pleasing others—friends, family, teachers, coaches, and so on. Finally, tasks have costs—negative consequences that might follow from doing the task such as not having time to do other things or looking awkward as you perform the task. You can see from our discussion of task value that personal and environmental influences on motivation interact constantly. The task we ask students to accomplish is an aspect of the environment; it is external to the student. But the value of accomplishing the task is bound up with the internal needs, beliefs, and goals of the individual.



Lessons for Teachers From first grade through graduate school, expectancies, values, and costs predict a number of important outcomes such as choice of activities and courses, persistence, achievement, dropping out of a major, going to graduate school, and career choices (especially for women). It appears that students must first believe that they can succeed before they will value a task, but it takes both expecting to succeed and valuing a task to improve achievement and persistence. Also, perceptions of effort costs impact decisions about leaving a major in science, engineering, mathematics, or technology or careers (Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016). So to support motivation, teachers can do all the things described in Chapter 11 to encourage self-efficacy, but also make a powerful case for the value of their subject and help students persist in the face of difficulty, and even value the effort—the grit—needed to succeed. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.4



ATTRIBUTIONS AND BELIEFS ABOUT KNOWLEDGE, ABILITY, AND SELF-WORTH One well-known explanation of motivation begins with the assumption that we try to understand successes and failures, particularly unexpected ones—we all ask, “Why?” Students ask themselves, “Why did I flunk my midterm?” or “Why did I do so well this grading period?” They may attribute their successes and failures to ability, effort, mood, knowledge, luck, help, interest, clarity of instructions, the interference of others, unfair policies, and so on. To understand the successes and failures of others, we also make attributions—that the others are smart or lucky or work hard, for example. Attribution theories of motivation describe how the individual’s explanations, justifications, and excuses influence motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). Bernard Weiner is one of the main educational psychologists responsible for relating attribution theory to school learning (Weiner, 2000, 2010, 2011). According to Weiner,



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Attribution Theory (I, C1) Go to the Encyclopedia of Psychology Do a web search for “attribution theory” to learn more about using principles derived from this theory to boost intrinsic motivation to learn.



Value An individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important. Importance or attainment value The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs. Interest or intrinsic value The enjoyment a person gets from a task. Utility value The contribution of a task to meeting one’s goals. Attribution theories Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior.



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most of the attributed causes for successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: 1. Locus (location of the cause—internal or external to the person). For example, attributing a great piano performance to your musical talent or hard work are internal attributions. Explaining that the performance is based on coaching from a great teacher is an external attribution. 2. Stability (whether the cause of the event is the same across time and in different situations). For example, talent is stable, but effort can change. 3. Controllability (whether the person can control the cause). For example, effort and finding a great teacher are controllable, but innate musical talent is not. Every cause for success or failure can be categorized on these three dimensions. For instance, luck is external (locus), unstable (stability), and uncontrollable (controllability). In attribution theory, ability is usually considered stable and uncontrollable, but as we will soon see, intelligence can be viewed as unstable and controllable. Weiner’s locus and controllability dimensions are closely related to Deci’s concept of locus of causality. Weiner believes that these three dimensions have important implications for motivation because they affect expectancy and value. The stability dimension, for example, seems to be closely related to expectations about the future. If students attribute their failure to stable factors such as the difficulty of the subject or an unfair teacher, they will expect to keep failing in that subject or with that teacher. But if they attribute the outcome to unstable factors such as mood or luck, they can hope for better outcomes next time. The internal/external locus seems to be closely related to feelings of self-esteem. If success or failure is attributed to internal factors, success will lead to pride and increased motivation, whereas failure will diminish self-esteem. The controllability dimension is related to emotions such as anger, pity, gratitude, or shame. If we feel responsible for our failures, we may feel guilt; if we feel responsible for successes, we may feel proud. Failing at a task we cannot control can lead to shame or anger (Weiner, 2010, 2011). Feeling in control of your own learning seems to be related to choosing more difficult academic tasks, putting out more effort, using better strategies, and persisting longer in school work (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Weiner, 1994a, 1994b). Factors such as continuing discrimination against women, people of color, and individuals with special needs can affect these individuals’ perceptions of their ability to control their lives (van Laar, 2000).



Attributions in the Classroom



Self-efficacy A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation.



People with a strong sense of self-efficacy (see Chapter 11) for a given task (“I’m good at math”) tend to attribute their failures to lack of effort (“I should have double-checked my work”), misunderstanding directions, or just not studying enough. These are internal, controllable attributions. As a consequence, students with high self-efficacy usually focus on strategies for succeeding next time. This response often leads to achievement, pride, and a greater feeling of control. But people with a low sense of self-efficacy (“I’m terrible at math”) tend to attribute their failures to lack of ability (“I’m just dumb”). These tendencies are apparent across age levels, cultural groups, and academic topics (Hsieh & Kang, 2010). The greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes. Such students may seem resigned to failure, depressed, helpless— what we generally call “unmotivated” (Weiner, 2000, 2010). These students respond to failure by focusing even more on their own inadequacy; their attitudes toward schoolwork may deteriorate even further. Apathy is a logical reaction to failure if students believe the causes are stable, unlikely to change, and beyond their control anyway. In addition, students who view their failures in this light are less likely to seek help; they believe nothing and no one can help, so they conceal their needs for assistance. This creates a downward spiral of failure and concealment—“the motivationally ‘poor’ children, by concealing their difficulties, become ‘poorer’” (Marchland & Skinner, 2007).



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Students with high levels of test anxiety and multiple poor performances on tests report a higher degree of helplessness as well. After taking a test, these students blame their poor performance on test anxiety that “got in the way” of doing their best (Cassady, 2004). This leads to a spiral of reduced effort in future studying because they believe improved performance is outside their control—and naturally, their performance continues to suffer (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014).



Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions When a teacher attributes student failure to forces beyond the student’s control, the teacher tends to respond with sympathy and avoid giving punishments. If, however, the failures are attributed to a controllable factor such as lack of effort, the teacher’s response is more likely to be irritation or anger, and reprimands may follow. These tendencies seem to be consistent across time and cultures (Weiner, 1986, 2000, 2011). What do students make of these reactions from their teachers? Sandra Graham (1991, 1996) gives some surprising answers. Evidence indicates that when teachers respond to students’ mistakes with pity, praise for a “good try,” or unsolicited help, the students are more likely to attribute their own failure to an uncontrollable cause—usually lack of ability. Does this mean that teachers should be critical and withhold help? Of course not! But it is a reminder that over-solicitous help can give unintended messages. Graham (1991) suggests that many minority group students could be the victims of well-meaning pity from teachers. Seeing the very real problems that the students face, teachers may “ease up” on requirements so the students will “experience success.” But an indirect communication may accompany the pity, praise, and extra help: “You don’t have the ability to do this, so I will overlook your failure.” This kind of feedback, even if well intended, can be a subtle form of racism. Teachers can also positively impact student’s attributions, with benefits to both achievement and motivation. In work with gifted girls in a physics class, when teachers encouraged the girls to attribute improved performance to personal effort and abilities, the girls were more engaged, and their achievement improved (Ziegler & Heller, 2000). Finally, helping lower performing students attribute achievement to effort instead of ability has improved their course grades and test performance (Hulleman & Barron, 2016). Thus far, we have talked about needs, goals, expectancies, values, costs, and attributions, but there is another factor that must be considered in explaining motivation. What do students believe about learning, abilities, and themselves? Let’s start with a basic question: What do students believe about knowing?



Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs What students believe about knowledge and learning (their epistemological beliefs) will influence their motivation and the kinds of strategies that they use. PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE Predict how fourth and sixth graders would answer these questions taken from C. K. Chan and Sachs (2001). 1. Which of the following is the most important thing in learning math? (a) remember what the teacher has taught you, (b) practice lots of problems, (c) understand the problems you work on. 2. Which of the following is the most important thing to do in learning science? (a) faithfully do the work the teacher tells you, (b) try to see how the explanation makes sense, (c) try to remember everything you are supposed to know. 3. If you wanted to know everything there is to know about something, say, animals, how long would you have to study it? (a) less than a year if you study hard, (b) about 1 or 2 years, (c) forever. 4. What happens when you learn more and more about something? (a) the questions get more and more complex, (b) the questions get easier and easier, (c) the questions all get answered. How about you? How would you answer these questions? •



Epistemological beliefs Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned.



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Using questions like those in Put Yourself in Their Place, researchers have identified several dimensions of epistemological beliefs (C. K. Chan & Sachs, 2001; Schommer, 1997; Schommer-Aikins, 2002; Schraw & Olafson, 2002). For example: • Structure of Knowledge: Is knowledge in a field a simple set of facts or a complex structure of concepts and relationships? • Stability/Certainty of Knowledge: Is knowledge fixed, or does it evolve over time? • Ability to Learn: Is the ability to learn fixed (based on innate ability) or changeable? • Speed of Learning: Can we gain knowledge quickly, or does it take time to develop knowledge? • Nature of Learning: Does learning mean memorizing facts passed down from authorities and keeping the facts isolated, or does it mean developing your own integrated understandings? Students’ beliefs about knowing and learning affect the goals they set and the learning strategies they apply (Kardash & Howell, 2000; Muis & Duffy, 2013; Muis & Franco, 2009). For example, if you believe that knowledge should be gained quickly, you are likely to try one or two quick strategies (read the text once, spend 2 minutes trying to solve the word problem) and then stop. In a classroom study, elementary school students (grades 4 and 6) who believed that learning is understanding processed science texts more deeply than others who believed that learning is reproducing facts (C. K. Chan & Sachs, 2001). The Put Yourself in Their Place questions you just answered were used in that study to assess the students’ beliefs. The answers associated with a belief in complex, evolving knowledge that takes time to understand and grows from active learning are 1c, 2b, 3c, and 4a. What are your beliefs? There is some evidence that teachers can help students move toward beliefs that support deep extended learning if the teachers model critical thinking, tie new information to students’ prior knowledge, and demonstrate multiple solutions to problems (Muis & Duffy, 2013). Beliefs about one dimension—ability to learn—are particularly powerful. Read on.



Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability STOP & THINK Rate these statements taken from Dweck (2000) on a scale from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 6 (Strongly Disagree). You have a certain amount of intelligence, and you really can’t do much to change it. You can learn new things, but you can’t really change your basic intelligence. No matter who you are, you can change your intelligence a lot. No matter how much intelligence you have, you can always change it quite a bit. •



Fixed mindset A personally held belief that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits. Growth mindset A personally held belief that abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable.



Some of the most powerful beliefs affecting motivation in school are beliefs about intelligence and other abilities (Dweck, 2006; Gunderson et al., 2013; Headden & McKay, 2015; Romero et al., 2014). These beliefs range on a continuum from a fixed mindset that assumes that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits, to a growth mindset that suggests abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable. In an interview, Carol Dweck noted that students with a growth mindset believe their talents and abilities can be increased with good teaching or coaching, practice, effort, and persistence. The bottom line is that everyone can get smarter by working hard (Morehead, 2012). Dweck (2006) has found that about 40% of students hold a fixed mindset and 40% a growth mindset— the rest are in between. Look back at your answers to the Stop & Think questions—what is your mindset? Throughout the early elementary grades, most students have a growth mindset— they believe that effort is the same as intelligence. Smart people try hard, and trying hard makes you smart (Dweck, 2000; Stipek, 2002). At around age 11 or 12, children can differentiate among effort, ability, and performance. At about this time, they come to



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believe that someone who succeeds without working at all must be really smart. This is when mindsets begin to influence motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). Students who hold a fixed mindset tend to set performance-avoidance goals to avoid looking bad in the eyes of others. They are more likely to cheat to and seek situations where they can look smart to protect their self-esteem. Like Safe Sumet, they keep doing those things they can do well without expending too much effort or risking failure, because either one—working hard or failing—indicates (to them) low fixed ability. To work hard but still fail would be devastating. Students with learning disabilities are more likely to hold a fixed mindset. In contrast, holding a growth mindset is associated with greater motivation and learning. Students with growth mindsets tend to set moderately difficult goals, the kind we have seen are the most motivating. Believing that you can improve your ability helps you focus on the processes of problem solving and applying good strategies, instead of on the products of test scores and grades (Chen & Pajares, 2010). Lately, the notion of fixed and growth mindsets has been extended to creativity. It appears that people who believe that creativity can be developed and improved also have higher self-efficacy for creativity (Hass, Katz-Buonincontro, & Reiter-Palmon, 2016). Mindsets may function in many areas besides abilities and creativity to either support or squelch motivation. Teachers hold mindsets too. In fact, Dweck (2006) describes a very powerful experience she had in sixth grade. Her teacher seated students around the room in order of IQ and would not let the “lower IQ” students carry the flag, clean the erasers, or take notes to the principal—wow, what a message that effort doesn’t matter! I had elementary school music teacher who not only graded us on our singing, but also seated us based on our singing ability—best in front and worst in the back. I was in the back row for three years and hated that class. I was also convinced I could never improve my singing until I had a teacher in high school who encouraged growth. Teachers who hold fixed mindsets about their students are quicker to form judgments and slower to modify their opinions when confronted with contradictory evidence (Stipek, 2002). Teachers who hold growth mindsets, in contrast, tend to set mastery goals and seek situations in which students can improve their skills, because improvement means getting smarter. Failure is not devastating; it simply indicates more work is needed. Ability is not threatened. One intriguing study found that when parents praised their 2- to 3-year-old children for effort, those children had more growth mindsets at ages 7 to 8 (Gunderson et al., 2013).



Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers If students believe they lack the ability to understand higher mathematics, they will probably act on this belief even if their actual abilities are well above average. These students are likely to have little motivation to tackle trigonometry or calculus, because they expect to do poorly in these areas. How can teachers support a growth mindset (besides, of course, NOT seating your students in order of IQ test scores)? Dweck (2013) suggests the following: • Teach students about the brain and how new connections are formed whenever you deal with difficulties and challenges, learn, retrieve, and apply knowledge. Learning changes the brain and struggling is good! One growth mindset curriculum puts it this way: “Everyone knows that when you lift weights, your muscles get bigger and you get stronger. But most people don’t know that when they practice and learn new things, parts of their brain change and get larger, a lot like the muscles do” (Headden & McKay, 2015). • Present yourself as a learning coach and resource, not a judge of students’ abilities. • Give feedback focused on the learning process and strategies. Praise good strategies and effort rather than right answers. • Don’t avoid criticisms but make them constructive and focused on improvement.



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• Don’t comfort students by saying, “It’s OK—maybe you are not just a math person.” Instead say, “You just haven’t mastered this strategy yet, but you will.” As you consider applying the concept of mindsets, beware of what Dweck recently describes as “false growth mindset.” Teachers who hold false growth mindsets may claim they believe in growth just because they know they should, without truly embracing or even understanding the concept. Dweck notes that, “Everyone is a mixture of fixed and growth mindsets. You could have a predominant growth mindset in an area but there can still be things that trigger you into a fixed mindset trait” (Gross-Loh, 2016, p. 5). The real challenge is to identify these triggers, work on them over time, and finally be able to stay in a growth mindset in a given area for longer and periods. So just praising students for working hard, even when the outcome is a failure, can lead to what Jere Brophy first called “praise as a consolation prize.” The students think they are getting praised because they really don’t have the ability to do any better, so the (unintended) consequence is to reinforce a fixed mindset. Rather than praising simple effort, tie the praise to the process that leads to learning—focus on effort applying good strategies.



Beliefs About Self-Worth Whatever the label, most theorists agree that a sense of efficacy, control, or selfdetermination is critical if people are to feel intrinsically motivated. What happens if students don’t feel in control?



MyLab Education



Podcast 12.1 Author Anita Woolfolk addresses procrastination and discusses its selfhandicapping effects and its relationship to self-efficacy. She makes suggestions for dealing with procrastination by building self-efficacy for the task, setting specific goals, and taking small steps. Note her emphasis on taking “. . . one bird at a time.”



Learned helplessness The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead to failure. Mastery-oriented students Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable. Failure-avoiding students Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance.



LEARNED HELPLESSNESS. When people come to believe that the events and outcomes in their lives are mostly uncontrollable, they have developed learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975). To understand the power of learned helplessness, consider this classic experiment (Hiroto & Seligman, 1975): Subjects received either solvable or unsolvable puzzles. In the next phase of the experiment, all subjects were given a series of solvable puzzles. The subjects who struggled with unsolvable puzzles in the first phase of the experiment usually solved significantly fewer puzzles in the second phase. They had learned that they could not control the outcome, so why even try? Learned helplessness appears to cause three types of deficits: motivational, cognitive, and affective. Students who feel hopeless, like Hopeless Geraldo described earlier, expect to fail—why should they even try? So motivation suffers. Because they are pessimistic about learning, these students miss opportunities to practice and improve skills and abilities, so they develop cognitive deficits. Finally, they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness (Alloy & Seligman, 1979). Once established, it is very difficult to reverse the effects of learned helplessness. SELF-WORTH. What are the connections between attributions and mindsets about ability, self-efficacy, learned helplessness, and self-worth? Covington and his colleagues suggest that these factors come together in three kinds of motivational sets: mastery oriented, failure avoiding, and failure accepting, as shown in Table 12.2 (Covington, 1992; Covington & Mueller, 2001). Mastery-oriented students are not fearful of failure, because failing does not threaten their sense of competence and self-worth. This allows them to set moderately difficult goals, take risks, and cope with failure constructively. They learn fast, have more self-confidence and energy, welcome concrete feedback (it does not threaten them), and are eager to learn “the rules of the game” so that they can succeed. All of these factors make for persistent, successful learning (Covington & Mueller, 2001; McClelland, 1985). Failure-avoiding students feel only as smart as their last test grade, so they never develop a solid sense of self-efficacy. If they have been generally successful, they may seek to avoid failure like Safe Sumet, simply by taking few risks and “sticking with what they know.” If, on the other hand, they have experienced a good bit of failure, then they, like Defensive Damond, may adopt self-defeating strategies such as feeble efforts, setting very low or ridiculously high goals, or claiming not to care. Just before a test, a



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TABLE 12.2 • Mastery-Oriented, Failure-Avoiding, and Failure-Accepting Students ATTITUDE TOWARD FAILURE



GOALS SET



ATTRIBUTIONS



VIEW OF ABILITY



STRATEGIES



Mastery Oriented



Low fear of failure



Mastery goals: moderately difficult and challenging



Effort, use of right strategy, sufficient knowledge are causes of success



Growth mindset; ability is improvable



Adaptive strategies (e.g., try another way, seek help, practice/study more)



Failure Avoiding



High fear of failure



Performance goals; very hard or very easy goals



Lack of ability is cause of failure



Fixed mindset; ability is uncontrollable



Self-defeating strategies (e.g., make a feeble effort, pretend not to care)



Failure Accepting



Expectation of failure; depression



Performance goals or no goals at all



Lack of ability is cause of failure



Fixed mindset; ability is uncontrollable



Learned helplessness; likely to give up



student might say, “I didn’t study at all!” Then, any grade above failing is a success. Procrastination is another example. Low grades do not imply low ability if the student can claim, “I did okay considering I didn’t start the term paper until last night.” All these are self-handicapping strategies because the students are setting up roadblocks to their own achievement to protect their self-esteem or sense of competence. Very little learning is going on. Self-handicapping appears to be more damaging for achievement with elementary and middle school age students (Schwinger et al., 2014; Urdan, 2004). Unfortunately, failure-avoiding strategies generally lead to the very failure the students were trying to avoid. They give up and thus become failure-accepting students. They are convinced that their problems are due to low ability and like Hopeless Geraldo, have little hope for change. Teachers may be able to prevent some failure-avoiding students from becoming failure accepting by using multiple assessments and setting a number of goals. In this way all students have a realistic chance of succeeding on some assessments and reaching at least a few goals (L. H. Chen, Wu, Kee, Lin, & Shui, 2009). This is particularly important in contexts where sexual or ethnic stereotypes assert that certain groups of people “should not” be able to do well—“Girls are no good at math.” These stereotypes are common in math, science, and technology disciplines. Instead of perpetuating outdated views of individual differences and pitying or excusing these students, teachers can teach them how to learn and then hold them accountable for their learning. The Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Worth on the next page discuss more ways to encourage self-worth.



Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers If students believe that failing means they are stupid, they are likely to adopt many self-handicapping, self-defeating strategies. And teachers who stress performance, grades, and competition encourage self-handicapping without realizing they are doing so (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). Just telling students to “try harder” is not particularly effective. Students need real evidence that effort will pay off, that setting a higher goal will not lead to failure, that they can improve, and that abilities can be changed. They need authentic mastery experiences. What else do we know about motivation? Feelings matter. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.5



Self-handicapping Students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability. Failure-accepting students Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it.



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GUIDELINES Encouraging Self-Worth Emphasize that abilities are not set, but are always improvable. Examples 1. Share examples of how you have improved your knowledge and skills, for example in writing, at a sport, or doing a craft. 2. Tell about your own failures that became successes when you tried new strategies or got the right help. 3. Save first drafts and finished products from students in previous classes to show how much the students improved with effort and support. Teach directly about the difference between learning goals and performance goals. Examples 1. Encourage students to set a small-step goal for one subject. 2. Recognize improvements often, with private authentic praise that focuses on the processes and strategies that led to success. 3. Use personal best goals, not between-student competition.



Make the classroom a place where failure is just diagnostic— failure tells what needs to be improved, what you haven’t mastered yet. Examples 1. If a student gives a wrong answer in class, say, “I bet others would give that answer too. Let’s examine why that is not the best answer. This gives us a chance to dig deeper—excellent!” 2. Encourage revising, improving, polishing, and redoing with an emphasis on improvement. 3. Show students connections between their revised work and a higher grade, but emphasize their growing competence. Encourage help seeking and help giving. Examples 1. Teach students how to ask explicit questions about what they do not understand. 2. Recognize students who are helpful. 3. Train class experts for some ongoing needs such as technology guides or progress checkers.



HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT LEARNING? INTERESTS, CURIOSITY, EMOTIONS, AND ANXIETY Do you remember starting school? Were you curious about what might be in store, excited about your new world, interested and challenged? Many children are. But a common concern of parents and teachers is that curiosity and excitement are replaced over time by a sense of drudgery and disinterest. School becomes a job you have to do—a workplace where the work is not that interesting. In fact, interest in school decreases from elementary to high school, with boys showing greater declines than girls. Even students in the internationally top-rated high schools in Finland found school less enjoyable and valuable in their lives as they moved from ninth to eleventh grade (Wang et al., 2015). The transition to middle school is particularly linked to a decline in interest. These declines are troubling because interest is related to students’ attention, grades, reading achievement, desire to set challenging goals and solve difficult problems, and depth of learning (Hulleman & Barron, 2016; Linnenbrink-Garcia & Patall, 2016; Renninger & Bachrach, 2015).



Tapping Interests STOP & THINK As part of your interview for a job in a large high school, the principal asks, “How would you get students interested in learning? Could you tap their interests in your teaching?” •



TWO KINDS OF INTERESTS. Interests can be individual (personal) or situational— the trait and state distinction again. Individual interests are the more long-lasting aspects



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of the person, such as an enduring tendency to enjoy subjects such as history or mathematics, or activities such as music, videogames, or fashion. Students with individual interests in learning in general seek new information and have more positive attitudes toward schooling. Situational interests are more short-lived aspects of the activity, text, or materials that catch and keep the student’s attention. Both individual and situational interests are related to learning. And interests increase when students feel competent, so even if students are not initially attracted to a subject or activity, they may develop interests as they experience success. Ann Renninger and Suzanne Hidi (2011) describe a four-phase model of interest development. situational interest triggered S situational interest maintained S S emerging individual interest S well-developed individual interest For example, consider Julia, a graduating senior in college described by Hidi and Renninger (2006). As she waits nervously in the dentist’s office, flipping through a magazine, her attention is drawn (situational interest trigger) to an article about a man who left his engineering job to become a facilitator in legal conflict resolution. When she is called to the dentist’s chair, she is still reading the article, so she marks her place and returns to finish reading after her appointment (situational interest maintained). She takes notes, and, over the next weeks, searches the Internet, visits the library, and meets with her advisor to get more information about this career option (emerging individual interest). Four years later, Julia is enjoying her job as a facilitator as she handles more and more arbitration cases for a law firm (well-developed, enduring individual interest). In the early stages of this four-phase model, emotions play a big role—feelings of excitement, pleasure, fun, and curiosity. Situational interest may be triggered by positive feelings, as when Julia started reading. Curiosity followed and helped Julia stay engaged as she learned more about becoming a facilitator. As Julia added knowledge to her curiosity and positive feelings, her personal interest emerged, and the cycle of positive feelings, curiosity, and knowledge continued to build enduring interest. CATCHING AND HOLDING INTERESTS. Whenever possible, it helps to connect academic content to students’ enduring individual interests. But given that the content you will teach is determined by state standards in most classrooms today, it will be difficult to tailor every lesson to each student’s interests. You will have to rely more on triggering and maintaining situational interest. Here, the challenge is to not only catch but also hold students’ interest (Pintrich, 2003). For example, Mathew Mitchell (1993) found that using computers, groups, and puzzles caught students’ interest in secondary mathematics classes, but the interests did not hold. Lessons that held the students’ interest over time included math activities that were related to real-life problems and active participation in laboratory experiments and projects. Challenge, choices, novelty, fantasy, working with others, hands-on activities and experiments, encouraging students’ explanations, instructional conversations, assuming the role of an expert, personal relevance, utility value, and participating in a group project also can trigger and support interest (Renninger & Bachrach, 2015; Renninger & Hidi, 2011; Tröbst et al., 2016). For example, a third-grade teacher identified as highly motivating had her class set up a post office for the whole school. Each classroom in the school had an address and zip code. Students had jobs in the post office, and everyone in the school used the post office to deliver letters to students and teachers. Students designed their own stamps and set postal rates. The teacher said that the system “improves their creative writing without them knowing it” (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003, p. 254). But what works for one student or group of students might not work for others. For example, in a study of math learning with older adolescents, Durik and Harackiewicz (2007) concluded that catching interest by using colorful learning materials with pictures was helpful for students with low initial interest in mathematics, but not for students who were already interested in the subject. For the interested students, showing how math



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Video Example 12.4 The teacher in this preschool classroom used her students’ curiosity about the teacher’s injuries and their dissatisfaction with a play area in the classroom to develop a curriculum about hospitals that was both challenging and exciting for the children.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for



Good Learning?



Teachers should make learning fun.  When I



searched “making learning fun” on Google.com, I found 15 pages of resources and references, including a Web site by that very name-- http://makinglearningfun .com. Clearly, there is interest in making learning fun. Research shows that passages in texts that are more interesting are remembered better (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). For example, in an international study of 15-year-olds, enjoyment of reading proved to be a strong predictor of reading achievement, both for individuals and countries, in the United States and also in 10 of the highest performing countries—Korea, Singapore, Japan, Hong Kong, Finland, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the Netherlands (Lee, 2014). Games and simulations can make learning more fun, too. When my daughter was in the eighth grade, all the students in her grade spent 3 days playing a game her teachers had designed called ULTRA. Students were divided into groups and formed their own “countries.” Each country had to choose a name, symbol, national flower, and bird. They wrote and sang a national anthem and elected government officials. The teachers allocated different resources to the countries. To get all the materials needed for the completion of assigned projects, the countries had to establish trade with one another. There was a monetary system and a stock market. Students had to work with their fellow citizens to complete cooperative learning assignments. Some countries “cheated” in their trades with other nations, and this allowed debate about international relations, trust, and war. Liz says she had fun—but she also learned how to work in a group without the teacher’s supervision and gained a deeper understanding of world economics and international conflicts.



Fun can get in the way of learning.  As far back as the early 1900s, educators warned about the dangers of focusing on fun in learning. None other than John Dewey, who wrote extensively about the role of interest in learning, cautioned that you can’t make boring lessons interesting by mixing in fun like you can make bad chili good by adding some tasty spicy hot sauce. Dewey wrote, “When things have to be made interesting, it is because interest itself is wanting. Moreover, the phrase itself is a misnomer. The thing, the object, is no more interesting than it was before” (Dewey, 1913, pp. 11–12). There is a good deal of research now indicating that adding interest by incorporating fascinating but irrelevant details actually gets in the way of learning the important information. These “seductive details,” as they have been called, divert the readers’ attention from the less-interesting main ideas, especially if the material to be learned is complex and makes great demands on working memory (Park, Flowerday, & Brünken, 2015; Reber, 2016). For example, Shannon Harp and Richard Mayer (1998) used high school science texts with emotional interest and seductive details about swimmers and golfers who were injured by lightning, but these “fun” details failed to improve learning. Adding interesting but unrelated pictures to a social studies reading assignment also led to decreased learning for middle school students in China (Wang & Adesope, 2014). In all these examples, the seductive details may have disrupted students’ attempts to follow the logic of the explanations and thus interfered with their comprehending the text. Harp and Mayer conclude, “the best way to help students enjoy a passage is to help them understand it” (p. 100). Beware of Either/Or. Of course we want our classes to be engaging, interesting, even fun—but the focus through it all should be on learning. Even if the work is tough and at times repetitious, students need to learn to persevere. Working hard is a part of life. Working hard together can be fun.



COUNTERPOINT .



POINT .



When many beginning teachers are asked about how to motivate students, they often mention making learning fun. But is it necessary for learning to be fun?



could be personally useful was more effective. In addition complex materials can be more interesting, as long as students have a growth mindset and believe they can effectively cope with the complexity (Sylvia, Henson, & Templin, 2009). When tasks are difficult and students have lower expectations for succeeding, you can support interest when you set goals that stress learning. With these mastery-approach goals, difficulties and mistakes are just part of learning and building your brain (Tanka & Murayama, 2014). There are other cautions in responding to students’ interests, as you can see in the Point/Counterpoint.



Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity Curiosity and interest are related. According to Renninger and Hidi’s (2011) four-phase model of interest described earlier, our individual interests are triggered as we raise and answer “curiosity questions” that help us organize our knowledge about a topic.



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GUIDELINES Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity Relate content objectives to student experiences. Examples 1. With a teacher in another school, establish pen pals across the classes. Through writing letters, students exchange personal experiences, photos, drawings, written work, and ask and answer questions (“Have you learned cursive writing yet?” “What are you doing in math now?” “What are you reading?”). Letters can be mailed in one large mailer to save stamps or sent via email. 2. Identify classroom experts for different assignments or tasks. Who knows how to use the computer to create graphics? How to search the Web? How to cook? How to use an index? 3. Have a “Switch Day” when students exchange roles with a school staff member or support person. Students must research the role by interviewing their staff member, prepare for the job, dress the part for the day they take over, and then evaluate their success after the switch. Identify student interests, hobbies, and extracurricular activities that can be incorporated into class lessons and discussions. Examples 1. Have students design and conduct interviews and surveys to learn about each other’s interests. 2. Keep the class library stocked with books that connect to students’ interests and hobbies. 3. Allow choices (stories in language arts or projects in science) based on students’ interests.



Support instruction with humor, personal experiences, and anecdotes that show the human side of the content. Examples 1. Share your own hobbies, interests, and favorites. 2. Tell students there will be a surprise visitor; then dress up as the author of a story and tell about “yourself” and your writing. Use original source material with interesting content or details. Examples 1. Letters and diaries in history. 2. Darwin’s notes in biology. Create surprise and curiosity. Examples 1. Have students predict what will happen in an experiment, then show them whether they were right or wrong. 2. Provide quotes from history, and ask students to guess who said it. 3. Use high-novelty reading materials with elements such as active/emotional verbs (clinging vs. walking), unfamiliar characters (orangutan vs. fox), unusual adjectives (hairy vs. brown), and surprising endings (Beike & Zentall, 2012). For more information on students’ interests and motivation, see http://www.readwritethink.org and search for “interests.” Source: From 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom, by James P. Raffini. Copyright © 1996 by Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission of the publisher. Also Motivation in Education (2nd ed.), by P. Pintrich and D. Schunk, © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.



Some psychologists list curiosity as one of the 16 basic human motivations and encourage schools to target developing an exploratory orientation in students as a major goal (Flum & Kaplan, 2006; Reiss, 2004). Jamie Jirout and David Klahr (2012) suggest curiosity arises when attention is focused on a gap in knowledge. These information gaps cause a sense of deprivation—a need to know that we call “curiosity.” This idea is similar to Piaget’s concept of disequilibrium, discussed in Chapter 2, and has a number of implications for teaching. First, students need some base of knowledge before they can experience gaps in that knowledge leading to curiosity. Second, students must be aware of the gaps in order for curiosity to result. In other words, they need a metacognitive awareness of what they know and don’t know (Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004). Asking students to make guesses and then providing feedback can be helpful. Also, proper handling of mistakes can stimulate curiosity by pointing to missing knowledge. Finally, the more we learn about a topic, the more curious we may become about that subject. As Maslow (1970) predicted, fulfilling the need to know increases, not decreases, the need to know more. See the Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity for more about building interest and curiosity in the classroom.



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Flow Have you ever been “in the zone” or “lost in thought”? You may have been experiencing flow—a mental state in which you are fully immersed in a task with deep concentration and focused attention. When individuals are in flow, they face a highly challenging task with matching high levels of the needed skills—they are stretched but not broken. Individuals in flow experience greater enjoyment in the task, continue working without prompting, and tend to generate higher quality, more creative products (Abuhamdeh & Csikszentmihalyi, 2012). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi first identified flow in studies of artists, chess players, mountain climbers, musicians, and children at play, but then he examined flow during the activities that take most of our time—work and in school. He found that flow was less common in school and more common at work, where people have clear goals, immediate feedback, and can apply their skills. The lowest levels of flow for adults occurred on the weekends when there were no particular goals or structured activities except watching television (Beard, 2015; Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). What would this look like in schools? In an interview, Csikszentmihalyi described a K–12 school in Indianapolis that built part of the curriculum around what each student targeted as intriguing personal learning goals for the year. The curriculum also included lessons focused on big ideas or themes for all students such as “Working in Harmony.” Using that theme, Csikszentmihalyi said: “in mathematics you learn the harmony of numbers, and the beauty of being able to manipulate numbers so they always end up in the right way in the equations, and in music you learn the harmony of sounds. In social studies you learn about the history of wars and peace, especially peace and how we learn to work together in Sociology” (Beard, 2015, pp. 356–357). This school had a good balance of differentiation (developing individual interests) and integration (focus on shared interests). This design seems consistent with what DeLeon Gray (2014) described as adolescents’ needs for “standing out” (differentiation) and “fitting in” (integration).



Emotions and Anxiety How do you feel about learning? Excited, bored, curious, fearful? Today, researchers emphasize that learning is not just about the cold cognition of reasoning and problem solving. Learning also is influenced by emotion and mood, so hot cognition plays a role in learning as well (Bohn-Gettler & Rapp, 2011; Pintrich, 2003). Research on emotions is expanding, in part because we know more about the brain and emotion.



Flow A mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement. Emotions Three interrelated factors-physiological responses, behaviors, and feelings— that produce an affective response to a situation.



NEUROSCIENCE AND EMOTION. In mammals, including humans, stimulation to a small area of the brain called the amygdala seems to trigger emotional reactions such as fear and the “fight or flight” response, but many other areas of the brain are also involved in emotions. Emotions are complex and not the same thing as feelings. For example, two people might feel stimulated and aroused thinking about riding a huge roller coaster, but one person gets a thrilling feeling of anticipation, while another feels panic and dread. Thus emotion, in this case about roller coasters, is a complex phenomenon arising from the back and forth interplay of bodily responses (arousal, rapid heart beat, heightened blood pressure, etc.), cognitive assessments (“I’m going to die” vs. “it will be a blast”) and conscious feelings (fear and dread vs. anticipation and excitement) (Gluck, Mercado, & Myers, 2016). So human emotions are the outcome of physiological responses triggered by the brain, combined with interpretations of the situation and other information such as context. For example, hearing startling sounds during an action movie might cause a brief emotional reaction, but hearing the same sounds in the middle of the night as you are walking through a dark alley could lead to stronger and more lasting emotional reactions. It should be clear from this description that some of the factors creating emotions are not really under our conscious control—something to remember when working



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with “emotional” students. A student’s split second and uncontrollable emotional judgment—“I sucked at this before and I am doomed to fail again” can sabotage learning before it starts. Building self-efficacy and a growth mindset can help students re-label that feeling of dread as a feeling of challenge and excitement. The same is true for teachers. Split second emotional decisions about a student who “is just trying to make me look bad” can destroy chances for a good relationship. How could you reappraise that feeling (Scalise & Felde, 2017)? These difficult to control aspects of our brains affect learning, attention, memory, and decision making (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Humans are more likely to pay attention to, learn about, and remember events, images, and readings that provoke emotional responses (Murphy & Alexander, 2000). Emotions can affect learning by changing brain dopamine levels and the speed of neural firings that influence long-term memory, and by directing attention toward one aspect of the situation (Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2006). Sometimes, emotions interfere with learning by taking up attention or working memory space that could be used for learning (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002). In teaching, we are concerned about a particular kind of emotions—those related to achievement in school. Experiences of success or failure can provoke achievement emotions such as pride, hope, boredom, anger, or shame (Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2006). How can we use these findings to support learning in school? ACHIEVEMENT EMOTIONS. In the past, with the exception of anxiety, emotions generally were overlooked in research on learning and motivation (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2015). But as you just read, research in the neurosciences has shown that emotions such as curiosity and boredom are both causes and consequences of learning processes. For example, boredom leads to inferior learning and poor learning leads to being more bored as the student falls farther (and hopelessly) behind. Boredom is the opposite of interest and curiosity and is a clear enemy of learning at every age. It is a big problem in classrooms because boredom is associated with difficulties in paying attention, lack of intrinsic motivation, weak effort, shallow processing of information, and poor self-regulated learning (Pekrun et al., 2010). Reinhard Pekrun and his colleagues (2006, 2010, 2014, 2015) have tested a model that relates different goal orientations to boredom and other emotions in older adolescents from the United States and Germany. The goal orientations are those we discussed earlier: mastery, performance approach, and performance avoidance. With a mastery goal, students focus on and value an activity as a way to get smarter; they feel in control. These findings are summarized in Table 12.3. TABLE 12.3 • How Different Achievement Goals Influence Achievement Emotions Different goals are associated with different emotions that can impact motivation. GOAL ORIENTATION



STUDENT EMOTIONS



Mastery Focus on activity, controllability, positive value of activity



Increases: enjoyment of activity, pride, hope Decreases: boredom, anger



Performance approach Focus on outcome, controllability, positive outcome value



Increases: pride, hope



Performance avoidance Focus on outcome, lack of controllability, negative outcome value



Increases: anxiety, hopelessness, shame



Source: Based on Pekrun, R., Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2006). Achievement Goals and Discrete Achievement Emotions: A Theoretical Model and Prospective Test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 583–597.



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How can you increase positive achievement emotions and decrease boredom in the subject you teach? Students are more likely to feel bored if they believe they (a) have little control over the learning activities and (b) don’t value the activities. Matching challenge to the students’ skill levels and giving choices can increase the students’ sense of control and flow. In addition, efforts to build student interest and show the value of the activities also help to fight boredom. And remember, achievement emotions are domain specific. The fact that students enjoy and feel proud of their work in math does not mean they will enjoy English or history (Goetz, Frenzel, Hall, & Pekrun, 2008; Pekrun et al., 2010, 2014). In addition, teachers who enjoy their subjects tend to be more enthusiastic and encourage student enjoyment, so make sure, as much as possible, that you are teaching from your own interests and passions (Brophy, 2008; Frenzel, Goetz, Lüdtke, Pekrun, & Sutton, 2009; Long & Woolfolk Hoy, 2006). AROUSAL AND ANXIETY. Just as we all know how it feels to be motivated, we all know what it is like to be aroused. Arousal involves both psychological and physical reactions—changes in brain wave patterns, blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate. We feel alert, wide awake, even excited. To understand the effects of arousal on motivation, think of two extremes. The first is late at night. You are trying for the third time to understand a required reading, but you are so sleepy. Your attention drifts as your eyelids droop. You decide to go to bed now and get up early to study (a plan that you know seldom works). At the other extreme, imagine that you have a critical test tomorrow—one that determines whether you will get into the school you want. You feel tremendous pressure from everyone to do well. You know that you need a good night’s sleep, but you are wide awake. In the first case, arousal is too low and in the second, too high. Psychologists have known for years that there is an optimum level of arousal for most activities (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Generally speaking, higher levels of arousal are helpful on simple tasks such as sorting laundry, but lower levels of arousal are better for complex tasks such as taking the SAT or GRE. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Test Anxiety (I, C3) Test Taking and Anxiety Go to PSuU.edu or OSU.edu (or most college websites) and search for “test taking skills” to find tips and insights into addressing the problems associated with test anxiety. (And the tips might be useful for doing well on the PRAXIS II® exam!)



Anxiety General uneasiness, a feeling of tension.



ANXIETY IN THE CLASSROOM. At one time or another, everyone has experienced anxiety, or a general uneasiness, a feeling of self-doubt, and sense of tension. Recent work on “academic anxieties,” which is a broad term that encompasses anxiety experiences in educational settings, has demonstrated that many forms of anxiety—test anxiety, math anxiety, science anxiety, public speaking anxiety—can lead to patterns of beliefs and behaviors that hamper performance and promote disengagement in learning (Cassady, 2010; Hart et al., 2016). Anxiety can be both a cause and an effect of school failure—students do poorly because they are anxious, and their poor performance increases their anxiety, creating a vicious cycle for the learner. Academic anxiety has both trait and state components. So your students may have a personal level of anxiety they bring to different learning situations, and the situation itself may trigger perceptions of threat or self-doubt that add to their basic trait level of anxiety (Covington, 1992; Zeidner, 1998). Anxiety seems to have both cognitive and affective components. The cognitive side includes worry and negative thoughts—thinking about how bad it would be to fail and worrying that you will, for example. The affective side involves physiological and emotional reactions such as sweaty palms, upset stomach, racing heartbeat, or fear ( Jain & Dowson, 2009; Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). Whenever there are pressures to perform, severe consequences for failure, and competitive comparisons among students, anxiety may be encouraged. Research with school-age children shows a relationship between the quality of sleep (how quickly and how well they sleep) and anxiety. Better-quality sleep is associated with positive arousal or an “eagerness” to learn. Poor-quality sleep, on the other hand, is related to debilitating anxiety and decreased school performance. You may have discovered these relationships for yourself in your own school career (Meijer & van den Wittenboer, 2004).



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HOW DOES ANXIETY INTERFERE WITH ACHIEVEMENT? Contemporary orientations to academic anxiety suggest that anxiety affects the beliefs and behaviors of learners in three phases of the learning–testing cycle: preparation, performance, and reflection. During the preparation phase (classroom instruction, studying, test preparation), learners with anxiety tend to have difficulty effectively focusing attention on the relevant material, employing quality study tactics, and maintaining a positive self-worth orientation toward the learning event. Instead of concentrating, they keep noticing the tight feelings in their chest, thinking, “I’m so tense, I’ll never understand this stuff!” From the beginning, anxious students may miss much of the information they are supposed to learn because their thoughts are focused on their own worries. Regardless of whether the learner is unskilled at studying, avoiding the content due to uneasiness caused by the anxiety, or merely distracted by thoughts of the consequences of failing, the material to be learned is clearly compromised (Cassady & Johnson, 2002; Jain & Dowson, 2009; Zeidner & Matthews, 2005). But the problems do not end here. In the performance phase, anxiety blocks retrieval of what was (often poorly) learned (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1992). Finally, in the reflection phase, learners with anxiety build attributions for failure that further impede their future performance by developing beliefs that they are simply incapable of succeeding at the task, determining that they have no control over the situation, and setting ineffective goals for future situations.



Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety Some students, particularly those with learning disabilities or emotional disorders, may be especially anxious in school. When students face stressful situations such as tests, they can use three kinds of coping strategies: problem-focused self-regulating learning strategies; emotional management; and avoidance. Problem-focused, self-regulating strategies might include planning a study schedule, borrowing good notes, or finding a protected place to study. Emotion-focused strategies are attempts to reduce the anxious feelings, for example, by using relaxation exercises or describing the feelings to a friend. Of course, the latter might become an avoidance strategy, along with going out for pizza or suddenly launching an all-out desk-cleaning attack (can’t study until you get organized!). Different strategies are helpful at different points—for example, self-regulated learning before and emotion management during an exam (avoidance is seldom a good strategy). Different strategies fit different people and situations (Zeidner, 1995, 1998). What can teachers do? First, they can help anxious learners become more effective at recognizing the source of their anxious feelings and accurately interpreting them. Connected to this, teachers can help students adopt attributional styles that recognize that they have control over their learning and performance. So, rather than developing a failure-accepting view, students can learn to identify situations where they have been successful and recognize that with support and effort, they can achieve better outcomes. Second, teachers should help highly anxious students to set realistic goals, because these individuals often have difficulty making wise choices. They tend to select either extremely difficult or extremely easy tasks. In the first case, they are likely to fail, which will increase their sense of hopelessness and anxiety about school. In the second case, they will probably succeed on the easy tasks, but they will miss the sense of satisfaction that could encourage greater effort and ease their fears about schoolwork. Goal cards, progress charts, or goal-planning journals may help here ( Jain & Dowson, 2009). Third, teachers can support improved performance by teaching students more effective methods for learning and studying. Research on anxious learners indicates that they tend to spend more time studying, but the methods they adopt tend to be repetitive and low quality (Cassady, 2004; Wittmaier, 1972). As teachers help students to build both the cognitive and emotional skills necessary to overcome anxiety, the students should begin to observe the steady gains in performance and ideally internalize the strategies that have helped them be more successful. Finally, teachers can limit the environmental triggers for anxiety in their classrooms by examining their underlying biases (to reduce the presence of stereotype threat messages



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GUIDELINES Coping with Anxiety Use competition carefully. Examples 1. Monitor activities to make sure no students are being put under undue pressure. 2. During competitive games, make sure all students involved have a reasonable chance of succeeding. 3. Experiment with cooperative learning activities. Avoid situations in which highly anxious students will have to perform in front of large groups. Examples 1. Ask anxious students questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no, or some other brief reply. 2. Give anxious students practice in speaking before smaller groups. Make sure all instructions are clear. Uncertainty can lead to anxiety. Examples 1. Write test instructions on the board or on the test itself instead of giving them orally. 2. Check with students to make sure they understand. Ask several students how they would do the first question, exercise, or sample question on a test. Correct any misconceptions. 3. If you are using a new format or starting a new type of task, give students examples or models to show how it is done. Avoid unnecessary time pressures. Examples 1. Give occasional take-home tests. 2. Make sure all students can complete classroom tests within the period given.



Remove some of the pressures from major tests and exams. Examples 1. Teach test-taking skills; give practice tests; provide study guides. 2. Avoid basing most of a report-card grade on one test. 3. Make extra-credit work available to add points to course grades. 4. Use different types of items in testing because some students have difficulty with particular formats. Develop alternatives to written tests. Examples 1. Try oral, open-book, or group tests. 2. Have students do projects, organize portfolios of their work, make oral presentations, or create a finished product. Teach students self-regulation strategies (Schutz & Davis, 2000). Examples 1. Before the test: Encourage students to see the test as an important and challenging task that they have the capabilities to prepare for. Help students stay focused on the task of getting as much information as possible about the test. 2. During the test: Remind students that the test is important (but not overly important). Encourage task focus—pick out the main idea in the question, slow down, stay relaxed. 3. After the test: Think back on what went well and what could be improved. Focus on controllable attributions—study strategies, effort, careful reading of questions, relaxation strategies. For more information about acaemic anxiety, search the websites at most colleges and universities. For example, go to osu.edu, the site for The Ohio State University, and search for “test anxiety.”



in their classrooms), promoting mastery-oriented classroom goal structures, and providing a positive role model for appropriate interest and excitement for the content (rather than starting off with statements such as, “This is REALLY hard stuff”). Also, when teachers are “stressed out” about accountability and statewide testing, they can transmit this anxiety to their students. The more teachers are visibly distressed or continually emphasize “how important this test is,” the more students have the opportunity to recognize the tests as a state of “threat,” prompting negative emotions and activating test anxiety.



Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers Make efforts to keep the level of arousal right for the task at hand. If students are going to sleep, energize them by introducing variety, piquing their curiosity, surprising them, or giving them a brief chance to be physically active. Learn about their interests, and incorporate these interests into lessons and assignments. If arousal is too great, follow the Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety.



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How can we put together all this information about motivation? How can teachers create environments, situations, and relationships that encourage motivation? We address these questions next. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.6



MOTIVATION TO LEARN IN SCHOOL: ON TARGET Teachers are concerned about developing a particular kind of motivation in their students—the motivation to learn, defined as valuing academic activities and trying persistently to get benefit from them (Brophy, 1998, 2008). Motivation to learn involves more than wanting or intending to learn. It includes the quality of the student’s mental efforts. For example, reading the text 11 times may indicate persistence, but motivation to learn implies more thoughtful, active study strategies, such as summarizing, elaborating the basic ideas, outlining in your own words, drawing graphs of the key relationships, and so on. It would be wonderful if all our students came to us filled with the motivation to learn, but they don’t. As teachers, we have three major goals: 1. The immediate goal is to get students productively engaged with the work of the class; in other words, catch their interest and create a state of motivation to learn. Engagement actually increases motivation, which leads to more learning, and learning leads to greater motivation, and on and on (Reeve & Lee, 2014). 2. A longer-term goal is to develop in our students enduring individual interests and the trait of being motivated to learn so they will be able to educate themselves for the rest of their lives. 3. Finally, we want our students to be cognitively engaged—to think deeply about what they study, not just finish it (Blumenfeld, Puro, & Mergendoller, 1992). How can teachers accomplish these three goals? You already have the knowledge needed, based on what we have discussed about the value of clear, specific, mastery goals; self-beliefs about efficacy and controllable causes of achievement; expectations for success and growth mindsets; valuing learning tasks; autonomy and choice; and emotions that support learning. Table 12.4 on the next page shows how each of these factors contributes to motivation to learn. The central question for the remainder of the chapter is: How can teachers use their knowledge about expectations, attributions, goals, beliefs, self-perceptions, interests, and emotions to increase motivation to learn (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016)? To organize our discussion, we will use the TARGET model (Ames, 1992; Epstein, 1989), identifying six areas where teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn. T task that students are asked to do A autonomy or authority students are allowed in working R recognition for accomplishments G grouping practices E evaluation procedures T time in the classroom



Tasks for Learning To understand how an academic task can affect students’ motivation, we need to analyze the task. As we saw earlier, tasks have different values for students. What else matters? BEYOND TASK VALUE TO GENUINE APPRECIATION. Jere Brophy (2008, p. 140) reminds teachers that there is more to value than interest or utility; there is the power of knowing: “Powerful ideas expand and enrich the quality of students’ subjective lives.”



MyLab Education



Video Example 12.5 The high school students in this video are engaged in authentic tasks. Notice the strategies the teacher uses to give the task value to the students and allow the students autonomy in creating their experimental design. She uses cooperative groups and incorporates accountability with the peer assessment structure. Consider the power of these elements to increase students’ motivation to learn.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Target (I, C1, 2, 3) Describe the major features of the TARGET model, and identify related strategies that are likely to boost motivation.



Motivation to learn The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them. Academic tasks The work the student must accomplish, including the product expected, resources available, and the mental operations required.



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TABLE 12.4 • Building a Concept of Motivation to Learn Motivation to learn is encouraged when the following five elements come together. FACTORS INFLUENCING MOTIVATION



OPTIMUM CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION TO LEARN



CHARACTERISTICS THAT DIMINISH MOTIVATION TO LEARN



Source



INTRINSIC: Personal factors such as needs, interests, curiosity, enjoyment



EXTRINSIC: Environmental factors such as rewards, social pressure, punishment



Needs and Self-Determination



SUPPORT SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION: Make sure lowerlevel needs (safety, security, belonging, etc.) are met; support autonomy and appropriate choice, foster expectations for success and sense of belonging



UNDERMINE SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION: Classroom is unsafe, students are hungry, fearful; few choices, competitive classrooms with winners and loser, in groups and out groups



Goals



CLEAR, SPECIFIC MASTERY AND PERFORMACEAPPROACH GOALS: Tendency to choose moderately difficult and challenging goals; personal satisfaction in meeting challenges and improving; concerned with mastering the task; little fear of failure



PERFORMANCE AVOIDANCE GOALS: Tendency to choose very easy or very difficult vague goals; fear of failing and looking dumb; self-handicapping strategies



Expectancies, Values, and Costs



POSITIVE: I can succeed, the task is worth doing well, and the costs are reasonable



NEGATIVE: I can’t succeed, the task isn’t worth doing well, and the costs are too much



Attributions



STABLE, CONTROLLABLE: Successes and failures attributed to effort, persistence, applying correct strategies, studying right (or wrong) material, growth mindset



UNSTABLE, UNCONTROLLABLE: Successes and failures attributed to luck, fixed ability, difficulty of task, unfair teacher



Mindsets



GROWTH MINDSET: I can change my brain through learning and struggling with challenging tasks



FIXED MINDSET: I am limited by my brain that cannot change



Self-Worth



MASTERY-ORIENTED: Clear challenging goals for learning, growth mindset, adaptive strategies



FAILURE-ORIENTED/FAILURE ACCEPTING: Self-handicapping strategies, learned helplessness, goals too easy or too hard, fixed mindset, depression, hopelessness



Interests and Emotions



POSITIVE: Curiosity piqued, tasks linked to personal and situational interests, low anxiety and pressure for performance



NEGATIVE: Tasks linked to high-pressure competition, interests and curiosity ignored



Authentic task Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom. Problem-based learning Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process.



These ideas give us lenses for viewing the world, tools for making decisions, and frames for appreciating the beauty in words and images. An entire issue of Theory Into Practice, the journal I once edited, is devoted to Jere’s ideas about engaging students in the value and appreciation of learning (Turner, Patrick, & Meyer, 2011). One way to build appreciation is with authentic tasks. AUTHENTIC TASKS. If you ask students to memorize definitions they will never use, to learn the material only because it is on the test, or to repeat work they already understand, then there can be little motivation to learn. But if the tasks are connected to current and future real-life problems, students are more likely to see the genuine utility value of the work and are also more likely to find the tasks meaningful and interesting (Pugh & Phillips, 2011). An authentic task relates to students’ lives and requires them to use the tools of the discipline they are studying (say biology or history) to solve a problem. Solving the authentic problem immerses the students in the culture of the discipline (Belland, Kim, & Hannafin, 2013). Problem-based learning (Chapter 10) is one way to use authentic tasks in teaching. For example, a physics teacher might use skateboarding as



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a basis for problems and examples, knowing that skateboarding is an authentic task for many of her students (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). For younger students, compare these two teachers described by Anderman and Anderman (2014, p. 11): Mrs. Rodriguez gives her class an initial lesson on halves and quarters, divides students into groups of three, and gives each group two Twinkies and a plastic knife. She asks the students to cut one Twinkie into two equally sized pieces, and the other Twinkie into four equally sized pieces. Next comes the challenge—use the Twinkie pieces to determine which fraction is bigger, one half (1/2) or three fourths (3/4). Mrs. Rodriguez then visits each group; the members must explain their work to her. When they are correct, they get to eat the Twinkies. Mr. Jackson gives the same initial lesson on halves and quarters. He then provides each student with a worksheet with a few simple questions that are designed to help the students to learn about fractions. For these questions, the students are supposed to imagine that they have several pieces of paper, and that they cut the paper with scissors into various quantities (e.g., they cut one paper into four equal-size pieces, they cut another paper into two equal-size pieces). The students are then asked to demonstrate whether one half (1/2) or three fourths (3/4) is the bigger fraction. They then have to write down their answer, along with a brief explanation.



The students in Mrs. Rodriguez’s class were involved in a more authentic (and tasty) task involving cutting and dividing food, cooperating with others, and enjoying the fruits (or Twinkies) of their labor. They also had to figure out how to share two halves and four quarters equally among three people—advanced cooperation.



Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment Children and adolescents spend literally thousands of hours in schools where other people decide what will happen. Yet we know that self-determination and a sense of internal locus of causality are critical to maintaining intrinsic motivation and student engagement ( Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Reeve, Nix, & Hamm, 2003). What can teachers do to support autonomy and choice without creating chaos? SUPPORTING CHOICES. Choices should provide a range of selections that allow students to follow their interests and pick an option that is important and relevant to them (I. Katz & Assor, 2007). But beware of giving too many choices. Like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unguided choices can be counterproductive for learning (R. Garner, 1998). I know that graduate students in my classes find it disconcerting if I ask them to design a final project that will determine their grade, just as I panic when I am asked to give a talk on “whatever you want.” The alternative is bounded choice—giving students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them but also allow them to follow personal interests. The balance must be just right: “too much autonomy is bewildering and too little is boring” (Guthrie et al., 1998, p. 185). Students can have input about work partners, seating arrangements, how to display work, or suggestions for class rules. But the most important kind of autonomy support teachers can provide probably is cognitive autonomy support—giving students opportunities to discuss different cognitive strategies for learning, approaches to solving problems, or positions on an issue (Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004). Students also can exercise autonomy about how they receive feedback from the teacher or from classmates. Figure 12.2 on the next page describes a strategy called “Check It Out,” in which students specify the skills that they want to have evaluated in a particular assignment. Over the course of a unit, all the skills have to be “checked out,” but students choose when each one is evaluated. RECOGNIZING ACCOMPLISHMENT. In the third TARGET area students should be recognized for improving on their own personal best, for tackling difficult tasks, for persistence, and for creativity—not just for performing better than others or finishing quickly. What sort of recognition leads to engagement? When high school students expected personal feedback based on their own previous work, they were more likely to set mastery



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FIGUR E 12 .2 STUDENT AUTONOMY: CHECK IT OUT Using this technique to support student autonomy, the teacher decides on a set of skills that will be developed over a unit, but the student decides which skill(s) will be evaluated on any given assignment. Over the course of the unit, all the skills have to be “checked out.” This student has indicated that she wants the teacher to “check out” her creativity and verb tense.



Capitals Punctuation



Complete S entences Creativity



Spelling Commas Tense ns Semicolo



Source: From Raffini, J. P. (1996). 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motivation to the Classroom. Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission of the publisher.



and performance approach goals and feel proud about their accomplishments. When the students expected feedback that compared their performance to the performance of others, they were more likely to set performance-avoidance, self-handicapping goals and to feel angry, hopeless, or ashamed (Pekrun et al., 2014)



Grouping, Evaluation, and Time You may remember a teacher who made you want to work hard—someone who made a subject come alive. Or you may remember how many hours you spent practicing as a member of a team, orchestra, choir, or theater troupe. If you do, then you know the motivational power of relationships with other people.



Goal structure The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal.



GROUPING AND GOAL STRUCTURES. Motivation can be greatly influenced by the ways we relate to the other people who are also involved in accomplishing a particular goal. D. W. Johnson and Johnson (2009a) have labeled this interpersonal factor the goal structure of the task. There are three goal structures: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic, as shown in Table 12.5. When the task involves complex learning and problem-solving skills, cooperation helps students set attainable goals and negotiate. They become more altruistic. The interaction with peers that students enjoy so much becomes a part of the learning process. The result? The need for belonging described by Maslow is more likely to be met, and motivation is increased (Stipek, 2002; Webb & Palincsar, 1996). In a math learning video game format, both cooperation and competition in the game led to greater interest and enjoyment compared to individual play, but cooperation also was associated with more positive attitudes about the game and the desire to play it again in the future (Plass et al., 2013). There are many approaches to cooperative learning, as you saw in Chapter 10. For example, to encourage motivation with a cooperative goal structure, form reading



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TABLE 12.5 • Different Goal Structures Each goal structure is associated with a different relationship between the individual and the group. This relationship influences motivation to reach the goal. COOPERATIVE



COMPETITIVE



INDIVIDUALISTIC



Definition



Students believe their goal is attainable only if other students will also reach the goal.



Students believe they will reach their goal if and only if other students do not reach the goal.



Students believe that their own attempt to reach a goal is not related to other students’ attempts to reach the goal.



Examples



Team victories—each player wins only if all the team members win: a relay race, a quilting bee, a barn raising, a symphony, a play.



Golf tournament, singles tennis match, a 100-yard dash, valedictorian, Miss America pageant.



Lowering your handicap in golf, jogging, learning a new language, enjoying a museum, losing or gaining weight, stopping smoking.



Source: Based on Learning Together and Alone: Cooperation, Competition, and Individualization (5th ed.), by D. W. Johnson & R. Johnson. Copyright © 1999a by Pearson Education, Inc.



groups based on student interests instead of abilities and change the groups every month (Anderman & Anderman, 2014). EVALUATION. The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more students will focus on performance goals rather than mastery. And low-achieving students who have little hope of either performing well or mastering the task may simply want to get it over with (Brophy, 2005). How can teachers prevent students from simply focusing on the grade or doing the work “just to get finished”? The most obvious answer is to de-emphasize grades and to emphasize learning in the class. Students need to understand the value of the work. Instead of saying, “You will need to know this for the test,” tell students how the information will be useful in solving problems they want to solve. Suggest that the lesson will answer some interesting questions. Communicate that understanding is more important than finishing. TIME. Experienced teachers know that there is too much work and not enough time in the school day. Even if they become engrossed in a project, students must stop and turn their attention to another class when the bell rings or when the teacher’s schedule indicates it’s time to move on to a new subject. Furthermore, students must progress as a group, which slows down those who could move faster and leaves behind those who need more time—not very motivating for any of them. It is difficult to develop persistence and a sense of self-efficacy when students are not allowed to stick with a challenging activity. As a teacher, will you be able to make time for engaged and persistent learning? Some middle and high schools have block scheduling in which teachers work in teams to plan larger blocks of class time. PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER. We can see how these motivational elements come together in real classrooms. Sara Dolezal and her colleagues observed and interviewed third-grade teachers in eight Catholic schools and determined if their students were low, moderate, or high in their level of motivation (Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003). Table 12.6 on the next page summarizes the dramatic differences in these classrooms between the use of strategies that support motivation and those that undermine it. Students in the low-engagement classes were restless and chatty as they faced their easy, undemanding seatwork. The classrooms were bare, unattractive, and filled with management problems. Instruction was disorganized. The class atmosphere was generally



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TABLE 12.6 • Strategies That Support and Undermine Motivation in the Classroom A FEW STRATEGIES THAT SUPPORT MOTIVATION STRATEGY



EXAMPLE



Messages of accountability



The teacher asks students to have parents review and sign some assignments.



Communications about the importance of work



The teacher says, “We need to check it for at least 1 minute, which means looking over it carefully.”



Clear goals/directions



The teacher explains exactly how the students are to separate into groups and complete their nominations for their favorite book.



Connections across the curriculum



The teacher relates the concept of ratios in math to compare/contrast skills in reading.



Opportunities to learn about and practice dramatic arts



After studying about historical figures, students write and produce their own plays.



Attributions to effort



During a word game, the teacher says to a student, “Did you study last night?” The student nods. “See how it helps?”



Encouraging risk taking



“I need a new shining face. Someone I haven’t called on yet. I need a risk taker.”



Use of games and play to reinforce concept or review material



During a math lesson using balance, students spend 5 minutes weighing the favorite toy they were asked to bring in that day.



Home–school connections



As part of a math science unit, families keep a chart of everything they recycle in a week.



Multiple representations of a task



The teacher uses four ways to teach multiplication: “magic multipliers,” sing-along multiplication facts, whole-class flash card review, “Around-the-World” game.



Positive classroom management, praise



“Thumbs up when you are ready to work. I like the way Table 7 is waiting patiently.”



Stimulating creative thought



“We are going to use our imaginations today. We are going to take a trip to an imaginary theater in our heads.”



Opportunities for choice



Students can choose to use prompts for their journal writing or pick their own topic.



Teacher communicates to students that they can handle challenging tasks



“This is hard stuff, and you are doing great. I know adults who have trouble with this.”



Value students—communicate caring



The teacher allows a new student to sit with a buddy for the day.



A FEW STRATEGIES THAT DO NOT SUPPORT MOTIVATION TO LEARN Attributions to intellect rather than effort



When students remark during a lesson, “I’m stupid” or “I’m a dork,” the teacher says nothing, then replies, “Let’s have someone who is smart.”



Teacher emphasizes competition rather than working together



The teacher conducts a poetry contest where students read poems to the class and the class members hold up cards with scores rating how well each student performed.



No scaffolding for learning a new skill



The teacher is loud and critical when students have trouble: “Just look back in the glossary, and don’t miss it because you are too lazy to look it up.”



Ineffective/negative feedback



“Does everyone understand?” A few students say yes, and the teacher moves on.



Lack of connections



On Martin Luther King Day, the teacher leads a brief discussion of King, then the remainder of the activities are about Columbus.



Easy tasks



The teacher provides easy work and “fun” activities that teach little.



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A FEW STRATEGIES THAT DO NOT SUPPORT MOTIVATION TO LEARN (continued ) Negative class atmosphere



“Excuse me, I said page number. If you follow and listen, you would know.”



Punitive classroom management



The teacher threatens bad grades if students do not look up words in the glossary.



Work that is much too difficult



The teacher assigns independent math work that only one or two students can do.



Slow pacing



The pace is set for the slowest students—others finish and have nothing to do.



Emphasis on finishing, not learning



The teacher communicates the purpose is to finish, not learn or use the vocabulary.



Sparse, unattractive classroom



There are no decorated bulletin boards, maps, charts, or displays of student work.



Poor planning



Missing handouts force the teacher to have large instead of smaller work groups.



Public punishment



All students stand, and the teacher reads a list of those who finished the assignment and they sit down. The teacher gives public lecture on responsibility to those left standing.



Source: Based on “How Do Nine Third-Grade Teachers Motivate Their Students?” by S. E. Dolezal, L. M. Welsh, M. Pressley, & M. Vincent. Elementary School Journal, 2003, 103, pp. 247–248. Adapted with permission.



negative. The moderately engaged classrooms were organized to be “student friendly,” with reading areas, group work areas, posters, and student artwork. The teachers were warm and caring, and they connected lessons to students’ background knowledge. Management routines were smooth and organized, and the class atmosphere was positive. The teachers were good at catching student attention, but they had trouble holding attention, probably because the tasks were too easy. Highly engaging teachers had all the positive qualities of student-friendly classrooms—but they added more challenging tasks along with the support the students needed to succeed. These excellent motivators did not rely on one or two approaches to motivate their students; they applied a large repertoire of strategies from Table 12.6.



Diversity in Motivation Because students differ in terms of language, culture, economic privilege, personality, knowledge, and experience, they will also differ in their needs, goals, interests, emotions, and beliefs. Teachers encourage motivation to learn by taking this diversity into account using TARGET—designing tasks, supporting autonomy, recognizing accomplishments, grouping, making evaluations, and managing time. For example, embedding student writing tasks in cultural contexts is one way to catch and hold situational interest (Alderman, 2004; Bergin, 1999). When Latina/o immigrant students in middle school classes moved from writing using worksheets and standard assignments to writing about such topics as immigration, bilingualism, and gang life—issues that were important to them and to their families—their papers were longer and the writing quality improved (Rueda & Moll, 1994). Language is a central factor in students’ connections with the school. When bilingual students are encouraged to draw on both English and their heritage language, motivation and participation can increase. Robert Jimenez (2000) found in his study of bilingual Latino/a students that successful readers viewed reading as a process of making sense; they used both of their languages to understand the material. For instance, they might look for Spanish word parts in English words to help them translate. Less-successful students had a different goal. They believed that reading just meant saying the words correctly in English. It is likely their interest and sense of efficacy for reading in English would be less, too.



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Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation Until four basic conditions are met for every student and in every classroom, no motivational strategies will succeed. First, the classroom must be relatively organized and free from constant interruptions and disruptions. You can see that the good motivators in Table 12.6 were good managers as well. Chapter 13 will give you the information you need to make sure this requirement is met. Second, the teacher must be a patient, supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes. Everyone in the class should view mistakes as opportunities for learning (Clifford, 1990, 1991). Third, the work must be challenging, but reasonable. If work is too easy or too difficult, students will have little motivation to learn. They will focus on finishing, not on learning. Finally, the learning tasks must be authentic. And as we have seen, what makes a task authentic is influenced by the students’ culture (Bergin, 1999; Brophy & Kher, 1986; Stipek, 2002). Once these four basic conditions are met, the influences on students’ motivation to learn in a particular situation can be summarized in four questions: Can I succeed at this task? Do I want to succeed? What do I need to do to succeed? Do I belong in this classroom? (Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004; Eccles & Wigfield, 1985; Turner et al., 2014). CAN I DO IT? BUILDING CONFIDENCE AND POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS. We want students to have confidence in their ability so they will approach learning with energy and enthusiasm. But no amount of encouragement or “cheerleading” will substitute for real accomplishment. To ensure genuine progress: 1. Begin work at the students’ level, and move in small steps. One possibility is to have very easy and very difficult questions on every test and assignment, so all students are both successful and challenged. When grades are required, make sure all the students in class have a chance to make at least a C if they work hard. 2. Make sure learning goals are clear, specific, and possible to reach in the near future. Break long-term projects into subgoals. If possible, give students a range of goals at different levels of difficulty, and let them choose. 3. Stress self-comparison, not comparison with others. Give specific feedback and corrections. Tell students what they are doing right as well as what is wrong and why it is wrong. Periodically, give students a question or problem that was once hard for them but now seems easy. Point out how much they have improved. 4. Communicate to students that academic ability is improvable and specific to the task at hand. In other words, the fact that a student has trouble in algebra doesn’t necessarily mean that geometry will be difficult. Don’t undermine your efforts to stress improvement by displaying only the 100% papers on the bulletin board. 5. Model good problem solving, especially when you have to try several approaches. Students need to see that learning is not smooth and error free, even for the teacher. DO I WANT TO DO IT? SEEING THE VALUE OF LEARNING. We want students to see the value of the tasks involved and work to learn, not just try to get the grade or get finished. Attainment and Intrinsic Value. To establish attainment value, we must connect the learning task with the needs of the students. It must be possible for students to meet their needs for safety, belonging, and achievement in our classes. Many students are quietly wounded by their teachers’ words or by school practices that embarrass, label, or demean them (K. Olson, 2008). We must make it clear that both women and men can be high achievers in all subjects: No subjects are the territory of only one sex. It is not “unfeminine” to be strong in mathematics, car mechanics, or sports. It is not “unmasculine” to be good in literature, art, or French.



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There are many strategies for encouraging intrinsic (interest) motivation. Several of the following are taken from Brophy (1988). 1. Tie class activities to student interests in sports, music, current events, pets, common problems or conflicts with family and friends, fads, television, and movie personalities, or other significant features of their lives (Schiefele, 1991). 2. Arouse curiosity. Point out puzzling discrepancies between students’ beliefs and the facts. For example, Stipek (1993) describes a teacher who asked her fifth-grade class if there were “people” on some of the other planets. When the students said yes, the teacher asked if people needed oxygen to breathe. Because the students had just learned this fact, they responded yes. Then the teacher told them that there is no oxygen in the atmosphere of the other planets. This surprising discrepancy between what the children knew about oxygen and what they believed about life on other planets led to a rousing discussion of the atmospheres of other planets. 3. Make the learning task fun. Many lessons can be taught through appropriately used but still fun simulations or games (see the Point/Counterpoint on page 484). 4. Make use of novelty and familiarity. Don’t overuse a few teaching approaches or motivational strategies. We all need some variety. Varying the goal structures of tasks (cooperative, competitive, individualistic) can help. When the material being covered in class is abstract or unfamiliar to students, try to connect it to something they know and understand. For example, talk about the size of a large area, such as the Acropolis in Athens, in terms of football fields. Utility Value. Sometimes it is difficult to encourage intrinsic motivation, and so teachers must rely on the utility or “instrumental” value of tasks. It is important to learn many skills because they will be needed in more advanced classes or for life outside school. 1. When these connections are not obvious, you should explain the connections to your students or ask them to explain how the material will be important in their lives (Hulleman, Godes, Hendricks, & Harackiewicz, 2010). 2. In some situations, teachers can provide incentives and rewards for learning (see Chapter 7). Remember, though, that giving rewards when students are already interested in the activity may undermine intrinsic motivation. 3. Use ill-structured problems and authentic tasks in teaching. Connect problems in school to real problems outside, such as buying your first car, making decisions about mobile phone plans, or writing a persuasive letter to a potential employer. WHAT DO I NEED TO DO TO SUCCEED? STAYING FOCUSED ON THE TASK. We want students to believe that success will come when they apply good learning strategies instead of believing that their only option is to use self-defeating, failure-avoiding, face-saving strategies. When things get difficult, we want students to stay focused on the task and not get so worried about failure that they “freeze.” If the focus shifts to worries about performance, fear of failure, or concern with looking smart, then motivation to learn is lost. 1. Give students frequent opportunities to respond through questions and answers, short assignments, or demonstrations of skills and correct problems quickly. You don’t want students to practice errors too long. 2. When possible, have students create a finished product. They will be more persistent and focused on the task when the end is in sight. For example, I often begin a house-painting project thinking I will work for just an hour and then find myself still painting hours later because I want to see the finished product. 3. Avoid heavy emphasis on grades and competition. An emphasis on grades forces students to focus on performance, not learning. Anxious students are especially hard hit by highly competitive evaluation. 4. Reduce the task risk without oversimplifying it. When tasks are risky (failure is likely and the consequences of failing are grave), student motivation suffers. For



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GUIDELINES



FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS



Motivation to Learn Understand family goals for children. Examples 1. In an informal setting, around coffee or snacks, meet with families individually or in small groups to listen to their goals for their children. 2. Mail out questionnaires or send response cards home with students, asking what skills the families believe their children most need to work on. Pick one goal for each child, and develop a plan for working toward the goal both inside and outside school. Share the plan with the families, and ask for feedback. Identify student and family interests that can be related to goals. Examples 1. Ask a member of the family to share a skill or hobby. 2. Identify “family favorites”—favorite foods, music, vacations, sports, activities, hymns, movies, games, snacks, recipes, memories. Tie class lessons to interests.



2. Ask family members to highlight strong points of homework assignments. They might attach a note to assignments describing the three best aspects of the work and one element that could be improved. Make families partners in showing the value of learning. Examples 1. Invite family members to the class to demonstrate how they use mathematics or writing in their work. 2. Involve parents or caregivers in identifying skills and knowledge that could be applied at home and prove helpful information to the family right now, for example, keeping records on service agencies, writing letters of complaint to department stores or landlords, or researching vacation destinations. Provide resources that build skill and will for families. Examples 1. Give family members simple strategies for helping their children improve study skills. 2. Involve older students in a “homework hotline” telephone network for helping younger students.



Give families a way to track progress toward goals. Examples 1. Provide simple “progress charts” or goal cards that can be posted on the refrigerator. 2. Ask for parents’ or caregivers’ feedback (and mean it) about your effectiveness in helping their children. Work with families to build confidence and positive expectations. Examples 1. Avoid comparing one child in a family to another during conferences and discussions with family members.



Have frequent celebrations of learning. Examples 1. Invite families to a “museum” at the end of a unit on dinosaurs. Students create the museum in the auditorium, library, or cafeteria. After visiting the museum, families go to the classroom to examine their child’s portfolio for the unit. 2. Place mini-exhibits of student work at local grocery stores, libraries, or community centers.



difficult, complex, or ambiguous tasks, provide students with plenty of time, support, resources, help, and the chance to revise or improve work. 5. Model motivation to learn for your students. Talk about your interest in the subject and how you deal with difficult learning tasks (Xu, Coats, & Davidson, 2012). 6. Teach the particular learning strategies that students will need to master the material being studied. Show students how to learn and remember so they won’t be forced to fall back on self-defeating strategies or rote memory. DO I BELONG IN THIS CLASSROOM? We want students to feel as though they belong in school—that their teachers and classmates care about them and can be trusted. This is an important topic, so I have devoted a large part of Chapter 13 to it. For now, let’s consider how the support of families can be helpful as you encourage student belonging in your classroom in the Guidelines: Motivation to Learn—Family and Community Partnerships. MyLab Education Self-Check 12.7



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. SUMMARY What Is Motivation? (pp. 462–465) Define motivation.  Motivation is the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. The study of motivation focuses on how and why people initiate actions directed toward specific goals, how long it takes them to get started in the activity, how intensively they are involved in the activity, how persistent they are in their attempts to reach these goals, and what they are thinking and feeling along the way. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?  Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities—it is motivation to do something when we don’t have to. Extrinsic motivation is based on factors not related to the activity itself. We are not really interested in the activity for its own sake; we care only about what it will gain us. How does locus of causality apply to motivation? The essential difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the person’s reason for acting, that is, whether the locus of causality for the action is inside or outside the person. If the locus is internal, the motivation is intrinsic; if the locus is external, the motivation is extrinsic. Most motivation has elements of both. In fact, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may be two separate tendencies—both can operate at the same time in a given situation. What do you already know about motivation?  Behaviorists tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment. Cognitive views stress a person’s active search for meaning, understanding, and competence, and the power of the individual’s attributions and interpretations. In social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and agency are central factors in motivation. Self-efficacy is your belief that you can execute particular behaviors at a particular level in a given situation. Sociocultural views emphasize engaged participation and identity within a community. What are six current explanations of motivation? To organize the many ideas about motivation in a way that is useful for teaching, we examined six broad areas or approaches. Most contemporary explanations of motivation include a discussion of needs and self-determination, goals, expectancies and values, attributions, self-beliefs, and finally, the emotional “hot” side of motivation–interests, curiosity, and anxiety.



Needs and Self-Determination (pp. 465–468) Distinguish between deficiency needs and being needs in Maslow’s theory.  Maslow called four lower-level needs deficiency needs: survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He labeled the three higher-level needs being needs: cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-actualization. When they are met, a person’s motivation increases to seek further fulfillment. What are the basic needs that affect motivation, and how does self-determination affect motivation?  Self-determination theory suggests that motivation is affected by the need for



competence, autonomy and control, and relatedness. When students experience self-determination, they are intrinsically motivated; they are more interested in their work, have a greater sense of self-esteem, and learn more. Students’ experiencing self-determination depends in part on the teacher’s communications with students providing information rather than seeking to control them. In addition, teachers must acknowledge the students’ perspective, offer choices, provide rationales for limits, and treat poor performance as a problem to be solved rather than a target for criticism.



Goals and Goal Orientations (pp. 469–474) What kinds of goals are the most motivating? Goals increase motivation if they are specific, moderately difficult, and attainable in the near future. Describe mastery, performance, work-avoidant, and social goals. A mastery goal is the intention to gain knowledge and master skills, leading students to seek challenges and persist when they encounter difficulties. A performance goal is the intention to get good grades or to appear smarter or more capable than others, leading students to be preoccupied with themselves and how they appear (ego-involved learners). Students can approach or avoid these two kinds of goals—the problems are greatest with avoidance. Another kind of avoidance is evident with work-avoidant learners, who simply want to find the easiest way to handle the situation. Students with social goals can be supported or hindered in their learning, depending on the specific goal (i.e., have fun with friends or bring honor to the family). What makes goal setting effective in the classroom?  For goal setting to be effective in the classroom, students need accurate feedback about their progress toward goals and they must accept the goals set. Generally, students are more willing to adopt goals that seem realistic, reasonably difficult, meaningful, and validated by activities connecting them to their intrinsic interests.



Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations (pp. 474–475) What are expectancy x value theories?  Expectancy × value theories suggest that motivation to reach a goal is the product of our expectations for success and the value of the goal to us. If either is zero, our motivation is zero also. Values have to be considered in relation to the cost of pursuing them. So the strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation that we can succeed, the value of that success to us, and the cost of pursuing the goal. What are different task values?  Tasks can have attainment, intrinsic, or utility value for students. Attainment value is the importance to the student of succeeding. Intrinsic value is the enjoyment the student gets from the task. Utility value is determined by how much the task contributes to reaching short-term or long-term goals.



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Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth (pp. 475–482) What are the three dimensions of attributions in Weiner’s theory?  According to Weiner, most of the attributed causes for successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: locus (location of the cause internal or external to the person), stability (whether the cause stays the same or can change), and controllability (whether the person can control the cause). The greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes. These students may seem resigned to failure, depressed, helpless— what we generally call “unmotivated.” What are epistemological beliefs, and how do they affect motivation?  Epistemological beliefs are ways of understanding how you think and learn. Individuals’ epistemological beliefs can impact their approach to learning, their expectations of themselves and the work they do, and the extent to which they engage in academic tasks. Specifically, epistemological beliefs include your understanding of the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge. How do mindsets and beliefs about ability affect motivation? When people hold a fixed mindset about ability—that is, they believe that ability is fixed—they tend to set performance goals and strive to protect themselves from failure. When they have a growth mindset and believe ability is improvable, however, they tend to set mastery goals and handle failure constructively. What is learned helplessness, and what deficits does it cause?  When people come to believe that the events and outcomes in their lives are mostly uncontrollable, they have developed learned helplessness, which is associated with three types of deficits: motivational, cognitive, and affective. Students who feel hopeless will be unmotivated and reluctant to attempt work. They miss opportunities to practice and improve skills and abilities, so they develop cognitive deficits and they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness. How does self-worth influence motivation? Mastery-oriented students tend to value achievement and see ability as improvable, so they focus on mastery goals, take risks, and cope with failure constructively. A low sense of self-worth seems to be linked with the failure-avoiding and failure-accepting strategies intended to protect the individual from the consequences of failure. These strategies may seem to help in the short term but are damaging to motivation and self-esteem in the long run.



How Do You Feel about Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety (pp. 482–491) How do interests and emotions affect learning?  Learning and information processing are influenced by emotion. Students are more likely to pay attention to, learn from, and remember events, images, and readings that provoke emotional responses or that are related to their personal interests. However, there are cautions in responding to students’ interests. “Seductive details,” interesting bits of information that are not central to the learning, can hinder learning.



How does curiosity affect learning, and what can teachers do to stimulate curiosity in their subject area? Curiosity can be a powerful motivational tool that captures and maintains students’ attention in school. Teachers can foster curiosity by tapping into students’ interests, illustrating connections between course material and applications that may be interesting to students, and allowing students to find these connections for themselves. An example might include asking students to identify the simple machines at work in a skateboard or rollercoaster. What is flow?  Flow is a mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and focused attention. When individuals are in flow, they face this highly challenging task with matching high levels of the needed skills—they are stretched but not broken. Individuals in flow experience greater enjoyment in the task, continue working without prompting, and tend to generate higher quality, more creative products. What is the role of arousal in learning? There appears to be an optimum level of arousal for most activities. Generally speaking, a higher level of arousal is helpful on simple tasks, but lower levels of arousal are better for complex tasks. When arousal is too low, teachers can stimulate curiosity by pointing out gaps in knowledge or using variety in activities. Severe anxiety is an example of arousal that is too high for optimal learning. How does anxiety interfere with learning?  Anxiety can be the cause or the result of poor performance; it can interfere with attention to, learning of, and retrieval of information. Many anxious students need help in developing effective test-taking and study skills.



Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET (pp. 491–500) Define motivation to learn. Teachers are interested in a particular kind of motivation—student motivation to learn. Student motivation to learn is both a trait and a state. It involves taking academic work seriously, trying to get the most from it, and applying appropriate learning strategies in the process. What does TARGET stand for? TARGET is an acronym for the six areas in which teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn: the nature of the task that students are asked to do, the autonomy students are allowed in working, how students are recognized for their accomplishments, grouping practices, evaluation procedures, and the scheduling of time in the classroom. How do tasks affect motivation?  The tasks that teachers set affect motivation. When students encounter tasks that are related to their interests, stimulate their curiosity, or are connected to real-life situations, they are more likely to be motivated to learn. Tasks can have attainment, intrinsic, or utility value for students. Attainment value is the importance to the student of succeeding. Intrinsic value is the enjoyment the student gets from the task. Utility value is determined by how much the task contributes to reaching short-term or long-term goals. Describe the value of bounded choices. Like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unbounded choices can be counterproductive for learning. The alternative



MO TI VATI O N I N LE A R NI NG AN D T EA CH I N G is bounded choice—giving students a range of options that set out valuable tasks for them but also allow them to follow personal interests. The balance must be just right so that students are not bewildered by too much choice or bored by too little room to explore. How can recognition undermine motivation and a sense of self-efficacy?  Recognition and reward in the classroom will support motivation to learn if the recognition is for personal progress rather than competitive victories. Praise and rewards should focus on students’ growing competence. At times, praise can have paradoxical effects when students use the teacher’s praise or criticism as cues about capabilities. List three goal structures, and distinguish among them. How students relate to their peers in the classroom is influenced by the goal structure of the activities. Goal structures can be



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competitive, individualistic, or cooperative. Cooperative goal structures can encourage motivation and increase learning, especially for low-achieving students. How does the evaluative climate affect goal setting?  The more competitive the grading, the more students set performance goals and focus on “looking competent,” that is, they are more ego-involved. When the focus is on performing rather than learning, students often see the goal of classroom tasks as simply finishing, especially if the work is difficult. What are some effects of time on motivation?  To foster motivation to learn, teachers should be flexible in their use of time in the classroom. Students who are forced to move faster or slower than they should or who are interrupted as they become involved in a project are not likely to develop persistence for learning.



. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the links under the images below.



Motivation and Needs



Mastery vs. Performance Goal Orientations



Student Motivation



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 12.1



Application Exercise 12.2



Application Exercise 12.3



. KEY TERMS Academic tasks (p. 491) Amotivation (p. 463) Anxiety (p. 488) Attribution theories (p. 475) Authentic task (p. 492) Being needs (p. 465) Cognitive evaluation theory (p. 467) Deficiency needs (p. 465) Emotions (p. 486) Epistemological beliefs (p. 477) Expectancy × value theories (p. 474) Extrinsic motivation (p. 463) Failure-accepting students (p. 481) Failure-avoiding students (p. 480)



Fixed mindset (p. 478) Flow (p. 486) Goal orientations (p. 470) Goal structure (p. 494) Growth mindset (p. 478) Hierarchy of needs (p. 465) Importance or attainment value (p. 475) Interest or intrinsic value (p. 475) Intrinsic motivation (p. 463) Learned helplessness (p. 480) Locus of causality (p. 463) Mastery goal (p. 471) Mastery-oriented students (p. 480) Motivation (p. 462)



Motivation to learn (p. 491) Need for autonomy (p. 467) Need for competence (p. 466) Need for relatedness (p. 467) Performance goal (p. 471) Problem-based learning (p. 492) Self-actualization (p. 465) Self-efficacy (p. 476) Self-handicapping (p. 481) Social goals (p. 472) Sociocultural views of motivation (p. 474) Utility value (p. 475) Value (p. 475) Work-avoidant learners (p. 472)



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MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Miss Johnson would like her students to be motivated to do their work without bribing them with treats or promises of extra recess time. Which one of the following is the type of motivation she should encourage in her students? A. Extrinsic B. Intrinsic C. Locus of control D. Relatedness 2. Why should educators concern themselves with Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? A. The stages in students’ development might determine their ability to be successful in certain subjects. B. Social and emotional growth can impact students in their ability to cooperate with their peers. C. Deficiencies in students’ lives can impact their ability to succeed academically. D. Parenting styles determine whether or not students succeed academically. 3. Teachers who select all content for their students and insist on students accomplishing their assignments on their own neglect which of the following aspects of self-determination? A. Autonomy and competence B. Autonomy and relatedness C. Relatedness and competence D. Autonomy, relatedness, and competence 4. Which of the following is true regarding extrinsic motivation? A. Extrinsic motivation should be avoided at all costs because it undermines a student’s intrinsic desire.



B. Extrinsic motivation is not associated with grades and incentives. C. Extrinsic motivation may be necessary to initially encourage students to engage in certain activities. D. Extrinsic motivation is more desirable than intrinsic motivation in the classroom because educators have increased control.



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Stephanie Wilson had been educated in “old school methods.” Her teachers insisted on straight rows of seated students who did not talk during lectures or complain about assignments. While Stephanie had been successful in this model, not all of her past classmates flourished in such a rigid environment. As a new teacher she wanted a more student-friendly environment. She envisioned a classroom where students were stimulated by the activities and worked collaboratively. “I want my students to look forward to coming to school. I want them to be agents in the learning process, not just passive recipients of my curriculum.” She imagined designing learning situations in which her students could all achieve. Step by step, they could all learn! As her students would progress, she would see when they got off the track and manage to remediate before they started to do poorly. In this way, Stephanie thought, none of her students would be failures. 5. Explain why Stephanie’s plan to provide early remediation when students are struggling is a good idea. 6. How can Stephanie Wilson support self-determination and autonomy in her classroom?



MyLab Education Licensure Exam



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin



First of all, don’t get discouraged. You don’t need a textbook to be a successful teacher. Look over the district’s curriculum guides, and see what the objectives are for each unit you will be teaching. Once you know the objectives, get creative. Keeping the students motivated and interested in learning is essential. By giving them choice and using a variety of teaching methods, you will allow them to stay actively engaged in their learning. You will be amazed at what the students will come up with when they are given choices.



made it fun and interesting.” I have heard this so many times both as a student and as a teacher, and it proves my point. Just the fact that the teacher is excited about the material shows the students that this is important information that they need, plus they are curious about the material when they respect and like their teacher. If I felt like the difficulty level of the textbooks was too great, I would have to break the lessons down into smaller increments and use different techniques—discussion, re-teaching, group projects, and so on—to enrich the students and adapt to their level of learning. When your students are motivated, they can accomplish anything—it doesn’t matter what materials are available to them, what the difficulty level of the textbook is. Kids will be motivated when their teacher truly cares about them, is passionate about the material, and makes school interesting.



MICHAEL YASIS • Fifth-Grade Teacher



PAM GASKILL • Second-Grade Teacher



Here is how some practicing teachers responded to motivate students when resources are slim. DANIELLE HARTMAN • Second-Grade Teacher Claymont Elementary School, Ballwin, MO



L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN



Riverside Elementary School, Dublin, OH



Most learning is acquired through active learning and participation. Therefore, the workbooks that focus on drill and practice, if given as the primary source of learning, most likely would bore the students. I would approach this situation by first engaging the students in a discussion to assess their prior knowledge. I would then challenge and extend their understanding of the concepts through guided discovery, building on similar examples from the “boring” workbooks. While they work on the concepts independently in their workbooks, their confidence and self-esteem will increase.



Teaching is inherently creative. Use your time and creativity this summer to acquaint yourself with the required objectives, and think about ways in which you can make them meaningful and relevant to your students. Explore other available resources in the community, such as libraries, speakers’ bureaus, and resource centers. Plan to incorporate a variety of activities such as videos, group work, field trips, projects, and speakers so that your students will remain interested and involved. Use materials that your students have access to from home—books, videos, artifacts, Internet printouts. It is amazing how cooperative parents can be when asked to help in specified ways. You might even make use of the old workbook pages, not in the traditional way, but for cooperative work. You can facilitate student success by pairing weaker readers with more competent readers to discuss and complete the worksheets. Stress that everyone needs to work together to learn the material. Active participation and engagement with the materials will help your students to construct their own meanings more effectively.



KELLY MCELROY BONIN • High School Counselor Klein Oak High School, Spring, TX



Simply being excited to be working with the third graders and showing interest and enthusiasm for the subject matter should arouse the students’ interest and encourage them to learn. How many times have you heard it said, “Mrs. -Energy was the best teacher I ever had. She took the most boring, difficult subject and



chapter thirteen



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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Bullies and Victims



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



MANAGING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Two boys are terrorizing one of your students. These boys are larger, stronger, and older than the boy in your class, who is small for his age and shy. Unfortunately, the bullies are fairly popular, in part because they are successful athletes. There are incidents on the bus before and after school, in the gym, in the hallways, and at lunch—including intimidation, extortion of lunch money, tripping, shoving, and verbal taunts—“fag” is a favorite chant. You do not have the two bullies in any of your classes. Your student has started to miss school routinely, and when he is in class, the quality of his work is declining. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you handle this situation? • Who should be involved? • What would you do about the verbal homophobic insults? • What would you do if the bullies were in your classes? • What would you do if the bullies and victim were girls?



Tanor/Shutterstock



OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES “Maintaining a positive and organized classroom setting free from disruption is critical to providing an instructional environment conducive to teaching and learning. Yet it is by no means an easy task” (Skiba et al., 2016, p. 120). This chapter looks at the ways that teachers create social and physical environments for learning by examining classroom management—one of the main concerns of teachers, particularly beginning teachers, and a significant cause of burnout if teachers feel ineffective as mangers (Aloe, Amo, & Shanahan, 2014). The very nature of classes, teaching, and students makes good management a critical ingredient of success, and we will investigate why this is true. Successful managers create more time for learning, involve more students, form supportive relationships with students, and help students to become self-managing. A positive learning environment must be established and maintained throughout the year. One of the best ways to accomplish this is by working to prevent problems from occurring at all. But when problems arise—as they always do—an appropriate response is important. What will you do when students challenge you openly in class, when one student asks your advice on a difficult personal problem, or when another withdraws from all participation? We will examine the ways that teachers can communicate effectively with their students in these and many other situations. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 13.1



Relate academic learning time and student cooperation to creating and maintaining a classroom climate conducive to academic achievement and socio-emotional well-being.



Objective 13.2



Summarize the research on the roles of rules, procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical space in classroom management, with special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class.



Objective 13.3



Discuss how to maintain a positive learning environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students.



Objective 13.4



Identify strategies for preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying.



Objective 13.5



Characterize successful teacher–student and student–student communication through such approaches as empathetic listening, conflict resolution, peer mediation, and restorative justice.



Objective 13.6



Explain the need for and approaches to culturally relevant classroom management.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives



THE WHAT AND WHY OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT



The What and Why of Classroom Management The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation



STOP & THINK  What do you believe about classroom man-



The Goals of Classroom Management



agement? On a 5-point scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), how would you respond to these items? 1. Pupils can be trusted to work together without supervision. 2. Being friendly with pupils often leads them to become too familiar. 3. Teachers should consider revision of their teaching methods if these methods are criticized by their pupils. 4. Pupils often misbehave in order to make the teacher look bad. 5. It is often necessary to remind pupils that their status in school differs from that of teachers. •



Creating a Positive Learning Environment Some Research Results Routines and Rules Required Planning Spaces for Learning Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning Encouraging Engagement Prevention Is the Best Medicine Caring Relationships: Connections with School



Items 2, 4, and 5 in the Stop & Think challenge are custodial items. If you tended to agree with these items, you probably are more teacher-centered in your philosophy of Stopping Problems Quickly management and interested in maintaining order, rules, and If You Impose Penalties structure in your classes. If you tended to agree more with Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student items 1 and 3, you may tend to be more humanistic in your Responsibility philosophy and are more optimistic about students’ abilities What About Zero Tolerance? to become responsible and self-regulated learners. You just Bullying and Cyberbullying took 5 items from the PCI (Pupil Control Ideology). It was developed by my husband, Wayne Hoy, and his colleagues Special Problems with High School Students (Willower, Eidell, & Hoy, 1967) over 50 years ago and is still The Need for Communication used widely today. If you want to take the full survey, go to Message Sent—Message Received waynekhoy.com/pupil_control.html. Another survey that assesses your philosophy of disEmpathetic Listening cipline is the Beliefs About Discipline Inventory (Wolfgang, When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, 2009), shown in Figure 13.1. When you answer these quesAssertive Discipline, and Problem Solving tions, you will see if your values about classroom management Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and tend to focus on Relationship-Listening, Confronting-Contracting, Restorative Justice Rules and Consequences, or some combination. There are Research on Management Approaches successful teachers using all these strategies appropriately as the situation merits. What is your position? Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management In study after study, classroom management stands out Summary and Key Terms as the variable with the largest impact on student achievement Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What (Marzano & Marzano, 2003). Knowledge of and skill in classWould They Do? room management are marks of expertise in teaching; and stress and exhaustion from managerial difficulties are precursors to teacher burnout (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Hong, 2012). What is it about classrooms that makes management so critical? Classrooms are particular kinds of environments. They have distinctive features that influence their inhabitants no matter what the teacher believes about education (Doyle, 2006). Classrooms are multidimensional. They are crowded with people, tasks, and time pressures. Many individuals—all with differing goals, preferences, and abilities—must share resources, use and reuse materials without losing them, move in and out of the room, and so on. And events occur simultaneously—everything happens at once, and the pace is fast. Teachers have literally hundreds of exchanges with students during a single day. In this rapid-fire existence, events are unpredictable. Even when plans are carefully made, a lesson can still be interrupted by a technology glitch or a loud, angry discussion right outside the classroom. Because classrooms are public, the way the Dealing with Discipline Problems



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FIGU RE 1 3.1 BELIEFS ABOUT DISCIPLINE INVENTORY This 12-question inventory will give you insights about yourself and where your personality and the discipline techniques you use would fall under the three philosophies of discipline. In each question, you are asked to choose between two competing value statements. For some questions, you will definitely agree with one statement and disagree with the second, making it easy for you to choose; for others, however, you will agree or disagree with both, and you must select the one you more closely identify with. There is no “right” or “wrong” answer—but merely indicators of your own personal views. Forced Choices. Instructions: Circle a or b to indicate the statement with which you identify the most. You must choose between the two statements for each item. 1. a. Because students’ thinking is limited, rules need to be established for them by mature adults. b. Each student’s emotional needs must be taken into consideration, rather than having some preestablished rule imposed on all. 2. a. During the first class session of the new school year, the teacher needs to assign each student his or her own desk or table space, and the student should be taught routinely to take that space after transitions. b. Groups of students can decide through a class meeting what rules they need to govern themselves. 3. a. Students should be given a choice as to which topics for projects they wish to select. Once they choose, they must keep to that decision for most of that grading period. b. The material students must learn and the tasks to be performed must be determined by the teacher, and a specific sequence of instruction to accomplish these goals must be followed. 4. The books and similar classroom equipment are being misused, soiled, and at times destroyed. I will most likely: a. Hold a class meeting, show the damaged books to the class, and ask them how we may solve this problem, including what action should be taken toward a student found to be misusing books. b. Physically remove or limit the number of books available and observe closely to see who is misusing the books. I would then tell that student how such action was affecting other students and how I felt about the loss of such books. 5. Two students of equal power and abilities are in a rather loud verbal conflict over a classroom material. I would: a. Attempt to see that this does not get out of control by approaching the students, telling them of the classroom rule, and demanding that they desist in their actions, promising a sanction if they fail to comply. b. Avoid interfering in something that the students need to resolve themselves. 6. a. A student strongly requests not to work with the group today. I would permit this, feeling that this student has some emotional concerns related to the group experience. b. One student is being refused entry into group activities. I would raise this as an issue in a class meeting and ask for a discussion of the reasons and possible solutions from the student and the group. 7. The noise level in the classroom is at such a high level that it is bothering me. I would: a. Flick the classroom lights to get everyone’s attention, ask the students to become quiet, and later praise those who are talking quietly. b. Select the two or three students really making most of the noise, take them aside to ask them to reflect (think) about their behavior and how it might affect others, and get an agreement from them to work quietly. 8. During the first few days of class, I would: a. Permit the students to test their ability to get along as a new group and make no predetermined rules until the students feel that rules are needed. b. Immediately establish the class rules and the fair sanction I will apply if these rules are broken. 9. My response to swearing by a student is: a. The student is frustrated by a classmate and has responded by swearing, so I do not reprimand the student but encourage him to talk out what is bothering him. b. I bring the two students together in a “knee-to-knee” confronting relationship and attempt to get them to work out this conflict while I ask questions and keep the focus on the negotiation. 10. If a student disrupts class while I am trying to lecture, I would: a. Ignore the disruption if possible and/or move the student to the back of the room as a consequence of his misbehavior. b. Express my feeling of discomfort to the student about being disrupted from my task. 11. a. Each student must realize that there are some school rules that need to be obeyed, and any student who breaks them will be punished in the same fair manner. b. Rules are never written in stone and can be renegotiated by the class, and sanctions will vary with each student. 12. A student refuses to put away her work or materials after using them. I would most likely: a. Express to the student how not putting her things away will affect future activities in this space, and how frustrating this will be for everyone. I would then leave the materials where they are for the remainder of the day. b. Confront the student to reflect on her behavior, think about how her noncompliance affects others, and tell her that if she cannot follow the rules, she will lose the use of the materials in the future.



(continued )



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FI GUR E 13. 1 (Con t in u e d) Scoring Key and Interpretation Take your responses and circle them on the tables provided: Table 1



Table 2



Table 3



4b 1b



2b 4a



2a 1a



6a 5b



3a 6b



3b 5a



9a 8a



7b 9b



7a 8b



12a 10b



11b 12b



11a 10a



Total number of responses in Table 1 Total number of responses in Table 2 Total number of responses in Table 3 The table for which the total number of responses was the highest indicates the school of thought where your values tend to be clustered. Table 1 is Relationship-Listening, Table 2 is Confronting-Contracting, and Table 3 is Rules and Consequences. The table with the next highest score would be your second choice, and the table with the least number may be the philosophy that you associate with the least. If your responses are equally distributed across all three tables, you may be an eclectic teacher who picks and chooses from all philosophies or your philosophy may not have consolidated at this time in your training.



Source: From Wolfgang, C. H. (2009). Solving Discipline and Classroom Management Problems (7th ed. pp. 6–7). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Reprinted with permission.



teacher handles these unexpected intrusions is seen and judged by everyone. Students are always noticing if the teacher is being “fair.” Is there favoritism? What happens when a rule is broken? Finally, classrooms have histories. The meaning of a particular teacher’s or student’s actions depends in part on what has happened before. The fifteenth time a student arrives late requires a different teacher response compared to the first late arrival. In addition, the history of the first few weeks of school affects life in the class for the rest of the year.



The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation The basic management task for teachers is to achieve order and harmony by gaining and maintaining student cooperation in class activities (Doyle, 2006). Given the multidimensional, simultaneous, fast-paced, unpredictable, public, and historical nature of classrooms, this is quite a challenge. Gaining student cooperation means planning activities, having materials ready, making appropriate behavioral and academic demands on students, giving clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are sustained, maintaining positive relationships with students based on mutual respect—and much more. Also, different activities require different managerial skills. For example, a new or complicated activity may be a greater threat to classroom management than a familiar or simple activity. Obviously, gaining the cooperation of kindergartners is not the same task as gaining the cooperation of high school seniors. During kindergarten and the first few years of elementary school, direct teaching of classroom rules and procedures is important. For children in the middle elementary years, many classroom routines have become relatively automatic, but new procedures for a particular activity may have to be taught directly, and the entire system still needs monitoring and maintenance. Toward the end of elementary school, some students begin to test and defy authority. The management



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challenges at this stage are to deal productively with these disruptions and to motivate students who are becoming less concerned about teachers’ opinions and more interested in their social lives. By the end of high school, the challenges are to manage the curriculum, fit academic material to students’ interests and abilities, and help students become more self-managing (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017).



The Goals of Classroom Management STOP & THINK You are interviewing for a job in a great district—it is known for innovation. The assistant principal looks at you for a moment and then asks, “What is classroom management?” How would you answer? •



The aim of classroom management is to maintain a positive, productive learning environment. But order for its own sake is an empty goal. It is unethical to use classroom management techniques just to keep students docile and quiet. What, then, is the point of working so hard to manage classrooms? There are at least four reasons, and here they are. ACCESS TO LEARNING. Each classroom activity has its own rules for participation. Sometimes these rules are clearly stated by the teacher, but often they are implicit and unstated. For example, in a reading group, students may have to raise their hands to make a comment, but in a show-and-tell circle in the same class, they may simply have to catch the teacher’s eye. Teacher and students may not even be aware that they are following different rules for different activities. These rules defining who can talk, what they can talk about, when and to whom they can talk, and how long they can talk are often called participation structures. Some students, however, seem to come to school less able to participate than others because the participation structures they learn at home do not match those of school activities (Cazden, 2001). What can we conclude? To reach the first goal of good classroom management— giving all students access to learning—you must make sure everyone knows how to participate in class activities. The key is awareness. What are your rules and expectations? Are they understandable, given your students’ cultural backgrounds and home experiences? What unspoken rules or values may be operating? Are you clearly signaling appropriate ways to participate? Some students, particularly those with behavioral and emotional challenges, may require direct teaching and practicing of important behaviors (Emmer & Stough, 2001). MORE TIME FOR LEARNING. I once used a stopwatch to time the commercials during a TV quiz show. I was amazed to find that half of the program was devoted to commercials. Seems like football games are even worse! If you used a similar approach in classrooms, timing all the different activities throughout the day, you might be surprised by how little actual teaching takes place. Almost every study examining time and learning has found a significant relationship between time spent on content and student learning. Yet many minutes each day are lost through interruptions, disruptions, late starts, and rough transitions (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). A school year seems like a long time, right? Let’s say a typical high school class is mandated by the state to meet 126 hours per school year (180 days times 42 minutes a day). When we consider student absences and school interruptions such as assembly programs, those 126 hours are more like 119 hours available for learning for the typical student. But in every class, elementary or secondary, there are interruptions, clerical tasks, collecting and distributing materials, taking roll, and dealing with behavior problems, so the time available for teaching is typically decreased by about 20%. Now we are left with 96 hours of actual instructional time. Good classroom management can take back some of those hours for teaching, so that more instructional time is available. But simply making more time for instruction will not automatically lead to achievement. To be valuable, time must be used effectively. Basically, students will learn what they



MyLab Education



Video Example 13.1 In this video, sixth-grade teacher Robert Wimberly talks about his strategies for beginning every school day. The classroom is ready for students before they arrive, and they have a planned activity to work on the moment they enter the classroom.



MyLab Education



Podcast 13.1 With her colleague and friend, Carol Weinstein, textbook author Anita Woolfolk wrote a chapter for researchers and teachers about how beliefs affect classroom management. Here she talks about how teachers and students may have beliefs that get in the way of good classroom relationships.



Classroom management Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems. Participation structures The formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity.



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FIGUR E 13 .2 WHO KNOWS WHERE THE TIME GOES? The >126 hours per year of instruction in a class mandated by most states can represent only 60 to 70 hours of quality academic learning time. 150



125



126



119 96



Hours



100



77



75



62



50



25



0



Total Time (Hours mandated by the state)



Attended Time (Total time minus days absent)



Actual Engaged Academic Time (Actual Time academic (Attended time minus time minus recess, lunch, time students transitions, are “off task”) etc.)



Academic Learning Time (Engaged time on meaningful, appropriate tasks)



Source: From Middle and Secondary Classroom Management (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, p. 182. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.



Engaged time Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as time on task. Time on task Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as engaged time. Academic learning time Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task.



think about deeply, practice, and retrieve. Time spent actively involved in specific learning tasks often is called engaged time, or sometimes time on task—we can estimate this to be about 80% of the instructional time. Again, however, engaged time doesn’t guarantee learning. Students may be struggling with material that is too difficult, or they may be using the wrong learning strategies. When students are working with a high rate of success—really learning and understanding—we call the time spent academic learning time; again, we can estimate this to be about 80% of the time they are engaged. Now we are down to 62 hours. Figure 13.2 shows how the 126+ hours of time mandated for a high school year in most states can become only about 62 hours of quality academic learning time for a typical student. So the third goal of class management is to increase academic learning time by keeping all students actively engaged in worthwhile, appropriate learning activities. Getting students academically engaged in learning early in their school careers can make a big difference. Several studies have shown that teachers’ rating of students’ on-task, persistent engagement in first grade predicts achievement test score gains and grades through fourth grade, as well as the decision to drop out of high school (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). MANAGEMENT MEANS RELATIONSHIPS. All students should feel emotionally and physically safe in the classroom. Beyond that, they also should experience respect and caring. When students feel caring and support from their teachers and their peers, they are more likely to cooperate with classroom activities. Cooperation leads to learning, learning to a sense of self-efficacy, and self-efficacy to more cooperation. The opposite is true as well. When students sense that their teachers and peers don’t care about them, they feel no particular desire to cooperate—why trust people who don’t like or respect



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you? The research on teacher–student relationships is clear. When teachers focus on developing high-quality, trusting relationships, students are less defiant, more willing to seek appropriate help, less likely to be absent or to be held back in school, and more likely to achieve (Emmer & Everton, 2017; Jones & Jones, 2016; Sikba et al., 2016). MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT. The final goal of any management system is to help students become better able to manage themselves. If teachers focus on student compliance, they will spend much of the teaching/learning time monitoring and correcting. Students come to perceive the purpose of school as just following rules, not constructing deep understanding of academic knowledge. And complex learning structures such as cooperative or problem-based learning require student self-management. Compliance with rules is not enough to make these learning structures work (McCaslin & Good, 1998). The movement from demanding obedience to teaching self-regulation and self-control is a fundamental shift in discussions of classroom management today (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Tom Savage said simply, “the most fundamental purpose of discipline is the development of self-control. Academic knowledge and technological skill will be of little consequence if those who possess them lack self-control” (1999, p. 11). Students learn self-control by making choices and dealing with the consequences, setting goals and priorities, managing time, collaborating to learn, mediating disputes and making peace, and developing trusting relations with trustworthy teachers and classmates (Bear, 2005). Encouraging self-management requires extra time, but teaching students how to take responsibility is an investment well worth the effort. Nancy Perry and Rebecca Collie (2011) compared a preservice preparation program that instructed student teachers about how to coach their students to be self-regulated learners with other programs that did not emphasize self-regulation. The student teachers who developed self-regulation knowledge and skills were more confident, less stressed, and more engaged during their student teaching compared to other prospective teachers who did not learn how to help their students to become self-regulated. This makes sense—if you teach your students to manage their own behavior and learning, you should have fewer management problems, less stress, and more time to teach, which would support your growing sense of teacher efficacy. When elementary and secondary teachers have very effective class management systems but neglect to set student self-management as a goal, their students often find that they have trouble working independently after they graduate from these “well-managed” classes. MyLab Education Self-Check 13.1



CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Much of what you have already learned in this book should prove helpful as you think about creating a positive learning environment. You know, for example, that problems are prevented when individual variations such as those discussed in Chapters 2 through 6 are taken into account in instructional planning. Sometimes students become disruptive because the work assigned is too difficult. And students who are bored by lessons well below their ability levels may find more exciting activities to fill their time. In one sense, teachers prevent discipline problems whenever they make an effort to motivate students. A student engaged in learning is usually not involved in a clash with the teacher or other students at the same time. All plans for motivating students are steps toward preventing problems. And what do we know about learning? We know students need clear goals and examples, practice and review, active participation, and the chance to form connections. Learning to live productively in classrooms is no exception.



Some Research Results What else can teachers do? For several years, educational psychologists at the University of Texas at Austin studied classroom management quite thoroughly (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Emmer & Gerwels, 2006; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). Their general approach was to



Self-management Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions. Also the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior.



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study a large number of classrooms, making frequent observations during the first weeks of school and less frequent visits later in the year. After several months, the researchers noted dramatic differences. Some classes had very few management problems, whereas others had many. The most and least effective teachers were identified on the basis of the quality of classroom management and student achievement later in the year. Next, the researchers looked at their observation records of the first weeks of class to see how the effective teachers got started, and they made other comparisons between the teachers who ultimately had harmonious, high-achieving classes and those whose classes were fraught with problems. On the basis of these comparisons, the researchers developed management principles. They then taught these principles to a new group of teachers, and the results were quite positive. Teachers who applied the principles had fewer problems; their students spent more time learning and less time disrupting; and achievement was higher. The findings of these studies formed the basis for two books on classroom management (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). Many of the ideas in the following pages are from these books.



Routines and Rules Required Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Procedures and Routines (I, C4) Efficient procedures and routines reduce confusion and opportunities for misbehavior, and they save time that can be devoted to learning tasks. Identify frequent activities or classroom events that would benefit from well-structured procedures or routines. Explain principles for establishing procedures and routines so that students are likely to observe them.



MyLab Education



Video Example 13.2 At the start of the school year, Ms. Zeiler establishes the rules for her kindergarten classroom. Her routines and her classroom environment reinforce students’ awareness of the rules throughout the year.



STOP & THINK  What are the three or four most important rules you will have for your classroom? • At the elementary school level, teachers must lead 20 to 30 students of varying abilities through many different activities each day. Without efficient rules and procedures, a great deal of time is wasted dealing with the same questions and issues over and over. “My pencil broke. How can I do my math?” “I’m finished with my experiment. What should I do now?” “Carlos tripped me!” “I left my homework in my locker.” At the secondary school level, teachers must meet daily with more than 100 students who use dozens of materials and often change rooms. Secondary school students are also more likely to challenge teachers’ authority. The effective managers studied by Emmer, Evertson, and their colleagues had planned procedures and rules for coping with these situations. These procedures and rules were clear and concrete, stated in positive terms whenever possible (what to do instead of what not to do), observable and not vague, taught and practiced, and reviewed when needed (Sikba et al., 2016). ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES. How will materials and assignments be distributed and collected? Under what conditions can students leave the room? How will grades be determined? What are the special routines for handling equipment and supplies in science, art, or vocational classes? Procedures and routines describe how activities are accomplished in classrooms, but they are seldom written down; they are simply the ways of getting things done in class. Carol Weinstein and her colleagues (Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015; Weinstein & Romano, 2015) suggest that teachers establish routines to cover the following areas: Administrative routines, such as taking attendance Student movement, such as entering and leaving or going to the bathroom Housekeeping, such as watering plants or storing personal items Lesson-running routines, such as how to collect assignments or return homework Interactions between teacher and student, such as how to get the teacher’s attention when help is needed 6. Talk among students, such as giving help or socializing 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



Procedures/routines Prescribed steps for an activity.



You might use these six areas as a framework for planning your class routines. The Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines should help you as you plan.



Rules Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts.



RULES. Unlike routines, rules, which specify expected and forbidden actions in the class, are often written down and posted. They are the dos and don’ts of classroom life. In establishing rules, you should consider what kind of atmosphere you want to create.



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GUIDELINES Establishing Class Routines Determine procedures for student upkeep of desks, classroom equipment, and other facilities. Examples 1. Set aside a cleanup time each day or once a week in selfcontained classes. 2. Demonstrate and have students practice how to push chairs under the desk, take and return materials stored on shelves, sharpen pencils, use the sink or water fountain, assemble lab equipment, and so on. 3. Put a rotating monitor in charge of equipment or materials. Decide how students will be expected to enter and leave the room. Examples 1. Have a procedure for students to follow as soon as they enter the room. Some teachers have a standard assignment (“Have your homework out and be checking it over”). 2. Inform students under what conditions they can leave the room, and make sure they understand when they need to ask for permission to do so. 3. Tell students how they should gain admission to the room if they are late. 4. Set up a policy about class dismissal. Many teachers require students to be in their seats and quiet before they can leave at the end of class. The teacher, not the bell, dismisses class. Establish signals for getting students’ attention, and teach them to your students. Examples 1. In the classroom, flick the lights on and off, sound a chord on a piano or recorder, sound a bell like the “ring bell for service” at a sales counter, move to the podium and stare silently at the class, use a phrase like “Eyes, please,” take out your grade book, or move to the front of the class. 2. In the halls, raise a hand, clap once, or use some other signal to indicate “Stop.”



3. On the playground, raise a hand or whistle to indicate “Line up.” Set routines for student participation in class. Examples 1. Decide whether you will have students raise their hands for permission to speak or simply require that they wait until the speaker has finished. 2. Determine a signal to indicate that you want everyone to respond at once. Some teachers raise a cupped hand to their ear. Others preface the question with “Everyone.” 3. Make sure you are clear about differences in procedures for different activities: reading group, learning center, discussion, teacher presentation, seatwork, video watching, peer learning group, library, and so forth. 4. Establish how many students at a time can be at the pencil sharpener, teacher’s desk, learning center, sink, bookshelves, reading corner, or bathroom. Determine how you will communicate, collect, and return assignments. Examples 1. Establish a place for listing assignments. Some teachers reserve a particular corner of the board for assignments. Others write assignments in colored chalk. For younger students, it may be better to prepare assignment sheets or folders, color-coding them for the math workbook, reading packet, and science kit. 2. Be clear about how and where assignments should be collected. Some teachers collect assignments in a box or bin; others have a student collect work while they introduce the next activity. For ideas about involving students in developing rules and procedures, see educationworld.com/ and search for “rules and procedures.”



What student behaviors will help you teach effectively? What limits do the students need to guide their behavior? The rules you set should be consistent with school rules and also in keeping with principles of learning. For example, we know from the research on small-group learning that students benefit when they explain work to peers. They learn as they teach. A rule that forbids students to help each other may be inconsistent with good learning principles. Or a rule that says, “No erasures when writing” may make students focus more on preventing mistakes than on communicating clearly in their writing (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Weinstein & Romano, 2015). Rules should be positive and observable (raise your hand to be recognized). Having a few general rules that cover many specifics is better than listing all the dos and don’ts. But, if specific actions are forbidden, such as leaving the campus, then a rule should make this clear (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006).



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Rules (I, C4) Fair, consistently enforced rules can have a positive effect on motivation to learn by promoting a safe and warm classroom environment. Describe how to establish and maintain effective rules. Keep in mind age-related concerns.



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RULES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. Evertson and Emmer (2017) give four examples of general rules for elementary school classes: 1. Respect and be polite to all people. Give clear explanations of what you mean by “polite,” including not hitting, fighting, or teasing. Examples of polite behavior include waiting your turn, saying “please” and “thank you,” and not calling names. This applies to behavior toward adults (including substitute teachers) and peers. 2. Be prompt and prepared. This rule highlights the importance of the academic work in the class. Being prompt includes the beginning of the day as well as transitions between activities. Being prepared means the having the right materials and the right mental attitude for success. 3. Listen quietly while others are speaking. This applies to the teacher and other students, in both large-class lessons and small-group discussions. 4. Obey all school rules. This reminds students that all school rules apply in your classroom. Then students cannot claim, for example, that they thought it was okay to chew gum or listen to music on their smart phone in your class, even though these are against school rules, “because you never made a rule against it for us.” Whatever the rule, students need to be taught the behaviors that the rule includes and excludes. Examples, practice, and discussion will be needed before learning is complete. As you’ve seen, different activities often require different rules. This can be confusing for elementary students until they have thoroughly learned all the rules. To prevent confusion, you might consider making signs that list the key rules for each activity. Then, before the activity, you can post the appropriate sign as a reminder. This provides clear and consistent cues about participation structures, so all students, not just the “well behaved,” know what is expected. Of course, you’ll need to explain and discuss these rules before the signs can have their full effect. RULES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL Emmer and Evertson (2017) suggest five examples of rules for secondary students: 1. Be prompt and prepared. Prompt means being in class on time, but also moving quickly into and out of group work or other tasks. Being prepared means have the right materials (the type of pen, pencil, paper, notebook, texts, and so on) and the right attitude for learning. 2. Respect and be polite to all people. This covers fighting, verbal abuse, and general troublemaking, but emphasize as well positive examples of respect and kindness. All people includes the teacher and substitute teachers. 3. Listen and stay seated while someone else is speaking. This applies when the teacher or other students are talking. 4. Respect other people’s property. This means property belonging to the school, the teacher, or other students. Take care of others’ property, ask permission to borrow, and return borrowed items in good shape. 5. Obey all school rules. As with the elementary class rules, this covers many behaviors and situations, so you do not have to repeat every school rule for your class. This reminds students that the school rules apply in your room too and gives you the chance to talk about which school rules are particularly important in your class (no cell phones, no texting . . .). It also reminds the students that you will be monitoring them inside and outside your class. Make sure you know all the school rules. Some secondary students are very adept at convincing teachers that their misbehavior “really isn’t against the rules.” These rules are more than ways to maintain order. In their study of 34 middle school classrooms, Lindsay Matsumura and her colleagues (2008) found that having explicit rules about respecting others in the classroom predicted the number of students who participated in class discussion, so it seems clear that respect is a gateway to student engagement with the academic material and class dialogue that supports learning.



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CONSEQUENCES. As soon as you decide on your rules and procedures, you must consider what you will do when a student breaks a rule or does not follow a procedure. It is too late to make this decision after the rule has been broken. For many infractions, the logical consequence is going back to “do it right.” Students who run in the hall may have to return to where they started and walk properly. Incomplete papers can be redone. Materials left out should be put back. You can use natural or logical consequences to support social/emotional development by doing the following (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006): • Separate the deed from the doer in your response. The problem is the behavior, not the student. • Emphasize to students that they have the power to choose their actions and so avoid losing control. • Encourage student reflection, self-evaluation, and problem solving. Avoid teacher lecturing. • Help students identify and give a rationale for what they could do differently next time in a similar situation. The main point here is that decisions about penalties (and rewards) must be made early on, so students know before they break a rule or use the wrong procedure what this will mean for them. I encourage my student teachers to get a copy of the school rules and their cooperating teacher’s rules, and then plan their own. Sometimes, consequences are more complicated. In their case studies of four expert elementary school teachers, C. S. Weinstein and Romano (2015) found that the teachers’ negative consequences fell into seven categories, as shown in Table 13.1. WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES? In the first chapter, I described Ken, an expert teacher who worked with his students to establish a students’ “Bill of Rights”



TABLE 13.1 • Seven Categories of Consequences for Students 1. Expressions of disappointment. If students like and respect their teacher, then a serious, sorrowful expression of disappointment may cause students to stop and think about their behavior. 2. Loss of privileges. Students can lose free time. If they have not completed homework, for example, they can be required to do it during a free period or recess. 3. Time-Out: Exclusion from the group. Students who distract their peers or fail to cooperate can be separated from the group until they are ready to cooperate. Some teachers give a student a pass for 10 to 15 minutes. The student must go to another class or study hall, where the other students and teachers ignore the offending student for that time. 4. Written reflections on the problem. Students can write in journals, write essays about what they did and how it affected others, or write letters of apology—if this is appropriate. Another possibility is to ask students to describe objectively what they did; then the teacher and the student can sign and date this statement. These records are available if parents or administrators need evidence of the students’ behavior. 5. Visits to the principal’s office. Expert teachers tend to use this penalty rarely, but they do use it when the situation warrants. Some schools require students to be sent to the office for certain offenses, such as fighting. If you tell a student to go to the office and the student refuses, you might call the office saying the student has been sent. Then the student has the choice of either going to the office or facing the principal’s penalty for “disappearing” on the way. 6. Detentions. Detentions can be very brief meetings after school, during a free period, or at lunch. The main purpose is to talk about what has happened. (In high school, detentions are often used as punishments; suspensions and expulsions are available as more extreme measures.) 7. Contacting parents. If problems become a repeated pattern, most teachers contact the student’s family. This is done to seek support for helping the student, not to blame the parents or punish the student. Source: From Elementary Classroom Management (6th ed.), pp. 298–301, by C. S. Weinstein and M. E. Romano, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.



Natural/logical consequences Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions.



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TABLE 13.2 • Laws to Protect Our Rights 1. Follow directions the first time. 2. Speak nicely, be courteous, and respect other people, their feelings, and their things. Follow the Bill of Rights. 3. Laugh at the right time for the right time. 4. Respect others’ right to learn. Do not distract others. Don’t be nosy. Don’t yell. Remember to get quiet at countdown. 5. Talk at the right times with the right tone of voice and volume. 6. Make sure transitions and movements are calm, quiet, careful, and elegant. 7. Follow all classroom and school procedures, like: bathroom; pencil; lunch and recess; morning; dismissal; and . . . Source: From Elementary Classroom Management (6th ed.), p. 103, by C. S. Weinstein and M. E. Romano, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.



instead of defining rules. These “rights” cover most situations that might require a “rule” and help the students move toward the goal of becoming self-managing. In a recent class, the Bill of Rights included the rights to whisper when the teacher is not talking, be treated politely, have a 2-minute break between working periods, make choices about the day’s schedule, have privacy and not have people take your things, and chew gum without blowing bubbles, among several others. If you are going to involve students in setting rules or creating a constitution, you may need to wait until you have established a sense of community in your classroom. Before students can contribute meaningfully to the class rules, they need to trust the teacher and the situation (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Developing rights and responsibilities rather than rules makes an important point to students. “Teaching children that something is wrong because there is a rule against it is not the same as teaching them that there is a rule against it because it is wrong, and helping them to understand why this is so” (C. S. Weinstein, 1999, p. 154). Students should understand that the rules are developed so that everyone can work and learn together. I might add that when Ken has had some very difficult classes, he and his students have had to establish some “laws” that protect students’ rights, as you can see in Table 13.2. Another kind of planning that affects the learning environment is designing the physical arrangement of the class furniture, materials, and learning tools.



Planning Spaces for Learning STOP & THINK Think back over all the rooms in all the schools you have attended. Which ones stand out as inviting or exciting? Which ones were cold and empty? Did one teacher have a design that let students do different things in various parts of the room? • Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Classroom Space (I, C4) The physical organization of a class has an effect on student behavior and learning. Describe how the physical layout of classrooms can affect the learning environment. Apply principles of classroom organization to enhance learning and minimize disruption.



Spaces for learning should invite and support the activities you plan for your classes, and they should respect the inhabitants of the space. This respect begins at the door for young children by helping them identify their classroom. One school that has won awards for its architecture paints each classroom door a different bright color, so young children can find their “home” (Herbert, 1998). Once inside, spaces can be created that invite quiet reading, group collaboration, focused lectures, discussion and debate, or independent research. If students are to use materials, they should be able to reach them. In terms of classroom arrangement, there are two basic ways of organizing space: personal territories and interest areas. PERSONAL TERRITORIES AND SEATING ARRANGEMENTS. A personal territory is your own (usually assigned) seat. Can the physical setting influence teaching and learning in classrooms organized by territories? A front seat location does seem to increase participation for students who are predisposed to speak in class, but a seat in the back



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will make it more difficult to participate and easier to sit back and daydream. To “spread the action around,” C. S. Weinstein and Romano (2015) suggest that teachers move around the room when possible, establish eye contact with and direct questions to students seated far away, and vary the seating so the same students are not always consigned to the back. Horizontal rows share many of the advantages of the traditional row and column arrangements. Both are useful for independent seatwork and teacher, student, or media presentations; they encourage students to focus on the presenter and simplify housekeeping. Horizontal rows also permit students to work more easily in pairs. However, this is a poor arrangement for large-group discussion. Clusters of four or circle arrangements are best for student interaction. Circles are especially useful for discussions but still allow for independent seatwork. Clusters permit students to talk, help one another, share materials, and work on group tasks. Both arrangements, however, are poor for whole-group presentations and may make class management more difficult. The fishbowl or stack special formation, where students sit close together near the focus of attention (the back row may even be standing), should be used only for short periods of time, because it is not comfortable and can lead to discipline problems. On the other hand, the fishbowl can create a feeling of group cohesion and is helpful when the teacher wants students to watch a demonstration, brainstorm on a class problem, or see a small visual aid. INTEREST AREAS. The design of interest areas can influence the way the areas are used by students. For example, working with a classroom teacher, Carol Weinstein (1977) made changes in interest areas that helped the teacher meet her objectives of having more girls involved in the science center and having all students experiment more with a variety of manipulative materials. In a second study, changes in a library corner led to more involvement in literature activities throughout the class (Morrow & Weinstein, 1986). If you design interest areas for your class, keep the Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces on the next page in mind. Personal territories and interest areas are not mutually exclusive; many teachers use a design that combines these types of organization. Individual students’ desks—their territories—are placed in the center, with interest areas in the back or around the periphery of the room. This allows the flexibility needed for both large- and small-group activities. Figure 13.3 on page 521 shows a secondary classroom that has individual desks (personal territories), but still works well for teacher presentations and demonstrations as well as small-group work.



Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class Determining a room design, rules, and procedures are the first steps toward having a well-managed class, but how do effective teachers gain students’ cooperation in those early critical days and weeks? One study carefully analyzed the first weeks’ activities of effective and ineffective elementary teachers, and found striking differences (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS. In the effective teachers’ classrooms, the very first day was well organized. Nametags were ready. There was something interesting for each child to do right away. Materials were set up. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might take them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the children’s pressing concerns first. “Where do I put my things?” “How do I pronounce my teacher’s name?” “Can I whisper to my neighbor?” “Where is the bathroom?” The effective teachers were explicit about their expectations. They had a workable, easily understood set of rules and taught the students the most important rules right away. They taught the rules like any other subject—with lots of explanation, examples, and practice.



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GUIDELINES Designing Learning Spaces Note the fixed features, and plan accordingly. Examples 1. Remember that the media center and computers need electrical outlets. 2. Keep art supplies near the sink, small-group work by a blackboard. Create easy access to materials and a well-organized place to store them. Examples 1. Make sure materials are easy to reach and visible to students. 2. Have enough shelves so that materials need not be stacked. Provide students with clean, convenient surfaces for studying. Examples 1. Put bookshelves next to the reading area, games by the game table. 2. Prevent fights by avoiding crowded work spaces. Avoid dead spaces and “racetracks.” Examples 1. Don’t have all the interest areas around the outside of the room, leaving a large dead space in the middle. 2. Avoid placing a few items of furniture right in the middle of this large space, creating a “racetrack” around the furniture. Arrange things so you can see your students and they can see all instructional presentations. Examples 1. Make sure you can see over partitions. 2. Design seating so that students can see instruction without moving their chairs or desks.



Make sure work areas are private and quiet. Examples 1. Make sure there are no tables or work areas in the middle of traffic lanes; a person should not have to pass through one area to get to another. 2. Keep noisy activities as far as possible from quiet ones. Increase the feeling of privacy by placing partitions, such as bookcases or pegboards, between areas or within large areas. Provide choices and flexibility. Examples 1. Establish private cubicles for individual work, open tables for group work, and cushions on the floor for whole-class meetings. 2. Give students a place to keep their personal belongings. This is especially important if students don’t have personal desks. Try new arrangements; then evaluate and improve. Examples 1. Have a “2-week arrangement”; then evaluate. 2. Enlist the aid of your students. They have to live in the room, too, and designing a classroom can be a very challenging educational experience. For more ideas on classroom design, go to www.edutopia.org and search for “classroom designs.”



Throughout the first weeks, the effective managers continued to spend quite a bit of time teaching rules and procedures. Some used guided practice to teach procedures; others used rewards to shape behavior. Most taught students to respond to a bell or some other signal to gain their attention. These teachers worked with the class as a whole on enjoyable academic activities. They did not rush to get students into small groups or to start them in readers. This whole-class work gave the teachers a better opportunity to continue monitoring all students’ learning of the rules and procedures. Misbehavior was stopped quickly and firmly, but not harshly. In the poorly managed classrooms, the first weeks were quite different. Rules were not workable; they were either too vague or very complicated. For example, one teacher made a rule that students should “be in the right place at the right time.” Students were not told what this meant, so their behavior could not be guided by the rule. Neither positive nor negative behaviors had clear, consistent consequences. After students broke a rule, ineffective managers gave a vague criticism, such as “Some of my children are too noisy,” or issued a warning, but did not follow through with the threatened consequence.



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FIGU RE 1 3.3 A SECONDARY CLASSROOM ARRANGEMENT This high school teacher has designed a space that allows teacher presentations and demonstrations as well as small-group work, and computer interactions without requiring constant rearrangements. Chalkboard



Bulletin Board



Pencil Sharpener



OP Screen tern



Chalkboard



OP



Wastebasket



Bulletin Board



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TV Monitor with Computer Attachment



Bulletin Board



Chalkboard



Internet Access



Portable Tech Cart



File Storage



Books



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Windows



Source: Emmer, Edmund T.; Evertson, Carolyn M., Classroom Management For Middle And High School Teachers, Loose-Leaf Version, 10th Ed., p. 32. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



In the poorly managed classes, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. Instead of dealing with these obvious needs, ineffective managers spent time on procedures that could have waited. For example, one teacher had the class practice for a fire drill the first day, but left unexplained other procedures that would be needed every day. Students wandered around the classroom aimlessly and had to ask each other what they should be doing. Often the students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. Ineffective teachers frequently left the room. Many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. They had not made plans for how to deal with late-arriving students or interruptions. One ineffective manager tried to teach students to respond to a bell as a signal for attention, but later let the students ignore it. All in all, the first weeks in these classrooms were disorganized and filled with surprises for teachers and students alike. EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS. What about getting started in a secondary school class? It appears that many of the differences between effective and ineffective elementary school teachers are the same at the secondary level. Again, effective managers focus on establishing rules, procedures, and expectations on the first day of class. These standards for academic work and class behavior are clearly communicated to students and consistently enforced during the first weeks of class. Student behavior is closely monitored, and infractions of the rules are dealt with quickly. In classes with lower-ability students, work cycles are shorter; students are not required to spend long, unbroken periods on one type of activity. Instead, during each period, they are moved smoothly through several different tasks. In general, effective teachers



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carefully follow each student’s progress, so students cannot avoid work without facing consequences (Emmer & Evertson, 2017). With all this close monitoring and consistent enforcement of the rules, you may wonder if effective secondary teachers have to be grim and humorless. Not necessarily. The effective managers in one classic study also smiled and joked more with their students (Moskowitz & Hayman, 1976). As any experienced teacher can tell you, there is much more to smile about when the class is cooperative. For more ideas about getting started on the first day of class, see the helpful book by Harry and Rosemary Wong, The First Days of School: How To Be an Effective Teacher (H. Wong & Wong, 2009). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.2



MAINTAINING A GOOD ENVIRONMENT FOR LEARNING A good start is just that—a beginning. Effective teachers build on this beginning. They maintain their management system by preventing problems and keeping students engaged in productive learning activities. We have discussed several ways to keep students engaged. In Chapter 12, on motivation, for example, we considered stimulating curiosity, relating lessons to student interests, establishing learning goals instead of performance goals, and having positive expectations. What else can teachers do? Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Promoting Student Engagement (I, C4) A principle of educational psychology is that the more students are cognitively engaged in an activity, the more they are likely to learn. What tactics can teachers employ to maximize their students’ cognitive engagement during learning tasks?



MyLab Education



Video Example 13.3 A mathematics lesson about graphing comes alive for the students in this video. They find it easy to stay on task as they taste jellybeans and record their preferences. They determine the class’s most popular flavor by creating a class graph of favorite flavors.



Encouraging Engagement STOP & THINK What activities keep you completely engaged—the time just seems to disappear? What is it about those activities that keeps you focused? • In general, as teacher supervision increases, students’ engaged time also increases. One study found that elementary students working directly with a teacher were on task 97% of the time, but students working on their own were on task only 57% of the time (Frick, 1990). This does not mean that teachers should eliminate independent work for students. It simply means that this type of activity usually requires careful planning and monitoring. When the task provides continuous cues for the student about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. When students have all the materials they need to complete a task, they tend to stay involved. If their curiosity is piqued, students will be motivated to continue seeking an answer. And, as you now know, students will be more engaged if they are involved in authentic tasks—activities that have connections to real life. Also, activities are more engaging when the level of challenge is higher (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006). Of course, teachers can’t supervise every student all the time or rely on curiosity to keep students motivated. Something else must keep students working on their own. In their study of elementary and secondary teachers, Evertson, Emmer, and their colleagues found that effective class managers at all levels had well-planned systems for encouraging students to manage their own work (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). The Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged are based on their findings.



Prevention Is the Best Medicine The ideal way to manage problems, of course, is to prevent them in the first place— this certainly will make more time for learning. In a classic study, Jacob Kounin (1970) examined classroom management by comparing effective teachers, whose classes were



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GUIDELINES Keeping Students Engaged Make basic work requirements clear. Examples 1. Specify and post the routine work requirements for headings, paper size, pen or pencil use, and neatness. 2. Establish and explain rules about late or incomplete work and absences. If a pattern of incomplete work begins to develop, deal with it early; speak with parents if necessary. 3. Make due dates reasonable, and stick to them unless the student has a very good excuse for lateness.



Monitor work in progress. Examples 1. When you give an assignment in class, make sure each student gets started correctly. If you check only students who raise their hands for help, you will miss those who think they know what to do but don’t really understand, those who are too shy to ask for help, and those who don’t plan to do the work at all. 2. Check progress periodically. In discussions, make sure everyone has a chance to respond.



Communicate the specifics of assignments. Examples 1. With younger students, have a routine procedure for giving assignments, such as writing them on the board in the same place each day. With older students, assignments may be dictated, posted, or given in a syllabus. 2. Remind students of upcoming assignments. 3. With complicated assignments, give students a sheet describing what to do, what resources are available, due dates, and so on. Older students should also be told your grading criteria. 4. Demonstrate how to do the assignment, do the first few questions together, or provide a sample worksheet.



Give frequent academic feedback. Examples 1. Elementary students should get papers back the day after they are handed in. 2. Good work can be displayed in the classroom, and graded papers sent home to parents each week. 3. Students of all ages can keep records of grades, projects completed, and extra credits earned. 4. For older students, break up long-term assignments into several phases, giving feedback at each point. For more ideas, go to www.edutopia.org and search for “keeping students engaged.”



relatively free of problems, with ineffective teachers, whose classes were continually plagued by chaos and disruption. Observing both groups in action, Kounin was surprised to find the teachers were not very different in the way they handled discipline once problems arose. The difference was that the successful managers were much better at preventing problems. First, these teachers captured students’ attention and maintained engagement in work that was at appropriate levels for all students. Second, these effective classroom managers were especially skilled in four specific kinds of prevention: “withitness,” overlapping activities, group focusing, and movement management. More recent research confirms the importance of these factors (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Jones & Jones, 2016). WITHITNESS. Withitness means communicating to students that you are aware of everything that is happening in the classroom. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in the back of their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed by distractions or interacting with only a few students, because this encourages the rest of the class to wander. These teachers are always scanning the room, making eye contact with individual students, so the students know they are being monitored (Charles, 2011; Weinstein & Romano, 2015). These teachers prevent minor disruptions from becoming major. They also know who instigated the problem, and they make sure they deal with the right people. In other words, they do not make what Kounin called timing errors (waiting too long before intervening) or target errors (blaming the wrong student and letting the real perpetrators escape responsibility for their behavior).



Withitness According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom.



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If two problems occur at the same time, effective managers deal with the more serious one first. For example, a teacher who tells two students to stop whispering but ignores even a brief shoving match at the pencil sharpener communicates a lack of awareness. Students begin to believe they can get away with almost anything if they are clever. OVERLAPPING AND GROUP FOCUS. Overlapping means keeping track of and supervising several activities at the same time. For example, a teacher may have to check the work of an individual and at the same time keep a small group working by saying, “Right, go on,” and stop an incident in another group with a quick “look” or reminder (Charles, 2011). Maintaining a group focus means keeping as many students as possible involved in appropriate class activities and avoiding narrowing in on just one or two students. Problems arise when teachers have students work one at a time while the rest of the class waits and watches. All students should have something to do during a lesson. For example, the teacher might ask everyone to write the answer to a question, and then call on individuals to respond while the other students compare their answers. Choral responses might be required while the teacher moves around the room to make sure everyone is participating. During a grammar lesson, the teacher might say, “Everyone who thinks the answer is have run, hold up the red side of your card. If you think the answer is has run, hold up the green side” (Hunter, 1982). This is one way teachers can ensure that all students are involved and that everyone understands the material. MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT. Movement management means keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. The effective teacher avoids abrupt transitions, such as announcing a new activity before gaining the students’ attention or starting a new activity in the middle of something else. When transitions are abrupt, one-third of the class will be doing the new activity, many will be working on the old lesson, several will be asking other students what to do, some will be taking the opportunity to have a little fun, and most will be confused. Another transition problem Kounin noted is the slowdown, or taking too much time to start a new activity. Sometimes teachers give too many directions at once. STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION. But what about the students? What can they do? When students lack social and emotional skills such as being able to share materials, read the intentions of others, or handle frustration, classroom management problems often follow. So all efforts to teach social and emotional self-regulation are steps toward preventing management problems. Over the short term, educators can teach and model these skills, and then give students feedback and practice using them in a variety of settings. Over the long term, teachers can help to change attitudes that value aggression over cooperation and compromise (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Figure 13.4 is a lesson outline that can be used to target and improve specific social skills for an individual or small group. You can see that this is an example of good teaching. There is a clear goal defined by specific and observable targets, modeling, practice with the teacher and then (very important) practice in the natural setting like the gym or lunchroom where the problem usually occurs, and finally some kind of recognition or reinforcement ( Jones & Jones, 2016). Overlapping Supervising several activities at once. Group focus The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Movement management Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety.



Caring Relationships: Connections with School All efforts directed toward building positive relationships with students and creating a classroom community are steps toward preventing management problems. TEACHER CONNECTIONS. Students respect teachers who maintain their authority without being rigid or harsh, are fair and honest with them, demonstrate emotional support and caring, make sure students understand the material, ask if something is wrong when they seem upset, and use creative instructional practices to “make learning fun.” Students also value teachers who show academic and personal caring by acting like real people (not just as teachers), sharing responsibility, minimizing the use of external controls, including everyone, searching for students’ strengths, communicating effectively, and showing an interest in their students’ lives and pursuits



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FIGU RE 1 3.4 A SOCIAL SKILLS LESSON DESIGN This design can be used with individuals or groups to identify and practice targeted social skills.



Describe the inappropriate behavior ______________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Rationale for a new behavior ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Describe the appropriate behavior ________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Skill components of the new behavior ______________________________________ 1. __________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________________________________ 5. __________________________________________________________________ 6. __________________________________________________________________ Model demonstration example __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Student practice example ______________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Natural setting practice (if different than initial practice) ____________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Independent practice assignment ________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Individual or group reinforcement strategy ________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________



Source: Jones, Vern; Jones, Louise, Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Communities Of Support And Solving Problems, Update, Loose-Leaf Version, 11th Ed., p. 372. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



(M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006; Turner et al., 2014; Wentzel, 2002; Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). Here are several examples of the power of relationship taken from large-scale classroom investigations and also the experiences of individual teachers. In a study of engagement in math (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2015), students reported working harder, enjoying



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math more, and sharing ideas and materials with each other more when teachers were warm, caring, and responsive to student needs. The students also reported greater cognitive, social, and emotional engagement in math learning when the teachers made learning goals clear, used proactive/preventative management strategies, and orchestrated smooth transitions (more evidence for Kounin’s management strategies). Based on evidence from 119 studies published in either English or German conducted from 1948 to 2004, Jeffrey Cornelius-White (2007) concluded that positive, warm, encouraging relationships with teachers are related to many valuable student outcomes, including higher participation in class, greater critical thinking skills, lower dropout rates, higher selfesteem, increased motivation, less disruptive behavior, and better attendance. What about individual teachers? When Barbara Bartholomew (2008) asked a veteran special education teacher what keeps students engaged and motivated, the teacher replied without hesitation, “Students need to know that no matter what, you will never give up on them” (p. 58). Some teachers have morning rituals that include greeting each student at the door to maintain connections. An example comes from first-year teacher Esme Codell. “Madame Esme” (the name she preferred): In the morning, three things happen religiously. I say good morning, real chipper, to every single child and make sure they say good morning back. Then I collect “troubles” in a “Trouble Basket,” a big green basket into which the children pantomime unburdening their home worries so they can concentrate on school. Sometimes a kid has no troubles. Sometimes a kid piles it in, and I in turn pantomime bearing the burden. This way, too, I can see what disposition the child is in when he or she enters. (Codell, 2001, p. 30)



MyLab Education



Video Example 13.4 Mr. Wimberly develops positive teacher-student relationships with his sixth graders. Notice his routine of greeting students when the morning bell rings. Observe his command of the classroom and the students’ respect for him. How does he encourage students to use their time effectively and develop their own abilities?



SCHOOL CONNECTIONS. Students who feel connected with school are happier, more engaged in school work, more self-disciplined, and less likely to be involved in dangerous behaviors such as substance abuse, violence, and early sexual activity (J. Freiberg, 2006; Ponitz, Rimm-Kaufman, Grimm, & Curby, 2009; Waters & Cross, 2010). If students perceive their schools are competitive places where they are treated differently based on race, gender, or ethnicity, then they are more likely to act out or withdraw altogether. But when they feel that they have choices, that the emphasis is on personal improvement and not comparisons, and that they are respected and supported by teachers, students are more likely to bond with schools (Osterman, 2000). One way of supporting belonging in school is by connecting with students’ families and home lives (Gage et al., 2016). For example, students in China describe their teachers as high on caring. This may be because Chinese teachers spend quite a bit of time in students’ homes, learning about their home life, and offering help outside school. These teachers show respect for the families and cultures of their students by their willingness to visit and to help (Jia et al., 2009; Suldo et al., 2009). CREATING COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS. The transition to high school is a particularly important time to maintain caring teacher–student relationships. Students have more teachers and fewer close relationships, just at a time when emotional, social, and academic stresses are increasing. Feeling a sense of belonging is important for all students, but particularly for students who may, because of language or poverty, feel disconnected from the basically middle class culture of most schools (R. I. Chapman et al., 2013). In one study that followed 572 students from ninth grade through high school, Cari Gillen-O’Neel and Andrew Fuligni (2013) found that girls’ sense of belonging in school was higher than boys’ in ninth grade, but over the high school years, this connection declined for girls but not for boys. One possible reason is that boys participate more often than girls in extracurricular activities such as sports; these activities connect them to the school. So encouraging girls to participate in school activities, including sports, may build a sense of belonging for them. In addition, having positive relationships with students appears to support teachers’ sense of well-being. When we remember the basic human need for relatedness—the feeling that others care about you described in Chapter 12—we can understand why caring relationships in school would support both students’ sense of belonging and teachers’ well-being (Spilt, Koomen, & Thijs, 2011).



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Check & Connect, developed at the University of Minnesota, is one program that has been successful in developing caring relationships with disengaged adolescents, although it can be used with students of all ages. The developers describe Check & Connect as “a comprehensive intervention designed to enhance student engagement at school and with learning for marginalized, disengaged students in grades K–12, through relationship building, problem solving and capacity building, and persistence. A goal of Check & Connect is to foster school completion with academic and social competence” (http://checkandconnect.umn.edu). The program works by developing a relationship between a trained mentor and students. The mentor checks on the students, monitoring their attendance, behavior, and grades and connects with students by offering individualized interventions in partnership with other school staff, families, and community resources. Results of research on Check & Connect show that the program improves student engagement and achievement (Anderson et al., 2004; Skiba et al., 2016). When Randall Sampson, one of my former graduate students, became the assistant principal of a large, diverse high school in Columbus, Ohio, he initiated something similar to Check & Connect. He personally monitored those students who had completed basic math classes with grades good enough to move advanced placement classes, but who had not signed up for the classes. He contacted the students’ parents, talked to the students, and signed them up for the advanced classes. Then he checked in on them every week to be sure they were engaged in class. His interventions were very successful, leading to a 600% increase in African American students enrolled in AP classes and a 35% increase in AP exam scores. His initiatives kept some potentially disengaged students on track for college admission when the students and their families had not considered college a possibility. Randall founded Liberty Leadership Development (www.LibertyLD. com) to bring these kinds of positive interventions to more schools such as Wilson Preparatory Academy in North Carolina (http://www.wilsonpreparatoryacademy.org). See the Guidelines: Creating Caring Relationships on the next page for more ideas, many taken from Jones and Jones (2016) and M. Marshall (2013). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.3



DEALING WITH DISCIPLINE PROBLEMS Before we even discuss dealing with discipline problems, remember that every school has policies and procedures for handling behavior problems, especially more serious issues. Make sure you know all these procedures and requirements before you develop your management plan. Also keep in mind that being an effective manager does not mean publicly correcting every minor infraction of the rules. This kind of public attention may actually reinforce the misbehavior, as we saw in Chapter 7. The key is being aware of what is happening and knowing what is important so you can prevent problems.



Stopping Problems Quickly It is critical that you have many effective ways to deescalate rather than escalate student behavior problems. As problems escalate, students may need to save face in front of their peers by challenging or defying the teacher. This can lead to excluding students from class, sending them to detention, or suspension—all outcomes that place students, especially students of color, at greater risk of negative or dangerous outcomes such as disengaging from school or getting caught up in the juvenile justice system (Skiba et al., 2016). It may help you to be more effective at deescalating problems if you approach students’ social/behavioral problems more like you would academic problems—as an opportunity to learn a better way. For example, generally when students make an academic mistake we assume that they were trying to get it right and did not make the mistake on purpose. They just need smaller steps, clearer explanations, better examples, models, or practice. But when the problem is behavioral, we often assume the student



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GUIDELINES Creating Caring Relationships Get to know students as individuals. Examples 1. Eat lunch with a different group of students every day. 2. Work with a club, extracurricular activity, or sports group and attend student activities. 3. Show your interest in your students as individuals. 4. Schedule individual conferences with students. Communicate your respect for students’ abilities. Examples 1. “Model respect for diversity—by expressing admiration for a student’s bilingual ability, by commenting enthusiastically about the number of different languages that are represented in the class, and by including examples and content from a variety of cultures” (C. S. Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003, p. 272). 2. Comment to students privately and positively about your observations of their performances in extracurricular activities. 3. Encourage students to use personal interests as a subject for their writing. 4. Greet students at the door to the class every day. Keep communications authentic but professional. Examples 1. Send brief personal notes to students acknowledging a good job performed on assignments, their hard work and persistence, a birthday, or concern about absences. Include a get-well card along with homework sent to a student who is ill.



2. Share some stories from your own life as examples of excitement about a subject, making mistakes (and learning from them), and persistence and overcoming difficulties. 3. Do not friend students on social media, and be very careful about your language and picture postings on all electronic communications—many things can be misinterpreted. Create school-related email accounts that are different from your personal accounts. 4. Check with your school policy about sharing personal information such as religion, sexual orientation, or political views. 5. If you are meeting alone with a student, do so in an area visible to others—sadly, teachers today must protect against having their positive relationships with students misinterpreted by others or by the student. Seek student input and respect it, but don’t take it too personally. Examples 1. Consider a suggestion box or community meetings for younger students. 2. Listen to student concerns and complaints without getting defensive. Ask for suggestions, but also share your rationales for assignments and grades. 3. Ask students directly for anonymous feedback about whether they feel respected and cared for in your class. Use simple questionnaires that don’t reveal the identity of the student through handwriting.



is not trying or that the error was intentional. We follow with criticisms, punishments, or exclusion from the class. Successful teachers tend to see their role in improving behavior as interpersonal and instructional—helping their students learn and practice better decisions and actions. Your attributions about the problem matter ( Jones & Jones, 2016). Most students comply quickly when the teacher gives a desist (a “stop doing that”) instruction or redirects behavior. But some students are the targets of more than their share of desists. Emmer and Evertson (2017) and Levin and Nolan (2000) suggest eight simple ways to stop misbehavior quickly, moving from least to most intrusive: • Make eye contact with, or move closer to, the offender. Other nonverbal signals, such as pointing to the work students are supposed to be doing, might be helpful. Make sure the student actually stops the inappropriate behavior and gets back to work. If you do not, students will learn to ignore your signals. • Try verbal hints such as “name-dropping” (simply insert the student’s name into the lecture), asking the student a question, or making a humorous (not sarcastic) comment such as, “I must be hallucinating. I swear I heard someone shout out an answer, but that can’t be because I haven’t called on anyone yet!” • Ask students if they are aware of the negative effects of their actions, or send an “I” message, described later in the chapter.



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• Involve the whole class in a brief interactive activity such as “Think-Pair-Share.” Especially if more than one student is “drifting,” this activity can reengage the drifters. • If they are not performing a class procedure correctly, remind the students of the procedure, and have them follow it correctly. You may need to quietly collect a toy, comb, cell phone, or note that is competing with the learning activities, while privately informing the students that their possessions will be returned after class. You also could put a sticky note on the student’s desk inviting the student to talk with you after the lesson is over. • In a calm, unhostile way, ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it. Glasser (1969) proposes three questions: “What are you doing? Is it against the rules? What should you be doing?” • Tell the student in a clear, assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehavior. (Later in the chapter, we will discuss assertive messages to students in more detail.) If students “talk back,” simply repeat your statement. • Offer a choice. For example, when a student continued to call out answers no matter what the teacher tried, the teacher said, “John, you have a choice. Stop calling out answers immediately and begin raising your hand to answer or move your seat to the back of the room and you and I will have a private discussion later. You decide” (Levin & Nolan, 2000, p. 177).



If You Impose Penalties Many teachers prefer the use of logical consequences, described earlier, as opposed to penalties. For example, if one student has harmed another, you can require the offending student to make an “apology of action,” which includes a verbal apology plus somehow repairing the damage done. This helps offenders develop empathy and social perspective taking as they think about what would be an appropriate “repair” (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). There is a caution about penalties. As Carolyn Orange (2000) notes, “Effective, caring teachers would not use low achievement status, grades, or the like as a means of discipline. This strategy is unfair and ineffective. It only serves to alienate the student” (p. 76). If you must impose penalties, the Guidelines: Imposing Penalties on the next page give ideas about how to do it. Some of these examples are based on ideas from expert teachers described by C. S. Weinstein and Novodvorsky (2015) and Weinstein and Romano (2015).



Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility Marvin Marshall (2013) believes that even though classroom management is the responsibility of the teacher, discipline is really the responsibility of the student. Classroom management is about how things are done in the classroom and involves procedures, routines, and structures—the teachers’ responsibility. Discipline is about how people behave and involves self-control and emotional self-regulation—the student’s responsibility. Students must discipline themselves to be self-regulated learners and ultimately productive, successful, happy adults. A focus on obedience and teacher-imposed penalties often results in resistance, resentment, cheating, and even defiance, but a focus on responsibility creates a classroom community and a culture of learning. Of course, anyone who has worked with children or adolescents knows that self-discipline is not automatic—it must be taught and practiced like any other skill. Marshall describes strategies for achieving these goals that focus on (1) communicating in positive terms and using “when–then” contingencies (“When you finish your work, then you can listen to music on your smart phone”); (2) offering choices and eliciting consequences from students (“What shall we do about. . . . ?”); and (3) encouraging reflection and self-evaluation. One approach that incorporates these three principles is to teach students a hierarchy of behaviors using explanations and examples. The hierarchy is: • Level A: Anarchy—Aimless, chaotic. • Level B: Bossing/Bullying—Breaking laws and making your own standards; obeying only when the enforcer has more power or authority. • Level C: Cooperation/Conformity—Complies with expectations, conforms to peer influence. • Level D: Democracy—Self-disciplined, initiative, responsibility of your own actions.



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GUIDELINES Imposing Penalties Delay the discussion of the situation until you and the students involved are calmer and more objective. Examples 1. Say calmly to a student, “Sit there and think about what happened. I’ll talk to you in a few minutes,” or, “I don’t like what I just saw. Talk to me during your free period today.” 2. Say, “I’m really angry about what just happened. Everybody take out journals; we are going to write about this.” After a few minutes of writing, the class can discuss the incident. Impose penalties privately. Examples 1. Make arrangements with students privately. Stand firm in enforcing arrangements. 2. Resist the temptation to “remind” students in public that they are not keeping their side of the bargain. 3. Move close to a student who must be disciplined and speak so that only the student can hear. After imposing a penalty, re-establish a positive relationship with the student immediately. Examples 1. Send the student on an errand, or ask him or her for help. 2. Compliment the student’s work, or give a symbolic “pat on the back” when the student’s behavior warrants. Look hard for such an opportunity.



3. For 2 minutes each day for 10 days in a row, have a personal conversation with the student about something of interest to him or her—sports, games, films—make an effort to know what those interests are. This investment in time can pay off by regaining learning time for the student and the entire class. Set up a graded list of penalties that will fit many occasions. Example 1. For not turning in homework: (1) receive reminder; (2) receive warning; (3) hand homework in before close of school day; (4) stay after school to finish work; (5) participate in a teacher–student–parent conference to develop an action plan. Always teach problem-solving strategies along with penalties to help students learn what to do next time (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Examples 1. Use Problem Diaries, where students record what they were feeling, identify the problem and their goal, then think of other possible ways to solve the problem and achieve the goal. 2. Try Keep Calm 5–2–5: At the first physical signs of anger, students say to themselves: “Stop. Keep Calm,” then take several slow breaths, counting to 5 breathing in, 2 holding breath, and 5 breathing out.



The behaviors at levels C and D may look the same on the outside, but the difference is the motivation. For example, if a student picks up a piece of trash on the floor because the teacher asks (external motivation), the level is C (cooperation), but if the student picks up the trash without being asked (internal motivation), the level is D (democracy and self-discipline). When a student does not act at least at level C or D, the teacher asks, “What level was that behavior?” For example: Teacher: On what level is that behavior? Student: I don’t know! Teacher: What was the class doing? Student: Working the problem on the board. Teacher: So you were making up your own standards. What level is that? Student: B Teacher: Thank you. If the student does not move to at least level C and cooperate, the teacher might ask him or her to self-reflect and write an essay that addresses three questions: What did I do? What can I do to prevent it from happening again? What will I do now? Figure 13.5 summarizes Marshall’s model. His book Discipline Without Stress® Punishments or Rewards: How Teachers and Parents Promote Responsibility & Learning (M. Marshall, 2013) has many other strategies to encourage student self-discipline.



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FIGU RE 1 3.5 THE DISCIPLINE WITHOUT STRESS® TEACHING MODEL Here are the key concepts in Marshall’s (2013) model.



I



CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT vs. DISCIPLINE The key to effective classroom management is teaching and practicing procedures. This is the teacher’s responsibility. Discipline, on the other hand, has to do with behavior and is the student’s responsibility.



II



THREE PRINCIPLES TO PRACTICE POSITIVITY



CHOICE



REFLECTION



Teachers practice changing negatives into positives. “No running” becomes “We walk in the hallways.” “Stop talking” becomes “This is quiet time.”



Choice response thinking is taught—as well as impluse control—so students are not victims of their own impulses.



Since a person can only control another person temporarily and because no one can actually change another person, asking REFLECTIVE questions is the most effective approach to actuate change in others.



III



THE RAISE RESPONSIBILITY SYSTEM (RRSystem) TEACHING THE HIERARCHY (Teaching)



CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING (Asking)



GUIDED CHOICES (Eliciting)



The hierarchy engenders a desire to behave responsibly and a desire to put forth effort to learn. Students differentiate between internal and external motivation—and learn to rise above inappropriate peer influence.



Students reflect on the LEVEL of chosen behavior. This approach SEPARATES THE PERSON FROM THE BEHAVIOR, thereby negating the usual tendency to defend one’s actions. It is this natural tendency towards self-defense that leads to confrontations.



If disruptions continue, a consequence or procedure is ELICITED to redirect the inappropriate behavior. This approach is in contrast to the usual coercive approach of having a consequence IMPOSED.



IV



USING THE SYSTEM TO INCREASE MOTIVATION & LEARNING Using the hierarchy BEFORE a lesson or activity and AFTER a lesson or activity increases motivation, improves learning, and raises academic achievement.



Source: Reprinted with permission from Marshall, M. (2013). Discipline Without Stress® Punishments or Rewards: How Teachers and Parents Promote Responsibility & Learning (2nd ed.). Los Alamos, CA: Piper Press.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?



Zero tolerance makes zero common sense.  An



Internet search using the keywords [“zero-tolerance” and “schools”] will locate a wealth of information about the policy—much of it against. For example, what sense does this story make? The newspaper St. Petersburg Times described a 10-year-old girl whose mother packed a plastic knife in the girl’s lunchbox so she could cut her apple. The girl dutifully handed the plastic knife over to her teacher and was expelled from school for possession of a weapon. In another case, a teenage boy was also expelled. He broke the “no cell phone use” rule for talking to his mother, a soldier stationed in Iraq. He had not spoken to her for a month (Hyder & Hussain, 2015). Even though supporters of zero tolerance say that punishments must be consistent, often athletes and good students are forgiven (Curwin, 2015). In addition, research shows that punishment and zero-tolerance policies have not been very successful in preventing bullying, even though about 70% of teachers and counselors use punishment even in cases of mild bullying (Rigby, 2012). Zero-tolerance policies have “pushed” students out of school with no resulting improvements in school safety (Fronius et al., 2016; Losen, 2014). What else does the research say? The American Psychological Association set up a Zero Tolerance Task force to answer that question (American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008). Analyzing a decade of research, they reached the following conclusions:



COUNTERPOINT .



POINT .



With the very visible violence in schools today, some districts have instituted “zero-tolerance” policies for rule breaking. Do zero-tolerance policies make sense?



• Schools are not any safer or more effective in disciplining students now than before they instituted zero tolerance. • The higher rates of suspension caused by zero tolerance have not led to less racial bias in disciplining students. • Zero-tolerance policies can actually lead to increases in bad behavior that then lead to higher dropout rates. In addition, zero-tolerance policies can discourage students from informing teachers when the students learn that a classmate is “planning to do something dangerous.” The zero-tolerance rules get in the way of trusting relationships between teachers and students (Syvertsen, Flanagan, & Stout, 2009). Adolescents need both structure and support, but zero-tolerance policies can create a highly structured, rigid environment that ignores the need for support.



Zero tolerance is necessary for now. The argu-



ments for zero tolerance focus on school safety and the responsibilities of schools and teachers to protect the students and themselves. Of course, many of the incidents reported in the news seem like overreactions to childhood pranks or, worse, to innocent mistakes or lapses of memory. But how do school officials separate the innocent from the dangerous? For example, it has been widely reported that Andy Williams (the boy who killed two classmates in Santee, California) assured his friends before the shootings that he was only joking about “pulling a Columbine.” On January 13, 2003, I read a story in USA Today by Gregg Toppo entitled “School Violence Hits Lower Grades: Experts Who See Violent Behavior in Younger Kids Blame Parents, Prenatal Medical Problems and an Angry Society; Educators Search for Ways to Cope.” The story opened with these examples: a second grader in Indiana takes off his shoe and attacks his teacher with it, a Philadelphia kindergartner hits a pregnant teacher in the stomach, and an 8-year-old in Maryland threatens to use gasoline (he knew exactly where he would pour it) to down his suburban elementary school. Toppo noted, “Elementary school principals and safety experts say they’re seeing more violence and aggression than ever among their youngest students, pointing to what they see as an alarming rise in assaults and threats to classmates and teachers” (p. A2). Toppo cited statistics indicating that although the incidence of school violence has decreased overall, attacks on elementary school teachers have actually increased. Beware of Either/Or Surely we can ask adults to use good judgment in applying rules in dangerous situations but to not feel trapped by the rules when student actions are not intended to harm and are not dangerous. Whole school policies that are less punitive and more preventative and proactive and that improve the climate of the school are good alternatives to zero tolerance.



What About Zero Tolerance? There is quite a bit of discussion today about zero tolerance penalties for rule breaking in the schools. Is this a good idea? The Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? looks at both sides.



Bullying and Cyberbullying Bullying is a type of interpersonal aggression intended to harm the victim that is characterized by systematic and repeated abuse of physical or social power. Cyberbullying



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adds the possibility to attack anonymously, so being more physically or socially powerful may be less of a factor. Also, with cyberbullying, a vast public audience can be involved, whereas other forms of bullying often have fewer witnesses. The line between good-natured exchanges and hostile teasing may seem thin, but a rule of thumb is that teasing someone who is less powerful or less popular, or using any racial, ethnic, disability, or religious slur should not be tolerated. Bullying can begin as early as preschool and generally peaks during middle school, then declines a bit by the end of high school—which means bullying could be a problem in any grade you teach. Both bullies and victims are at risk for long-term academic, psychological, and behavioral problems, including drug use (Guerra, Williams, & Sadek, 2011; Hymel & Swearer, 2015; Patton et al., 2013; Thomas, Connor, & Scott, 2015; Ttofi et al., 2016). There are many ways to be a bully, as you can see in Table 13.3. For students in grades 4 through 12, about 31% report being physically bullied, 51% verbally bullied, 37% socially bullied, and 12% cyberbullied, but some studies have found as many as 80% of students report being bullied in some way. Rates of physical bullying appear to be going down, but rates of cyberbullying are going up (Graham, 2016; Hymel & Swearer, 2015).



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Video Example 13.5 In this video, a girl describes her experience with bullying in an elementary classroom. Children who are bullies, as well as those who are victims of bullying, are often rejected by their peers.



VICTIMS. Studies from both Europe and the United States indicate that about 12% of boys and 6% of girls are chronic victims of bullying—the constant targets of physical or verbal attacks from ages 8 to 16, the longest time period measured so far (Hymel & Swearer, 2015). One kind of victim tends to have low self-esteem and to feel anxious, lonely, insecure, and unhappy. These students often are prone to crying and



TABLE 13.3 • What Does Bullying Look and Sound Like? TYPE OF BULLYING



DESCRIPTION



BEHAVIORS THAT COUNT AS BULLYING



Physical Bullying



Any unwanted physical contact in which one participant exerts power or force over another



Hitting, pinching, punching, kicking, shoving Withholding/stealing/destroying property



Verbal Bullying



Any comment considered offensive or threatening to the victim



Hurtful teasing, name-calling, criticizing, humiliating, taunting, threatening, making derogatory comments about any aspect of the individual (see also racial, religious, sexual, and disability bullying below)



Social/Relational Bullying



Intentional manipulation of people’s social lives, friendships, or reputation



Leaving people out on purpose, spreading rumors, convincing others not to be friends with someone, damaging friendships or reputations, setting someone up to look foolish



Cyber Bullying



Using an electronic platform to bully (e.g., FaceBook, SnapChat, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr, WhatsApp, Kik, YouNow, Broadcast, Chat, Live.ly, Burn Note, Whisper, Yik Yak, MeetMe, GroupMe, email)



Spreading rumors; inflicting all verbal bullying possibilities listed above and sending to many individuals 24/7; texting embarrassing/compromising pictures or videos. See www.commonsensemedia. org/ and search for “cyberbullying” for more information.



Identity Bullying



Leaving people out or treating them badly because of their racial or ethnic background, religion, or disability



Calling racist names; telling jokes that mock race, religion or disability; making negative comments about race, religion, religious beliefs, or disability; taunting; intentionally making someone feel uncomfortable



Sexual Bullying



Leaving individuals out, treating them badly, or making them feel uncomfortable because of their sex



Making sexist comments or jokes, touching, pinching, grabbing in a sexual way; making crude comments about someone’s sexual behavior or orientation; spreading sexual rumors



Source: Based on http://www.prevnet.ca/bullying/types



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withdrawal; in general, when attacked, they won’t defend themselves. These victims may believe that they are rejected because they have flaws that they cannot change or control—no wonder they are depressed and helpless! There is a second kind of victim—highly emotional and hot-tempered students who seem to provoke aggressive reactions from their peers. Members of this group have few friends (Pellegrini, Bartini, & Brooks, 1999). Students who are different from the larger peer group are more likely to be bullied, including students who are obese or small, unpopular, or members of ethnic or language minorities, as well as students are gifted, have disabilities, or are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) (Graham, 2106; J. S. Hong & Garbarino, 2012). About 160,000 children avoid school every day, and thousands more drop out of school altogether because they are always afraid. Children who have been chronic victims through elementary and middle school are more depressed and more likely to attempt suicide as young adults (Bradshaw et al., 2013; Garbarino & deLara, 2002). And students who kill or injure others in schools are more often victims than bullies (Reinke & Herman, 2002a, 2002b). In the past years, we have seen tragic consequences when bullied students turned guns on their tormentors in schools in the United States and in Europe. Having friends can help students cope with bullying. Also, being in an ethnically diverse school can lessen feelings of vulnerability, perhaps because power is divided and shared among the groups (Graham, 2016). Why do student intentionally harm others? What are their reasons for bullying? WHY DO STUDENTS BULLY? Ken Rigby (2012) examined the research and concluded that students bully for four main reasons. Rigby suggests that to effectively combat bullying, schools and teachers need to address the underlying motivation, not just the bullying behavior. See Table 13.4 for the reasons and possible actions. WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO? BULLYING AND TEASING. A longitudinal study that followed a representative sample of first- through sixth-grade students for 2 years found that aggressive children whose teachers taught them conflict management strategies were moved away from a life path of aggression and violence (Aber, Brown, & Jones, 2003). TABLE 13.4 • Reasons for Bullying and Possible School Responses REASONS FOR BULLYING



POSSIBLE SCHOOL AND TEACHER ACTIONS



Bullies feel annoyed, insulted, or have some grievance against the victim, so they feel justified in lashing out. There may or may not be a reasonable basis for the grievance felt.



Help students read the intentions of others more accurately. Use role-plays, readings, and drama to develop the capacity to “walk in someone else’s shoes.” Try conflict resolution or peer mediation.



They simply enjoy putting the victim under pressure, especially if bystanders seem to find the whole situation “fun.” The bullies claim it is innocent—“no big deal.”



Stress with students that it is not fun unless the target of the aggression is genuinely laughing too. Develop empathy through literature activities and class community building such as circle time and shared concerns, focus on what bystanders can and should do to stop bullying.



The bully believes the aggression against the victim will gain or maintain acceptance for himself or herself in a valued group.



In lessons and in relations with students, emphasize making moral judgments, thinking for yourself, and resisting conformity to group pressures. Also, sensitive discussion of prejudice and homophobia can help students resist pressures from groups to harm others based on their race, ethnicity, sexual identity, or language.



The bully wants something from the victim and is willing to inflict harm to get it, and/or the bully is basically sadistic— hurting other people feels good.



Restorative justice practices and community conferences may help the bullies feel genuine remorse. For older students, if the acts are criminal, there are legal sanctions.



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But when teachers are silent about aggression and teasing, students may “hear” the teacher’s agreement with the insult (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). So what should you do? Respond immediately when you see an incident—don’t ignore it. Students often think teachers won’t help, so don’t bother to report bullying. But if teachers take an active role and if students believe their teachers will separate those involved in bullying or contact parents and the principal, they are more likely to report bullying. Check your biases and be active. Bullying of all kinds is not “harmless” or “just part of growing up.” Use the incident as a teachable moment to talk about difficult topics and discuss why bystanders often do nothing. Finally, model an appreciation of differences and diversity (Cortes & Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2014; Graham, 2016). Also, consequences for the bullies should be clear, stated in advance, escalate if the bullying continues, include a reflection on the situation (talking to the teacher or writing in a journal), and not be meant to humiliate the bully, but rather teach better ways of dealing with the reasons for bullying listed in Table 13.4 (Ansary et al., 2015). Table 13.5 has other suggestions for educating students about teasing in schools. Unfortunately, the results are mixed on the effectiveness of many school-wide bullying prevention programs. And another discouraging finding is that administrators prefer to adopt anti-bullying programs that they heard about from colleagues rather than determine if there was any scientific evidence that the programs work—and many don’t (Ansary et al., 2015; Graham, 2016; Swearer et al., 2010). CYBERBULLYING. With all the possibilities of technology come problems, too. For example, when 16-year-old Denise broke up with her boyfriend, he sought revenge by posting her email address and cell phone number on Web sites and blogs devoted to sex. For months, she got embarrassing and frightening phone calls and messages (Strom & Strom, 2005). Now bullies have new ways to torment victims using email, cell phones, text messaging, SnapChat, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr, WhatsApp, Kik, YouNow, Broadcast, Chat, Live.ly, Burn Note, Whisper, Yik Yak, MeetMe, GroupMe YouTube, Web blogs, and online voting booths (more possibilities have probably appeared since I wrote this paragraph). This kind of bullying is difficult to combat because the perpetrators can hide, but the damage can be long term. Table 13.6 on the next page has some ideas for dealing with cyberbullying.



TABLE 13.5 • Dos and Don’ts about Teasing Teasing has led to some tragic situations. Talk about what to do in your class. DO 1. Be careful of others’ feelings. 2. Use humor gently and carefully. 3. Ask whether teasing about a certain topic hurts someone’s feelings. 4. Accept teasing from others if you tease. 5. Tell others if teasing about a certain topic hurts your feelings. 6. Know the difference between friendly gentle teasing and hurtful ridicule or harassment. 7. Try to read others’ “body language” to see if their feelings are hurt—even when they don’t tell you. 8. Help a weaker student when he or she is being ridiculed.



DON’T Tease someone you don’t know well. [If you are a boy] tease girls about sex. Tease about a person’s body. Tease about a person’s family members. Tease about a topic when a student has asked you not to. 6. Tease someone who seems agitated or whom you know is having a bad day. 7. Be thin-skinned about teasing that is meant in a friendly way. 8. Swallow your feelings about teasing—tell someone in a direct and clear way what is bothering you. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



Source: Based on information in: Middle and Secondary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein & I. Novodvorsky. Published by McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015.



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TABLE 13.6 • Ideas for Dealing with Cyberbullying • • • •



Develop an explicit policy for acceptable in-school use of the Internet, and include it in the school handbook (or your class rules). The policy should spell out what constitutes cyberbullying and list consequences. Make sure that children and young people are aware that bullying will be dealt with seriously. Ensure that parents/guardians who express cyberbullying concerns are taken seriously. Explain to students that they – Should never share or give out personal information, PIN numbers, passwords, phone numbers, and so on. – Should not delete messages; they do not have to read them, but they should show them to an adult they trust. Messages can be used to take action against cyberbullies. – Should not open a message from someone they don’t know. – Should never reply to the message. – Probably can block the sender’s message if they are being bullied through cell phones, email, Facebook, Twiter, Snapchat, WhatsApp, instant messaging, and so on. – Can forward the messages to their Internet service provider. – Should tell an adult. – Should show the message to the police if it contains physical threats. – Should speak out against cyberbullying. – Should never send messages when they are angry. – Should never send messages they wouldn’t want others to see.



• • • • •



Focus some class projects on cyberbullying. For example, students in one school posted on a “Wall of Shame” cruel comments that others in the school had posted on Facebook (without identifying information). The same could be done for Twitter or other social network sites. Make parents aware of the fact that all of the major Internet service providers offer some form of parental controls. For example, AOL has developed “AOL Guardian,” which reports who youngsters exchange messages with and what Web sites they visit, and also monitors chat rooms for children 13 and under. Encourage parents to keep computers in a public room in the house. Invite members of the local police department to come to school to speak with parents and students about proper Internet use. Make sure ethics are included in any computer instruction given at your school.



Source: From Middle and Secondary Classroom Management (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, p. 182. Adapted with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Student Misbehavior (I, C4) Even the most well-managed classroom will have instances of student misbehavior. Explain the principles for dealing with common student misbehaviors. What strategies can teachers employ to deal fairly and effectively with those problems?



Special Problems with High School Students Many secondary students never complete their schoolwork. Because students at this age have many assignments and teachers have many students, both teachers and students may lose track of what has and has not been turned in. It often helps to teach students how to use a daily planner—paper or electronic. In addition, teachers must keep accurate records. The most important thing is to enforce the established consequences for incomplete work. Do not pass a student because you know he or she is “bright enough” to pass. Make it clear to these students that the choice is theirs: They can do the work and pass, or they can refuse to do the work and face the consequences. You might also ask, in a private moment, if there is anything interfering with the student’s ability to get the work done. There is also the problem of students who continually break the same rules, always forgetting materials, for example, or getting into fights. What should you do? Seat these students away from others who might be influenced by them. Try to catch them before they break the rules, but if rules are broken, be consistent in applying established consequences. Do not accept promises that they will do better next time (Levin & Nolan, 2000). Teach the students how to monitor their own behavior; some of the self-regulation techniques described in Chapter 11 should be helpful. Finally, remain friendly with the students. Try to catch them in a good moment so you can talk to them about something other than their rule breaking. A defiant, hostile student can pose serious problems. If there is an outburst, try to get out of the situation as soon as possible; everyone loses in a public power struggle. One possibility is to give the student a chance to save face and cool down by saying, “It’s your choice to cooperate or not. You can take a minute to think about it.” If the student complies, the two of you can talk later about controlling the outbursts. If the student refuses to



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cooperate, you can tell him or her to wait in the hall until you get the class started on work, then step outside for a private talk. If the student refuses to leave, send another class member for the assistant principal. Again, follow through. If the student complies before help arrives, do not let him or her off the hook. If outbursts occur frequently, you might have a conference with the counselor, family members, or other teachers. If the problem is an irreconcilable clash of personalities, the student should be transferred to another teacher. It sometimes is useful to keep records of these incidents by logging the student’s name, words and actions, date, time, place, and teacher’s response. These records may help identify patterns and can prove useful in meetings with administrators, families, or special services personnel (Burden, 1995). Some teachers have students sign each entry to verify the incidents. Fighting or destruction of property is a difficult and potentially dangerous problem. The first step is to send for help and get the names of participants and witnesses. Then, remove any students who may have gathered to watch; an audience will only make things worse. Do not try to break up a fight without help. Make sure the school office is aware of the incident; usually the school has a policy for dealing with these situations. What else can you do? The Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations are based on C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky (2015). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.4



GUIDELINES Handling Potentially Explosive Situations Move slowly and deliberately toward the problem situation. Examples 1. Walk slowly; then be as still as possible. 2. Establish eye-level position. Be respectful. Examples 1. Keep a reasonable distance. 2. Do not crowd the student. Do not get “in the student’s face.” 3. Speak respectfully. Use the student’s name. 4. Avoid pointing or gesturing. Be brief. Examples 1. Avoid long-winded statements or nagging. 2. Stay with the agenda. Stay focused on the problem at hand. Do not get sidetracked. 3. Deal with less-severe problems later. Avoid power struggles. Examples 1. Speak privately if possible; don’t threaten. 2. Do not get drawn into “I won’t, you will” arguments. 3. Don’t make threats or raise your voice.



Inform the student of the expected behavior and the negative consequence as a choice or decision for the student to make. Then withdraw from the student and allow some time for the student to decide. Examples 1. “Michael, you need to return to your desk, or I will have to send for the principal. You have a few seconds to decide.” The teacher then moves away, perhaps attending to other students. 2. If Michael does not choose the appropriate behavior, deliver the negative consequences. (“You are choosing to have me call the principal.”) Follow through with the consequence. Source: Based on material in: Middle and Secondary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein & I. Novodvorsky. Published by McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill. Adapted with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.



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THE NEED FOR COMMUNICATION PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE A student says to you, “That book you assigned is really dumb—I’m not reading it!” What do you say? • Communication between teacher and students is essential when problems arise. Communication is more than “teacher talks—student listens.” It is more than the words exchanged between individuals. We communicate in many ways. Our actions, movements, voice tone, facial expressions, and many other nonverbal behaviors send messages to our students. Many times, the messages we intend to send are not the messages our students receive ( Jones & Jones, 2016).



Message Sent—Message Received Teacher: Carl, where is your homework? Carl: I left it in my Dad’s car this morning. Teacher: Again? You will have to bring me a note tomorrow from your father saying that you actually did the homework. No grade without the note. Message Carl receives: I can’t trust you. I need proof you did the work. *** Teacher: Sit at every other desk. Put all your things under your desk. Jane and Laurel, you are sitting too close together. One of you move! Message Jane and Laurel receive: I expect you two to cheat on this test. *** A new student comes to Ms. Lincoln’s kindergarten. The child is messy and unwashed. Ms. Lincoln puts her hand lightly on the girl’s shoulder and speaks: Ms. Lincoln: I’m glad you are here. (Her muscles tense, and she leans away from the child.) Message student receives: I don’t like you. I think you are bad. A student may respond with hostility if she or he feels insulted by the teacher but may not be able to say exactly where the feeling of being insulted came from. Perhaps it was in the teacher’s tone of voice or lack of eye contact. But the teacher feels attacked for no reason. The first principle of communication is that people respond to what they think was said or meant, not necessarily to the speaker’s intended message or actual words. Students in my classes have told me about one instructor who encourages accurate communication by using the paraphrase rule. Before any participant, including the teacher, is allowed to respond to any other participant in a class discussion, he or she must summarize what the previous speaker said. If the summary is wrong, indicating the speaker was misunderstood, the speaker must explain again. The respondent then tries again to paraphrase. The process continues until the speaker agrees that the listener has heard the intended message. Paraphrasing is more than a classroom exercise. It can be the first step in communicating with students. Before teachers can deal appropriately with any student problem, they must know what the real problem is. A student who says, “This book is really dumb! Why did we have to read it?” may really be saying, “The book was too difficult for me. I couldn’t read it, and I feel dumb.” Paraphrase rule Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond.



Empathetic Listening Let’s keep going with the situation in which the student found the reading assignment “dumb.” How might a teacher handle this positively?



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Student: This book is really dumb! Why did we have to read it? Teacher: You’re pretty upset. This seemed like a worthless assignment to you. [Teacher paraphrases the student’s statement, trying to hear the emotions as well as the words.] Student: Yeah! Well, I guess it was worthless. I mean, I don’t know if it was. I couldn’t exactly read it. Teacher: It was a struggle to read, and that bothers you. Student: Sure, I felt really dumb. I know I can write a good report, but not with a book this tough. Teacher: I think I can give you some hints that will make the book easier to understand. Can you see me after school today?



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher–Student Communication (III, A) A well-managed classroom requires a bidirectional line of communication between the teacher and students. Describe the various communication styles that teachers employ when interacting with students, and explain how those styles affect student behavior.



Student: Okay. Here the teacher used empathetic listening to allow the student to find a solution. (As you can see, this approach relies heavily on paraphrasing.) By trying to hear the student and by avoiding the tendency to jump in too quickly with advice, solutions, criticisms, reprimands, or interrogations, the teacher keeps the communication lines open. Here are a few unhelpful responses the teacher might have made: • I chose the book because it is the best example of the author’s style in our library. (The teacher justifies the choice; this prevents the student from admitting that this “important” assignment is too difficult.) • Did you really read it? I bet you didn’t do the work. (The teacher accuses; the student hears, “The teacher doesn’t trust me!” and must either defend herself or himself or accept the teacher’s view.) • Your job is to read the book, not ask me why. I know what’s best. (The teacher pulls rank, and the student hears, “You can’t possibly decide what is good for you!” The student can rebel or passively accept the teacher’s judgment.) Empathetic, active listening is more than a parroting of the student’s words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them. Sokolove, Garrett, Sadker, and Sadker (1986, p. 241) have summarized the components of active listening: (1) blocking out external stimuli; (2) attending carefully to both the verbal and nonverbal messages; (3) differentiating between the intellectual and the emotional content of the message; and (4) making inferences regarding the speaker’s feelings. When students realize they really have been heard and not evaluated negatively for what they have said or felt, they begin to trust the teacher and to talk more openly. Sometimes the true problem surfaces later in the conversation.



When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving Let’s assume a student is doing something that actively interferes with teaching. The teacher decides the student must stop. Confrontation, not listening, is required. “I” MESSAGES. Jones and Jones (2016) describe an approach first developed by Thomas Gordon—sending an “I” message to intervene and change a student’s behavior. Basically, this means telling a student in a straightforward, assertive, and nonjudgmental way what she or he is doing, how it affects you as a teacher, and how you feel about it. The student is then free to change voluntarily, and often does so. Here are two “I” messages: If you leave your book bags in the aisles, I might trip and hurt myself. When you all call out, I can’t concentrate on each answer, and I’m frustrated.



Empathetic listening Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. “I” message Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you.



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ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE. Lee and Marlene Canter (1992; Canter, 1996) suggest other approaches called assertive discipline when student behaviors have to be changed. Many teachers are ineffective with students because they are either wishy-washy and passive or hostile and aggressive (Charles, 2011). Instead of telling the student directly what to do, teachers use a passive response style—they ask the student to try or to think about the appropriate action. The passive teacher might comment on the problem behavior without actually telling the child what to do differently: “Why are you doing that? Don’t you know the rules?” or “Sam, are you disturbing the class?” Or teachers may give the students “one more chance” every time. Finally, teachers may ignore behavior that should receive a response, or they may wait too long before responding. A hostile response style involves different mistakes. Teachers may make “you” statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing: “You should be ashamed of the way you’re behaving!” or “You never listen!” or “You are acting like a baby!” Teachers may also threaten students angrily, but follow through too seldom, perhaps because the threats are too vague—“You’ll be very sorry you did that when I get through with you!”—or too severe. For example, a teacher tells a student in a physical education class that he will have to “sit on the bench for 3 weeks.” A few days later, the team is short one member, and the teacher lets the student play, never returning him to the bench to complete the 3-week sentence. Often a teacher who has been passive becomes hostile and explodes when students persist in misbehaving. In contrast with both the passive and hostile styles, an assertive response communicates to the students that you care too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers clearly state what they expect. To be most effective, the teachers often look into a student’s eyes when speaking and address the student by name. Assertive teachers’ voices are calm, firm, and confident. They are not sidetracked by accusations such as “You just don’t understand!” or “You don’t like me!” Assertive teachers do not get into a debate about the fairness of the rules. They expect changes, not promises or apologies. More recent versions of assertive discipline focus on teaching students how to behave responsibly and working to establish mutual respect and trust (Charles, 2011).



Assertive discipline Clear, firm, nonhostile response style.



CONFRONTATIONS AND NEGOTIATIONS. If “I” messages or assertive responses fail and a student persists in misbehaving, teacher and student are in a conflict. Several pitfalls now loom. The two individuals become less able to perceive each other’s behavior accurately. Research has shown that the angrier you are with another person, the more you see the other as the villain and yourself as an innocent victim. Because you feel the other person is in the wrong, and he or she feels just as strongly that the conflict is all your fault, very little mutual trust is possible. A cooperative solution to the problem is almost impossible. In fact, by the time the discussion has gone on a few minutes, the original problem is lost in a sea of charges, countercharges, and self-defense (Baron & Byrne, 2003). There are three methods of resolving a conflict between a teacher and a student. One is for the teacher to impose a solution. This may be necessary during an emergency, as when a defiant student refuses to go to the hall to discuss a public outburst, but it is not a good solution for most conflicts. The second method is for the teacher to give in to the student’s demands. You might be convinced by a particularly compelling student argument, but again, this should be used sparingly. Problems arise when either the teacher or the student gives in completely. There is a third possibility called problem solving that allows both teacher and student have input into a solution. Many versions of problem solving strategies can work. Jones and Jones (2016) suggest one that is grounded in positive relationships between the teacher and the students and also encourages student responsibility and accountability. Figure 13.6 shows the basic steps. Many of the conflicts in classrooms can be important learning experiences for all concerned.



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FIGU RE 1 3.6 A PROBLEM SOLVING MODEL Here is a general set of steps to guide problem solving about student behaviors.



Step 1:



Establish a warm, personal relationship with the student. (Develop a “positive relationship bank account” with the student.)



Step 2:



Deal with the present behavior. “What happened?” (Develop a time line/functional assessment.) “What did you do?” (Help students take responsibility for their role in the problem. Help them develop an internal locus of control.)



Step 3: Make a value judgment. “Is it helping you?” (Help students consider their own behavior and underlying assumptions.) “Is it helping others?” (Enhance student’s social cognition.) “Is it against a rule/does it violate a compelling state interest?” (Help students understand their own and others’ rights and responsibilities within the community.) Step 4: Work out a plan. “What can you do differently?” (Social skills training) “What do you need me to do?” (Empowerment/functional assessment) “What do you need other students to do?” (Empowerment/functional assessment) Step 5: Make a commitment. “Are you going to do this?” (Enhance student’s accountability/responsibility.) Step 6: Follow up. “I’ll check later and see how the plan has worked.” (Supportive/caring environment) Step 7: No put-downs, but do not accept excuses. “If the plan didn’t work, let’s analyze why and develop a new plan.” (High expectations and persistence in working with students)



Source: Jones, Vern; Jones, Louise, Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Communities of Support and Solving Problems, Update, Loose-Leaf Version, 11th Ed., p. 324. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



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Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice Handling conflict is difficult for most of us—and for young people it can be even harder. Avoidance, force, and threats seem to be the major strategies for dealing with conflict (D. W. Johnson et al., 1995). But there are better ways—like peer mediation and restorative justice that teach lifelong lessons. PEER MEDIATION. David Johnson and his colleagues (1995) provided conflict resolution training to 227 students in second through fifth grade. Students learned a 5-step negotiating strategy:



MyLab Education



Video Example 13.6 Two students trained as conflict managers help two other students settle a dispute. The procedures and skills demonstrated by the conflict managers help the other students recognize ways to prevent conflicts in the future or resolve them without intervention.



1. Jointly define the conflict. Separate the person from the problem and the actions involved, avoid win–lose thinking, and get both parties’ goals clear. 2. Exchange positions and interests. Present a tentative proposal, and make a case for it; listen to the other person’s proposal and feelings; and stay flexible and cooperative. 3. Reverse perspectives. See the situation from the other person’s point of view, and reverse roles and argue for that perspective. 4. Invent at least three agreements that allow mutual gain. Brainstorm, focus on goals, think creatively, and make sure everyone has power to invent solutions. 5. Reach an integrative agreement. Make sure both sets of goals are met. If all else fails, flip a coin, take turns, or call in a third party—a mediator. In addition to learning conflict resolution, all students in were trained in mediation strategies. The role of the mediator was rotated—every day the teacher chose two students to be the class mediators and to wear the mediators’ T-shirts. Johnson and his colleagues found that students learned the conflict resolution and mediation strategies and used them successfully to handle conflicts in a more productive way, both in school and at home. Even if you do not have formal peer mediation training in your school, you can help your students handle conflict more productively. For example, Esme Codell, the excellent first-year teacher you met earlier in this chapter, taught her fifth graders a simple 4-step process and posted the steps on a bulletin board: “1. Tell person what you didn’t like. 2. Tell person how it made you feel. 3. Tell person what you want in the future. 4. Person responds with what they can do. Congratulations! You are a Confident Conflict Conqueror!” (Codell, 2001, p. 23). RESTORATIVE JUSTICE. Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, but still hold misbehaving students accountable. In restorative justice, a problem behavior is harmful not because it “breaks a rule,” but rather because the negative action adversely affects members of the classroom and school community (Fronius et al., 2016). The participants in a conflict meet with a facilitator (often the teacher) and sometimes members of their family. The victim and the offender express their views and describe their experiences, with monitoring by the facilitator to keep discussions productive. When the process works well, the participants express remorse for hurting each other, forgive the perceived transgressions, and reconcile their conflict. David and Roger Johnson (2013) note that: Reconciliation usually includes an apology, communicates that justice has prevailed, recognizes the negativity of the acts perpetuated, restores respect for the social identity of those formerly demeaned, validates and recognizes the suffering undergone by the victim and relevant community members, establishes trust between victim and offender, and removes the reasons for either party to “right” the wrongs of the past. (p. 408).



The outcome of restorative justice usually is an agreement that includes how to re-establish cooperation and participation in the classroom community—perhaps an apology of action, restitution, and a plan for dealing positively with possible future conflicts. We have looked at quite a few perspectives on classroom management. Clearly, there is no one-size-fits-all strategy for creating social and physical spaces for learning. What does the research tell us? Are some strategies better than others?



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Research on Management Approaches Research provides some guidance. In a study conducted in Australia, Ramon Lewis (2001) found that recognizing and rewarding appropriate student behaviors, talking with students about how their behavior affects others, involving students in class discipline decisions, and providing nondirective hints and descriptions about unacceptable behaviors were associated with students’ taking greater responsibility for their own learning. In a study of over 3,000 ninth-grade students in Singapore, Youyan Nie and Shun Lau (2009) found that both caring and control were positively related to student engagement; so, blending control, influence, caring, and group management strategies may be necessary to create positive learning environments. This is not always easy. Lewis also concluded that teachers sometimes find using caring, influence, and group management difficult when students are aggressive—and most in need of these positive approaches. When teachers feel threatened, it can be difficult for them to do what students need, but that may be the most important time to act positively and combine caring with control. The American Psychological Association has a wealth of research-based resources for teachers on classroom management. See www.apa.org/ and search for “classroom management” to find videos, modules, and other possibilities. MyLab Education Self-Check 13.5



DIVERSITY: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE MANAGEMENT Research on discipline shows that African Americans and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students. For example, compared to White students, African American students are 26% more likely to receive out-of-school suspension for their first offense (Fronius et al., 2016). These students lose time from learning as they spend more hours in detention or suspension (Gay, 2006; Monroe & Obidah, 2002; Skiba, Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2000). Why? The notion that African Americans and Latino/a students are punished more because they commit more serious offenses is NOT supported by the data. Instead, these students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students and possible implicit (unconscious) biases of teachers and administrators (Rudd, 2014). For example, in one study, 136 middle school teachers viewed videos of an African American and a European American eighth-grade student demonstrating a standard walk or a “stroll” usually associated with an African American style of movement. The teachers perceived the students who strolled as significantly lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need special education services (Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson, & Bridgest, 2003). African American students may be disciplined for behaviors that were never intended to be disruptive or disrespectful. Teachers do their students and themselves a service if they work at becoming bicultural—helping their students to learn how to function in both mainstream and home cultures, but also learning the meaning of their students’ words and actions—so they do not misinterpret and then punish their students’ unintended insults (Gay, 2006). Culturally responsive classroom management has 5 dimensions: (1) understanding and addressing your own beliefs, biases, values, and stereotypes that are grounded in your own ethnic culture; (2) developing a knowledge of your students’ cultural backgrounds; (3) understanding the broader social, economic, and political context of classroom teaching—schools often reflect and reinforce the discriminatory practices of the larger society; (4) an ability and willingness to use culturally appropriate management



Culturally responsive management Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students.



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strategies; and (5) a commitment to building caring classrooms (Sikba et al, 2016). Culturally responsive management is simply a part of the larger concept of culturally relevant teaching. Geneva Gay (2006) sums it up: If the classroom is a comfortable, caring, embracing, affirming, engaging, and facilitative place for students then discipline is not likely to be much of an issue. It follows then that both classroom management and school achievement can be improved for students from different ethnic, racial, social, and linguistic backgrounds by ensuring that curriculum and instruction are culturally relevant and personally meaningful for them.



I once asked a gifted educator in an urban New Jersey high school which teachers were most effective with the really tough students. He said there are two kinds: teachers who can’t be intimidated or fooled and expect their students to learn, and teachers who really care about the students. When I asked, “Which kind are you?” he answered “Both!” He is an example of a “warm demander,” a teacher who seems to be most effective with students placed at risk (Irvine & Armento, 2001; Irvine & Fraser, 1998). Warm demanders are “strong yet compassionate, authoritative yet loving, firm yet respectful” (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004, p. 34). Sometimes these warm demanders appear harsh to outside observers (Burke-Spero & Woolfolk Hoy, 2002). Carla Monroe and Jennifer Obidah (2002) studied Ms. Simpson, an African American teacher working with her eighth-grade science class. She describes herself as having high expectations for academics and behavior in her classes—so much so that she believed her students perceived her as “mean.” Yet she often used humor and dialect to communicate her expectations, as in the following exchange: Ms. Simpson [addressing the class]: If you know you’re going to act the fool just come to me and say, “I’m going to act the fool at the pep rally,” so I can go ahead and send you to wherever you need to go. [Class laughs.] Ms. Simpson: I’m real serious. If you know you’re having a bad day, you don’t want anybody touching you, you don’t want nobody saying nothing to you, somebody bump into you you’re going to snap—you need to come up to me and say, “I’m going to snap and I can’t go to the pep rally.” [The students start to call out various comments.] Ms. Simpson: Now, I just want to say I expect you to have the best behavior because you’re the most mature students in the building . . . don’t make me stop the pep rally and ask the eighth graders to leave. Edward: We’ll have silent lunch won’t we? [Class laughs.] Ms. Simpson: You don’t want to dream about what you’re going to have. [Class laughs.] Ok, 15 minutes for warm ups. [The students begin their warm-up assignment.]



Warm demanders Teachers who are especially effective with African American students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students.



Many African American students may be more accustomed to a directive kind of management and discipline outside of school. Their families might say, “Put down that candy” or “Go to bed,” whereas White parents might ask, “Can we eat candy before dinner?” or “Isn’t it time for bed?” As H. Richard Milner (2006, p. 498) says, “The question should not be which approach is right or wrong but which approach works with and connects with the students’ prior knowledge and ways of knowing.” As we have seen throughout this book, families are important partners in education. This statement applies to classroom management as well. When parents and teachers share the same expectations and support each other, they can create a more positive classroom environment and more time for learning. The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Management provide ideas for working with families and the community. You can find more ideas through the Harvard Family Research Project (http://hfrp.org). MyLab Education Self-Check 13.6



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GUIDELINES



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Classroom Management Make sure families know the expectations and rules of your class and school. Examples 1. At a Family Fun Night, have your students do skits showing the rules—how to follow them and what breaking them “looks like” and “sounds like.” 2. Make a poster for the refrigerator at home that describes, in a light way, the most important rules and expectations. 3. For older students, give families a list of due dates for the major assignments, along with tips about how to encourage quality work by pacing the effort—avoiding last-minute panic. Some schools require family members to sign a paper indicating they are aware of the due dates. 4. Communicate in appropriate ways—use the family’s first language when possible. Tailor messages to the reading level of the home. Make families partners in recognizing good citizenship. Examples 1. Send positive notes home when students, especially students who have had trouble with classroom management, work well in the classroom. 2. Give ideas for ways any family, even those with few economic resources, can celebrate accomplishment— a



favorite food; the chance to choose a game to play; a comment to a special person such as an aunt, grandparent, or minister; the chance to read to a younger sibling. Identify talents in the community to help build a learning environment in your class. Examples 1. Have students write letters to carpet and furniture stores asking for donations of remnants to carpet a reading corner. 2. Find family members who can build shelves or room dividers, paint, sew, laminate manipulatives, write stories, repot plants, or network computers. 3. Contact businesses for donations of computers, printers, or other equipment. Seek cooperation from families when behavior problems arise. Examples 1. Talk to families over the phone or in their home. Keep good records about the problem behavior. 2. Listen to family members, and solve problems with them.



. SUMMARY The What and Why of Classroom Management (pp. 508–513) What are the challenges of classroom management? As you learn to teach, you should be aware of your philosophy of classroom management. Are you more teacher centered and structured or more student centered and humanistic? Do you tend to focus on Relationship-Listening, Confronting-Contracting, Rules and Consequences, or some combination? Classrooms are challenging because they are multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fast-paced and immediate, unpredictable, public, and affected by the history of students’ and teachers’ actions. A teacher must juggle all these elements every day. Productive classroom activity requires students’ cooperation. Maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young students are learning how to “go to school” and need to learn the general procedures of school. Older students need to learn the specifics required for working in different subjects. Working with adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of the adolescent peer group. What are the goals of effective classroom management? The goals of effective classroom management are to make ample



time for learning; improve the quality of time used by keeping students actively engaged; make sure participation structures are clear, straightforward, and consistently signaled; develop positive relationships with students, and encourage student self-management, self-control, and responsibility.



Creating a Positive Learning Environment (pp. 513–522) Distinguish between rules and procedures. Rules are the specific dos and don’ts of classroom life. They usually are written and posted. Procedures cover administrative tasks, student movement, housekeeping, and routines for accomplishing lessons, interactions between students and teachers, and interactions among students. Rules can be written in terms of rights, and students may benefit from participating in establishing these rules. Consequences should be established for following and breaking the rules and procedures so that the teacher and the students know what will happen.



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Distinguish between personal territories and interest area spatial arrangements.  There are two basic kinds of spatial organization, territorial (the traditional classroom arrangement) and functional (dividing space into interest or work areas). Flexibility is often the key. Access to materials, convenience, privacy when needed, ease of supervision, and a willingness to reevaluate plans are important considerations in the teacher’s choice of physical arrangements. Contrast the first school week of effective and ineffective classroom managers.  Effective classroom managers spent the first days of class teaching a workable, easily understood set of rules and procedures by using lots of explanation, examples, and practice. Students were occupied with organized, enjoyable activities, and they learned to function cooperatively in the group. Quick, firm, clear, and consistent responses to infractions of the rules characterized effective teachers. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might have taken them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the children’s pressing concerns first. In contrast, for ineffective managers, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. Students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. Ineffective teachers frequently left the room. Many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. They had not made plans for how to deal with typical problems such as late-arriving students or interruptions.



Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning (pp. 522–527) How can teachers encourage engagement?  In general, as teacher supervision increases, students’ engaged time also increases. When the task provides continuous cues for the student about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. Making work requirements clear and specific, providing needed materials, and monitoring activities all add to engagement. Explain the factors identified by Kounin that prevent management problems in the classroom.  To create a positive environment and prevent problems, teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain student motivation, and reinforce positive behavior. Successful problem preventers are skilled in four areas described by Kounin: “withitness,” overlapping, group focusing, and movement management. When penalties have to be imposed, teachers should impose them calmly and privately. In addition to applying Kounin’s ideas, teachers can prevent problems by establishing a caring classroom community and teaching students to use social skills and emotional self-regulation skills. How do teachers help students form connections with schools?  To get started on building connections, teachers should make expectations for both academic work and student behaviors clear. Respect for students’ needs and rights should be at the center of class procedures. Students know that their teachers care about them when teachers try to make classes interesting, are fair and honest with them, make sure they understand the materials, and have ways to cope with



students’ concerns and troubles. Check & Connect is one example of a successful program.



Dealing with Discipline Problems (pp. 527–537) Describe eight levels of intervention in misbehavior. Teachers can first make eye contact with the student or use other nonverbal signals, then try verbal hints such as simply inserting the student’s name into the lecture. Next, the teacher asks if the offender is aware of the negative effects of the actions, then reminds the student of the procedure and has her or him follow it correctly. Especially if a few students are “drifting away,” you can involve the whole class in a brief interactive activity such as “Think-Pair-Share.” If this does not work, the teacher can ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it, and then tell the student in a clear, assertive, and nonhostile way to stop the misbehavior. If this fails too, the teacher can offer a choice—stop the behavior or meet privately to work out the consequences. What can teachers do about bullying, teasing, and cyberbullying?  Teachers often underestimate the amount of peer conflict and bullying that happens in schools. Bullying involves both an imbalance of power between students and repeated attempts at harm and may take place in a variety of settings—including those in which students are not faceto-face with one another at school. Teachers can think of bullying as a form of violence and approach strategies for overcoming bullying as they would strategies to overcoming other violent acts. For example, prevention of bullying can take the form of developing a respectful classroom community and discussing conflict. What are some challenges in secondary classrooms? Teachers working in secondary schools should be prepared to handle students who don’t complete schoolwork, repeatedly break the same rule, or openly defy teachers. These students may also be experiencing new and powerful stressors. As a result, secondary students may benefit if teachers provide opportunities or point out resources for these students to seek out help and support. Teachers might also find consultation with guidance counselors and parents or caregivers helpful.



The Need for Communication (pp. 538–543) What is meant by “empathetic listening”?  Communication between teacher and student is essential when problems arise. All interactions between people, even silence or neglect, communicate some meaning. Empathetic, active listening can be a helpful response when students bring problems to teachers. Teachers must reflect back to the students what they hear them saying. This reflection is more than a parroting of words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them. Distinguish among passive, hostile, and assertive response styles. The passive response style can take several forms. Instead of telling the student directly what to do, the teacher simply comments on the behavior, asks the student to think about the appropriate action, or threatens but never follows through. In a hostile response style, teachers may make “you” statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing. An assertive response communicates to the



MA NA G I NG LE AR N I N G E NV I RON MEN TS students that the teacher cares too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers clearly state what they expect. What are peer mediation and restorative justice? Peer mediation is one good possibility for preventing violence in schools. The steps for peer mediation are: (1) Jointly define the conflict. (2) Exchange positions and interests. (3) Reverse perspectives. (4) Invent at least three agreements that allow mutual gain. (5) Reach an integrative agreement. Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, but still hold misbehaving students accountable.



Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management (pp. 543–545) What is culturally responsive management, and why is it needed?  African Americans and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students, but they do not commit more serious offenses. Instead, these students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students. Culturally responsive management combines high expectations for students’ appropriate behavior with warmth and caring for the students as individuals.



. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. The Classroom Impact on Routines and Procedures



Classroom Management



Keeping Classroom Situations from Escalating



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 13.1



Application Exercise 13.2



Application Exercise 13.3



. KEY TERMS Academic learning time (p. 512) Assertive discipline (p. 540) Classroom management (p. 511) Culturally responsive management (p. 543) Empathetic listening (p. 539) Engaged time (p. 512) Group focus (p. 524)



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“I” message (p. 539) Movement management (p. 524) Natural/logical consequences (p. 517) Overlapping (p. 524) Paraphrase rule (p. 538) Participation structures (p. 511) Procedures/routines (p. 514)



Rules (p. 514) Self-management (p. 513) Time on task (p. 512) Warm demanders (p. 544) Withitness (p. 523)



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. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. What is the aim of classroom management? A. To keep an orderly classroom B. To establish the primacy of the teacher C. To sustain a quiet and disciplined environment D. To maintain a positive productive learning environment 2. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of teaching students to be self-regulated? A. Students demonstrate the ability to fulfill their own needs without interfering with the rights and needs of others. B. Teachers have fewer management problems, less stress, and more time to teach. C. Students require increased teacher attention; therefore, they learn more. D. Although it requires extra time initially, it leads to greater teacher self-efficacy. 3. Mr. Ruiz was constantly plagued by students disrupting his English class. Determined to finally gain control, he resorted to afterschool detention, dropping letter grades, and belittling his students. When his evaluation by the principal occurred at the end of the term, he received low scores on his classroom management skills. His principal, Dr. Simon, provided feedback based on research. Which one of the following would NOT be consistent with ideal ways to deal with Mr. Ruiz’s problems? A. Teachers should begin the school year with severe consequences so students understand the teacher controls the classroom. B. Teachers should aim to prevent classroom problems before they occur.



C. Teachers should exhibit withitness and overlapping in their activities. D. Teachers must understand and practice movement management. 4. Which of the following techniques is recommended for approaching and disciplining a student who may be prone to explosive behavior? A. Move swiftly and get as close to the misbehaving student as possible. B. Ensure that there are several witnesses to the confrontation. C. Be respectful and brief. D. Use a loud voice to establish power.



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case It happened every day. Ginny Harding had to reprimand two boys in her class continually. Instead of feeling like a coach and mentor, Ginny started to feel like a nag. It wore on both boys and also on her. The boys were not malicious, they were just third graders being third graders. She remembered hearing an adage, that one should not continue to do the same thing and expect different results. Over the next weekend Ginny decided to develop a more effective manner of handling this latest challenge. 5. List several simple ways in which Ginny Harding can quickly stop the boys from misbehaving. 6. Routines and procedures can also reduce the incidence of misbehavior by assisting students in smooth transitions from one activity to another. List several classroom operations and activities that should have an established routine or procedure.



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Bullies and Victims Here is how some practicing teachers responded to the problems with bullies at school. JOLITA HARPER • Third-Grade Teacher Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH



I believe that the entire learning community has a clear role in preventing acts of intimidation between students, and that this is best accomplished with clear communication between all parties. Care should be taken to spread awareness between colleagues as to the nature of the situation. Classroom teachers who are alert to these instances of bullying are then able to provide an additional presence in situations, such as in hallways and the lunchroom, where this is likely to take place. Further, communication between individual classroom teachers and the victim of this bullying is essential. I would make certain to provide a sensitive ear to this student’s plight as we work together to formulate alternatives toward improving the situation. Finally, in the event that the two bullying students were in my classes, I would communicate with them in such a way as to make clear the effect of their actions on others in an effort to promote empathy for their victim and, hopefully, initiate a change in their behaviors. KEITH J. BOYLE • English Teacher, Grades 9–12 Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ



Errant behavior throughout the middle school may be indicative of future behavioral problems and, as many things in life, the more this misbehavior is allowed to exist, the longer it will have a chance to thrive. In this case of a child being continually bullied by two other children (gender having no bearing in this situation), the knowledge of this wrongdoing must not be ignored or isolated. I would interview both the victim and the bullies, separately, to glean as much information as possible. If this were a singular incident, I would attempt to handle it myself via contact with the pertinent parents. However,



if this were a recurring problem, the administration must be made aware. Any administrator will acknowledge that to be left in the dark about a serious situation within the environs of his or her responsibility is precarious. The appropriate guidance counselor should also be involved. The gravity of abusive behavior toward fellow students must be emphasized to the offenders. Significant punitive action is integral to send a message to the entire community that their school is indeed a haven in which one can feel the uninhibited freedom to learn. KELLEY CROCKETT • Professor and Former Elementary School Teacher San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, and Fort Worth, TX



Bullying cannot be tolerated. No school, no teacher, no administrator can afford a climate in which abusive behavior is allowed to germinate. Any incident of victimization must be immediately documented and submitted to the principal. As well, I would schedule a conference that same day with the school counselor for my student to both allow another avenue of documentation and reinforce support that the problem is being aggressively addressed. How I handle the next step depends on the administration in place, but the important issue to remember is that there is a next step. The teacher must follow up with the student. Within 48 hours I would privately ask my student if there have been any further incidents. If he hesitates or acknowledges continued harassment I would direct him to write it down, and I would document any questions I had asked him and his responses. I would then include his statement and my own in another report for both the principal and the counselor. As teachers, we hold the front line. To the children in our care, we represent one of the first relationships with authority and civilized society. We can do no less than lend our voice and action to the betterment of our world.



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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Reaching and Teaching Every Student



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



TEACHING EVERY STUDENT You have started a new job in a high school in your hometown. When you were in school, the students were fairly homogeneous—White, working to middle class, and English speaking. But things have changed radically—many different ethnicities, languages, and income levels are represented now. In the classes you are teaching, you find a wide range of reading levels, family incomes, and learning problems. Two of your students are virtually ready for college, but several others can barely read the texts, and their writing is impossible to decipher. Reading English texts is a challenge for some of your students who are English language learners, although they seem to speak English with little trouble. CRITICAL THINKING • How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students? • Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question? • How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?



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OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES Much of this text has been about learning and learners. In this chapter, we focus on teaching and teachers. Are there particular characteristics that distinguish effective teachers from ineffective ones? Research on whole-class teaching points to the importance of several factors that we will explore. What else do we know about teaching? Teachers are designers—they create learning environments (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). In the process they set goals for their students, develop teaching strategies and activities, and assess to see if goals have been met. We look at how teachers plan, including how to use state standards, taxonomies of learning targets, or themes as a basis for planning. With this foundation of knowing how to set goals and make plans, as well as an understanding of the characteristics of effective teachers, we move to a consideration of some general teacher-centered strategies: lecturing, seatwork, homework, questioning, recitation, and group discussion. We then pull goals and strategies together by exploring the Understanding by Design model. In the final section of this chapter, we will focus on how to match teaching to the needs and abilities of students through differentiated instruction, flexible grouping, and adaptive teaching. Finally we explore how teachers’ beliefs about their students’ abilities—teacher expectations—might influence student learning and teacher–student relationships. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 14.1



Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates.



Objective 14.2



Explain the arguments for and against the Common Core Standards and develop learning objectives that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Chappuis and Stiggins’s learning targets.



Objective 14.3



Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, homework, questioning (particularly deep questions), feedback, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate objectives, evidence for reaching objectives, and teaching strategies.



Objective 14.4



Define differentiated instruction and adaptive teaching, and apply these approaches to teaching a diverse group of students.



Objective 14.5



Explain the possible effects of teacher expectations, and know how to avoid the negative implications.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Research on Teaching Characteristics of Effective Teachers Knowledge for Teaching Research on Teaching Strategies The First Step: Planning Research on Planning Learning Targets Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies Planning from a Constructivist Perspective Teaching Approaches Direct Instruction Seatwork and Homework Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback Fitting Teaching to Your Goals Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching Within-Class and Flexible Grouping Adaptive Teaching Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms Technology and Differentiation Teacher Expectations Two Kinds of Expectation Effects Sources of Expectations Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement? Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?



RESEARCH ON TEACHING How would you identify the keys to successful teaching? You might ask students, principals, college professors of education, or experienced teachers to list the characteristics of good teachers. Or you could do intensive case studies of a few classrooms over a long period. You might observe classes, rate different teachers on certain characteristics, and then see which characteristics were associated with teachers whose students either achieved the most or were the most motivated to learn. (To do this, of course, you would have to decide how to assess achievement and motivation.) You could identify teachers whose students, year after year, learned more than students working with other teachers; then you could observe the more successful teachers and note what they do. You might also train teachers to apply several different strategies to teach the same lesson and then determine which strategy led to the greatest student learning. You could videotape teachers, and then ask them to view the tapes and report what they were thinking about as they taught and what influenced their decisions while teaching; this process is called stimulated recall. You might study transcripts of classroom dialogue to learn what helped students understand the material. You might use the relationships identified between teaching and learning as the basis for developing teaching approaches and then test these approaches in design experiments. Since the 1970s, all of these approaches and more have been used to investigate teaching (see Floden, 2001; Good, 2014; Gröschner, Seidel, & Shavelson, 2013 for summaries of almost 50 years of research). Let’s examine some of the specific knowledge gained from these projects, keeping in mind that much of the research was conducted in K–8 classrooms, often during mathematics lessons, and that student performance on standardized tests was generally used as the indicator of good teaching.



Characteristics of Effective Teachers STOP & THINK Think about the most effective teacher you ever had—the one that you learned the most from. What were the characteristics of that person? What made that teacher so effective? •



Some of the earliest research on effective teaching focused on the personal qualities of the teachers themselves. Results revealed some lessons about three teacher characteristics: clarity, warmth, and knowledge. Recent research has focused on knowledge, so we will spend some extra time on that characteristic. CLARITY AND ORGANIZATION. When Barak Rosenshine and Norma Furst (1973) reviewed about 50 studies of teaching, they concluded that clarity was the most promising teacher behavior for future research on effective teaching. Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively (Comadena, Hunt, & Simonds, 2007; C. V. Hines, Cruickshank, & Kennedy, 1985). The clearer and less vague the teacher’s explanations and instructions were the more the students learned. Vague explanations were filled with



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“somes” (some how, some way, some people, sometime, someone, something. . .) and “you knows” (Evertson & Emmer, 2013). ENTHUSIASM AND WARMTH. Research has found that ratings of teachers’ enthusiasm are correlated with student achievement gains (M. Keller, Neumann, & Fischer, 2013) and are also related to student interest in the subject (M. Keller et al., 2014). Two possible connections with enthusiasm are that when teachers are enthusiastic, they capture and hold student attention, and that enthusiastic teachers model engagement and interest in learning. Student attention, interest, and engagement lead to learning. Of course, it is easier to be an enthusiastic teacher when your students are learning (M. Keller et al., 2013). Warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the teacher traits most strongly associated with students’ liking the teacher and the class in general (Hamann, Baker, McAllister, & Bauer, 2000; K. Madsen, 2003). Also, in studies of the emotional climate of the classroom, researchers consistently find that students learn more in classes where teacher–student relationships are warm, caring, nurturing, and congenial; the teacher takes student needs and perspectives into account; and teachers are not harsh or sarcastic. It is likely that the link between the positive emotional climate and student learning is student engagement (Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012; Tennant et al., 2014). What about another important teacher characteristic—knowledge?



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Video Example 14.1 According to research on effective teaching, personal qualities of the teachers themselves include clarity, warmth, and knowledge. The first-grade teacher in this video demonstrates these qualities in her teaching.



Knowledge for Teaching As you saw in Chapters 8 and 9, knowledge is the defining characteristic of expertise. Expert teachers have elaborate systems of knowledge for understanding problems in teaching. For example, when a beginning teacher is faced with students’ wrong answers on math or history tests, all of these answers may seem about the same—wrong. But for an expert teacher, wrong answers are part of a rich system of knowledge that could include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



how to recognize several types of wrong answers the misunderstanding or lack of information behind each kind of mistake the best way to reteach and correct the misunderstanding materials and activities that have worked in the past, and several ways to test whether the reteaching was successful.



This unique kind of teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences is called pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This knowledge is very complex and specific to the situation, (e.g., first-period physics), topic (e g., the concept of “force”), students (advanced? struggling? learning English as a second language?), and even the individual teacher. Within a particular situation and topic, expert teachers have clear goals and take individual differences into account when planning for their students (Gess-Newsome, 2013; van Driel & Berry, 2012). These teachers are reflective practitioners, constantly trying to understand and improve their work with students (Hogan, Rabinowitz, & Craven, 2003). Do teachers who know more about their subject have a more positive impact on their students? It depends on the subject. When H. C. Hill, Rowan, and Ball (2005) tested U.S. first- and third-grade teachers’ specific knowledge of the math concepts that they actually teach and their understanding of how to teach those concepts, they found that teachers with greater content and pedagogical content knowledge had students who learned more mathematics. High school students appear to learn more mathematics from teachers with degrees or significant coursework in mathematics (Wayne & Youngs, 2003). Studies in German high schools have found that math teachers with more pedagogical content knowledge have students who are more cognitively engaged and more supported in learning, and this higher-quality instruction predicts higher student math achievement (Baumert et al., 2010).



Expert teachers Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of teaching process and content is extensive and well organized. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences. Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.



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When we look at teachers’ knowledge of facts and concepts in other subjects besides math, as measured by test scores and college grades, the relationship to student learning is unclear and may be indirect. The indirect effects are that teachers who know more may make clearer presentations and recognize student difficulties more easily. They are ready for any student questions and do not have to be evasive or vague in their answers. Thus, knowledge helps teachers be clearer, more organized, and more responsive to student questions (Aloe & Becker, 2009).



Research on Teaching Strategies Early research on teaching identified a number of general strategies that were associated with student learning (Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980; Good, Biddle, & Brophy, 1975; Good & Grouws, 1975; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). These included: • communication of clear learning goals, • effective use of time so students have ample opportunities to learn material at the right difficulty level, • proactive and caring classroom management, • clear explanations with examples/nonexamples, • teaching that focuses on meaning and also provides guided and independent practice, • frequent checks for student understanding with immediate effective feedback, and • a curriculum aligned with the learning goals and the assessments used to measure those goals. These results of research on teaching still stand strong today. What else have we learned? In Chapter 1 you read about Charlotte Danielson’s Framework for Teaching (2013), TeachingWorks, and the Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) project sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The developers of these models looked to recent research to ground their conceptions of good teaching—particularly to a largescale program of longitudinal research by Robert Pianta and his colleagues (Allen, Gregory, Mikami, Lun, Hamre, & Pianta, 2013; Crosnoe et al., 2010; Hafen, Allen, Mikami, Gregory, Hamre, & Pianta, 2012; Jerome, Hamre, & Pianta, 2009; Luckner & Pianta, 2011; Pianta, Belsky, et al., 2008; Pianta, LaParo, et al., 2008). Pianta’s work has identified three aspects of classroom climate that are related to the development and learning of preschool through high school students, regardless of where the students live or their families’ income. These three dimensions are consistent with the characteristics of teachers identified in earlier research on teaching, and they cover affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions, as you can see in Table 14.1. The affective dimension in Pianta’s model is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research. The cognitive dimension is instructional support, which includes concept development (activities and discussions that promote student higher-order thinking) and quality feedback that is specific and focused on the learning process. Concept development and quality feedback may be easier for teachers with greater knowledge for teaching. Pianta’s third dimension is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management, with clear activities and routines that make more time for student learning and are really engaging—similar to the teacher characteristics of clarity and organization and to the management strategies we discussed in Chapter 13. Now let’s get to the specifics of teaching—the first step is planning.



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TABLE 14.1 • Dimensions of Classroom Climate AREA OF TEACHING



CLASSROOM CLIMATE DIMENSION



COMPONENTS



DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES



Affective



Emotional Support



Positive Climate



Warmth, mutual respect, positive emotional connections between teacher and students



Negative Climate (negative predictor of learning)



Disrespect, anger, hostility



Teacher Sensitivity



Consistency and effectiveness in responding to students’ academic and emotional needs



Regard for Students’ Perspectives



Activities encourage student autonomy and emphasize students’ interests, motivations, and points of view



Concept Development



Activities and discussion promote higher-order thinking skills and cognition



Quality of Feedback



Consistency in providing specific, process-oriented feedback and back-and-forth exchanges to extend students’ learning



Behavior Management



Teachers’ effectiveness in monitoring, preventing, and redirecting misbehavior



Productivity



How consistently learning is maximized with clear activities and routines, teacher preparation, efficient transitions, and minimal disruptions



Instructional Learning Formats



How well materials, modalities, and activities are used to engage students in learning



Cognitive



Behavioral



Instructional Support



Classroom Organization



Source: Based on Brown, J. L., Jones, S. M., LaRusso, M. D., & Aber, J. L. (2010). Improving Classroom Quality: Teacher Influences and Experimental Impacts of the 4Rs Program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 153–167.



THE FIRST STEP: PLANNING STOP & THINK Greta Morine-Dershimer (2006) asks which of the following are true about teacher planning:  Time is of the essence.



A little planning goes a long way.



 Plans are made to be broken.



You can do it yourself.



 Don’t look back.



One size fits all. •



Research on Planning When you thought about the “What Would You Do?” challenge at the beginning of this chapter, you were planning. In the past few years, educational researchers have interviewed teachers about how they plan, asked teachers to “think out loud” while planning or to keep journals describing their plans, and even studied teachers intensively for months at a time. What do you think they have found? First, planning influences what students will learn, because planning transforms the available time and curriculum materials into activities, assignments, and tasks for students—time is of the essence in planning. When a teacher decides to devote 7 hours to language arts and 15 minutes to science in a given week, the students in that class



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Video Example 14.2 When a school has more than one class at each grade, planning conferences that include all the teachers for that grade, like this one, can be particularly effective.



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Instructional Objectives (II, B1) Describe the key elements of behavioral and instructional objectives. Be able to write each type of objective for a content area that you expect to teach.



Lesson study As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version.



will learn more language than science. Planning done at the beginning of the year is particularly important, because many routines and patterns, such as time allocations, are established early. So, a little planning does go a long way in terms of what will be taught and what will be learned. Second, teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit, week, and day. All the levels must be coordinated. For experienced teachers, unit planning seems to be the most important level, followed by weekly and then daily planning. As you gain experience in teaching, it will be easier to coordinate these levels of planning and incorporate the state and district curriculum standards as well (Morine-Dershimer, 2006). Third, plans reduce—but do not eliminate—uncertainty in teaching. Planning must allow flexibility. So plans are not made to be broken—but sometimes they need to be bent a bit. To plan creatively and flexibly, teachers need to have wide-ranging knowledge about students, their interests, their abilities, and the subjects being taught. The plans of beginning teachers sometimes don’t work because they lack knowledge about the students or the subject—they can’t estimate how long it will take students to complete an activity, for example, or they stumble when asked for an explanation or a different example (Calderhead, 1996). In planning, you can do it yourself—but collaboration is better. Working with other teachers and sharing ideas is one of the best experiences in teaching. Some educators think that a collaborative approach to planning used in Japan called kenshu or “mastery through study” is one reason why Japanese students do so well on international tests. A basic part of the kenshu process involves a small group of teachers developing a lesson and then videotaping one of the group members teaching the lesson. Next, all members review the tape, analyze student responses, and improve the lesson further. Other teachers try the revised lesson and more improvements follow. At the end of the school year, all the study groups may publish the results of their work. In the United States, this process is called lesson study (Morine-Dershimer, 2006). Information about “lesson study” and many examples of lesson plans are available on the Internet. But even great science lesson plans taken from a terrific Web site must be adapted to your situation. Some of the adaptation comes before you teach and some comes after. In fact, much of what experienced teachers know about planning comes from looking back—reflecting—on what worked and what didn’t, so DO look back on your plans and grow professionally in the process. Collaborative reflection and revising lessons are major components of the kenshu or lesson study approach to planning. Finally, there is no one model for effective planning. One size does NOT fit all in planning. Planning is a creative problem-solving process for experienced teachers; they know how to complete many lessons and can teach segments of lessons effectively, so for familiar lessons, they don’t necessarily continue to follow the detailed lesson-planning models they learned during their teacher preparation programs, even if those detailed plans helped in the beginning. No matter how you plan, you must have a learning goal in mind. We turn to this next.



Learning Targets It is difficult to get somewhere if you don’t know where you are going. Similarly, it is difficult to plan a unit or lesson if you don’t know the point—if you don’t have a clear target. “Learning targets define academic success—they state what we want students to know and be able to do” (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, p. 42). Over the years, targets for student learning have been called goals and objectives, instructional objectives, learning outcomes, content standards, behavioral objectives, educational objectives, grade-level indicators, performance expectations, lesson objectives, competencies, curricular aims, benchmarks, and many other labels. Be sure to learn what language and labels are used in your school and district and what the labels actually mean (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017; Popham, 2017).



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AN EXAMPLE OF STATE-LEVEL GOALS: THE COMMON CORE. We hear quite a bit today about grand visions and goals for education such as “promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access” (U.S. Department of Education, Mission). But very general goals are meaningless as potential guidelines for your instruction. States may turn these grand goals into standards or indicators. No Child Left Behind mandated that states adopt their own content standards in mathematics and reading, so all 50 states did. But there were problems. Many standards were poorly structured from one grade to the next. For example, there were redundancies across grades or missing steps between grades. Also, there was great variation among the various states’ standards in terms of rigor and difficulty. To address these problems, beginning in 2009, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) led an effort to define consistent national standards for each grade, K–12, in two broad areas: (1) English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects, and (2) mathematics. Table 14.2 gives a few examples of Common Core Standards in these areas. State adoption of the Common Core Standards is a moving target. Initially, 45 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories adopted the standards, and one more state, Minnesota, adopted just the English/Language Arts standards. The day I wrote this paragraph, 35 states and the District of Columbia were still keeping the standards, but 10 states were rewriting or replacing them. To see what your state is doing, go to your state’s education Web page and search for “standards.” There is continuing debate about the Common Core Standards. Under President Trump the future of the standards is unknown. See the Point/Counterpoint on the next page for a sense of the arguments.



TABLE 14.2 • A Few Examples of the Common Core Standards for Grades 6 and 11–12 in Literature, Writing, and Mathematics SUBJECT AND SKILL



GRADE 6



GRADES 11 AND 12



Reading Literature: Key Ideas and Details



Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.



Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain.



Writing: Research to Build and Present Knowledge



Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and refocusing the inquiry when appropriate.



Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.



Mathematics: Expressions and Equations



Write expressions that record operations with numbers and with letters standing for numbers. For example, express the calculation “Subtract y from 5” as 5 − y.



Explain each step in solving a simple equation as following from the equality of numbers asserted at the previous step, starting from the assumption that the original equation has a solution. Construct a viable argument to justify a solution method.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Are the Common Core Standards a



Valuable Guide for Teaching?



The Common Core Standards are useful and necessary. The United States has a long history of local



control of education, leading to many good things, but also to vast differences in what students learn in each grade and school district across the nation. The Common Core Standards provided a response to concerns about these extreme differences in grade-level standards and also sounded an alarm about the nation’s poor performance on international assessments (for example, the United States was 40th out of 70 countries in mathematics on the 2015 PISA). More specifically, the standards were designed to be: • • • •



Research- and evidence-based Clear, understandable, and consistent Aligned with college and career expectations Based on rigorous content and application of knowledge through higher-order thinking skills • Built on the strengths and lessons of current state standards • Informed by other top-performing countries in order to prepare all students for success in our global economy and society (/www.corestandards.org/) In order to reach the final goal of joining the top countries in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science, students in the United States must make steady progress each year. The Common Core worked backwards from the final goal to what students would need to know and be able to do at each grade along the way in each subject area. These standards should bring consistency and rigor to curriculum development and teaching across the United States. The standards don’t tell schools what content to teach to reach the goals; they just provide the final target to aim for, but if taken seriously, the standards will change teaching, hopefully for the better. For example, Robert Calfee and his colleagues summarized the English Language Arts and Literacy standards, noting: • The standards are a work in progress; • The standards offer compelling images of high school graduates from 2020 and beyond;



• The standards recommend project-based learning coupled to the primary disciplines through an integrated literacy program; • The standards call for an intertwining of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; • The standards lay out fundamentals and broad goals and are not intended to limit the literacy curriculum; and • The standards propose that all students can achieve the standards through teacher support and scaffolding. (Calfee et al., 2014, p. 3)



COUNTERPOINT .



POINT .



We know from goal theory (and common sense) that goals guide plans and actions. Are the Common Core Standards useful goals for educators?



There are problems with the Common Core Standards. A 2015 survey in New York state found that



by a 2-to-1 margin, voters thought the Common Core had made education worse (Siena Research Institute, 2015). Criticisms of the Common Core include that the standards limit teachers’ creativity, don’t allow states and local districts to add their own content to the curriculum, and lead to too much testing. In addition, the standardized tests students are required to take often are not aligned with the Common Core Standards, so students are taught one thing and tested on another (Polikoff, 2015). As a political issue, there certainly is objection to the Common Core. In a survey of attitudes about the Common Core, Morgan Polikoff and his colleagues (2016) found that Republicans were 90% more likely than Democrats to oppose the standards. As you read Table 14.2, you may have noticed that the expectations are high and the standards are rigorous. One example of raised expectations is that the texts third and fourth graders are expected to read and comprehend are more complex than current texts for those grades. This could lead to less fluency and automaticity in recognizing words, decreased engagement in reading, and higher failure rates (Hiebert & Mesmer, 2013). Beware of Either/Or  As a teacher you should follow this discussion closely because the Common Core Standards probably will impact what is taught (curriculum materials, textbooks, course planning) and what is assessed in every grade. But remember, the standards are goals—they do not tell you how teach, just what outcomes to aim for.



CLASSROOMS TARGETS FOR LEARNING. Whatever the label, having a clear learning goal helps teachers avoid what Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (2006) call the “twin sins” of instructional design—activity-focused teaching (lots of hands-on, interesting activities—but no goal) and coverage-focused teaching (a forced march through the textbook—but no goal). In either case, learning can be lost if the teacher is not clear about why students are doing the activities or readings—no idea about the target of the teaching.



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Learning targets can vary in “grain size,” from very specific lesson-level “pebbles” such as being able to represent addition on a number line, to more complex unit-level “rocks,” such as using numerical data from random samples to draw informal inferences comparing two populations, to grade-level yearlong “boulders” such as reasoning abstractly and quantitatively (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). How do you decide which grain size should guide your day-to-day teaching? Jim Popham (2017) suggests that you frame your learning targets broadly enough so they help organize your instruction but specifically enough to serve as a guide to your assessment.



Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies STOP & THINK Think about your assignments for one of your classes. What kind of thinking is involved in doing the assignments?  Remembering facts and terms?  Understanding key ideas?  Applying information to solve problems?  Analyzing a situation, task, or problem?  Making evaluations or giving opinions?  Creating or designing something new? •



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Taxonomies of Educational Objectives (II, B1) Taxonomies influence every aspect of instruction from textbook design to lesson planning. List the major objectives of each of the taxonomies, and describe the focus of each objective. Be able to incorporate these objectives into instructional objectives that you design.



In the 1950s, a group of experts in educational evaluation led by Benjamin Bloom set out to improve college and university examinations. The impact of their work has affected education at all levels around the world (L. W. Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). Bloom and his colleagues developed a taxonomy, or classification system, of educational outcomes divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. A handbook describing the objectives in each area was eventually published. In real life, of course, behaviors from these three domains occur simultaneously. While students are answering essay questions, they are writing or using a keyboard (psychomotor), remembering or reasoning (cognitive), and also might have some emotional response to the task (affective), even if the major domain involved is cognitive (Popham, 2017). THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN. Bloom’s taxonomy of the thinking domain, or cognitive domain, was considered one of the most significant educational writings of the twentieth century (L. W. Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). The six basic outcomes are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (B. S. Bloom, Engelhart, Frost, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). It is common to consider these outcomes as a hierarchy, with each skill building on those below, but this is not entirely accurate, especially in subjects such as mathematics. Still, you will hear many references to lowerlevel and higher-level outcomes or objectives, with knowledge, comprehension, and application considered lower level and the other categories considered higher level. As a rough way of thinking about learning targets, this can be helpful (Gronlund & Brookhart, 2009). The taxonomy can also be useful in planning assessments because different procedures are appropriate for outcomes at the various levels, as you will see in Chapter 15. In 2001, a group of educational researchers published the first major revision of the cognitive taxonomy, and this is the one we use today (L. W. Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). 1. Remembering: Remembering or recognizing something without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it. 2. Understanding: Understanding the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else. 3. Applying: Using a general concept to solve a particular problem. 4. Analyzing: Breaking something down into its parts.



Taxonomy Classification system. Cognitive domain In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives.



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TABLE 14.3 • A Revised Taxonomy in the Cognitive Domain The revised taxonomy includes cognitive processes operating on different kinds of knowledge. The verbs in the chart are examples of what might be used to create objectives. THE COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION THE KNOWLEDGE DIMENSION



1. REMEMBER



2. UNDERSTAND



3. APPLY



4. ANALYZE



5. EVALUATE



6. CREATE



A. Factual Knowledge



List



summarize



classify



order



rank



Combine



B. Conceptual Knowledge



describe



interpret



experiment



explain



assess



Plan



C. Procedural Knowledge



tabulate



predict



calculate



differentiate



conclude



Compose



D. Metacognitive Knowledge



appropriate use



execute



select strategy



change strategy



reflect



Invent strategy



Source: Anderson\ Krathwohl\ Airasian\ Cruikshank\ Mayer\ Pintrich\ Raths\ Wittrock. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Abridged Edition, 1st Edition, © 2001. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River. NJ.



5. Evaluating: Judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation. 6. Creating: Creating something new by combining different ideas. The 2001 revision of Bloom’s taxonomy added a new dimension—to recognize that cognitive processes must process something—you have to remember or understand or apply some form of knowledge. If you look at Table 14.3 you will see the result. We now have the six processes of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating acting on four kinds of knowledge—factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Consider how this revised taxonomy might suggest learning targets for a social studies/ language arts class. Here’s an example that targets analyzing conceptual knowledge: After reading an historical account of the battle of the Alamo, students will be able to explain the author’s point of view or bias.



And here’s an outcome for evaluating metacognitive knowledge: Students will reflect on and describe their strategies for identifying the biases of the author.



Go to https://tips.uark.edu and search for “Bloom’s taxonomy” for more explanations and examples. THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN. The learning outcomes in the taxonomy of the affective domain, or domain of emotional response, have not yet been revised from the original version. These outcomes run from least to most committed (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964). The affective domain has five basic learning outcomes: Receiving: Being aware of or attending to something in the environment. Responding: Showing some new behavior as a result of experience. Valuing: Showing some definite involvement or commitment. Organization: Integrating a new value into your general set of values, giving it some ranking among your general priorities. 5. Characterization by value: Acting consistently with the new value. 1. 2. 3. 4.



Affective domain Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings.



For example, an outcome for a nutrition class at the valuing level (showing involvement or commitment) might be stated: “After completing the unit on food contents and labeling, at least 50% of the class will commit to the junk-food boycott project by giving up fast food for a month.”



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THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN. James Cangelosi (1990) provided a useful way to think about outcomes in the psychomotor domain, or realm of physical ability, as either (1) voluntary muscle capabilities that require endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, or speed, or (2) the ability to perform a specific skill. Here are two psychomotor outcomes: Four minutes after completing a 1-mile run in 8 minutes or under, your heart rate will be below 120. Use a computer mouse effectively to “drag and drop” files.



ANOTHER TAKE ON LEARNING TARGETS. Jan Chappuis and Rick Stiggins (2017) offer a way of categorizing learning outcomes that includes the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains, but is a bit more concise than Bloom’s approach. Their five categories of learning targets (see Table 14.4) are based on a study of the learning expectations actually reflected in classroom instruction and assessments across the United States. Notice that four of the five targets map fairly well onto Bloom’s taxonomies. The product target adds outcomes that involve learning to create a quality product. The Guidelines: Using Learning Targets on the next page should help you if you use goals for every lesson or even for just a few assignments.



Planning from a Constructivist Perspective STOP & THINK Think about the same course assignments you analyzed in the previous Stop & Think. What are the big ideas that run through all those assignments? What other ways could you learn about those ideas besides the assignments? •



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Planning Thematic Units (II, A2) Thematic learning units that integrate two or more content areas have become common in modern classrooms. Describe the principles involved in designing these activities, and explain how student learning can be assessed.



TABLE 14.4 • Learning Targets to Guide the Design of Teaching and Assessment TARGET AREA



DESCRIPTION



EXAMPLE



Knowledge (cognitive)



Factual information, procedural knowledge, and conceptual understandings in each discipline or subject



Science: Define a variety of cell structures. Social Studies: Explain what governments are and describe some of their functions.



Reasoning (cognitive)



Thought processes needed to do well in a range of subjects



Health: Analyze a food journal for missing nutrients. Mathematics: Prove theorems about triangles.



Performance Skills (psychomotor)



Demonstration or physical skill-based performances central to learning in a domain



The Arts: Perform songs using appropriate expression to reflect music. English: Demonstrate fluid reading of poems at an understandable pace.



Products



Creation of a product or artifact



Science: Develop a simplified model of a complex system. Health: Develop a home fire escape plan.



Dispositions (affective)



Attitudes, motivations, and interests that affect students’ approaches to learning



English: Enjoy writing. Mathematics: See mathematics as important to learn.



Source: Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2017). An Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning. Boston: Pearson. pp. 47–59. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



Psychomotor domain Physical ability and coordination objectives.



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GUIDELINES Using Learning Targets Avoid “word magic”—phrases that sound noble and important, but say very little, such as, “Students will become deep thinkers.” Examples 1. Keep the focus on specific changes that will take place in the students’ knowledge and skills. 2. Ask students to explain the meaning of the learning targets. If they can’t give specific examples of what you mean, the targets are not communicating your intentions to your students. Suit the activities to the target. Examples 1. If the goal is the memorization of vocabulary, give the students memory aids and practice exercises.



2. If the goal is the ability to develop well-thought-out positions, consider position papers, debates, projects, or mock trials. 3. If you want students to become better writers, give many opportunities for writing and rewriting. Make sure your tests are related to your targets. Examples 1. Write learning targets and rough drafts for tests at the same time. Revise these drafts of tests as the units unfold and targets change. 2. Weight the tests according to the importance of the various targets and the time spent on each. For additional ideas, see assessment.uconn.edu



Traditionally, it has been the teacher’s responsibility to do most of the planning for instruction, but new ways of planning are emerging. In constructivist approaches, planning is shared and negotiated. The teacher and students together make decisions about content, activities, and approaches. Rather than having specific student behaviors and skills as outcomes, the teacher has overarching goals—“big ideas” or themes—that guide planning (Borich, 2011). These goals are understandings or abilities that the teacher returns to again and again. Since the 1990s, teaching with themes and integrated content has been a major element in planning and designing lessons and units from kindergarten (Roskos & Neuman, 1998) through high school (Clarke & Agne, 1997). In Chapter 12, you saw an example of a whole school that used the theme of “working in harmony” as a big idea for planning across grades K through 12 (Beard, 2015). Some other topics for integrating themes with younger children are people, friendship, communications, habitats, communities, and patterns. Possibilities for older students are given in Table 14.5. TABLE 14.5 • Some Themes for Integrated Planning for Middle and High School Students



Constructivist approach See constructivism.



Courage



Time and Space



Mystery



Groups and Institutions



Survival



Work



Human Interaction



Motion



Communities of the Future



Cause and Effect



Communication/Language



Probability and Prediction



Human Rights and Responsibilities



Change and Conservation



Identity/Coming of Age



Diversity and Variation



Interdependence



Autobiography



Source: Based on Clarke, J. H. & Agne, R. M. (1997). Curriculum Development: Interdisciplinary High School Teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson, and Thompson, G. (1991). Teaching through Themes. New York, NY: Scholastic.



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Let’s assume you have some clear valuable learning targets. You still need to decide what’s happening on Monday. You need to design teaching that is appropriate for your goals.



MyLab Education Self-Check 14.2



TEACHING APPROACHES In this section you will learn some basic formats for putting plans into action. Of course, different methods may be more or less appropriate, depending on the subject, the students’ prior knowledge, and the particular learning targets. We begin with strategies for teaching explicit facts and concepts.



Direct Instruction For many people, “teaching” means an instructor explaining material to students; lecture is a classic form. An explosion of research in the 1970s and 1980s focused on these more traditional forms of teaching. The results of all this work identified a model of teaching that was related to improved student learning. Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens (1986) call this approach direct instruction or explicit teaching. Tom Good (1983a) uses the term active teaching to describe a similar approach. Researchers identified the elements of direct instruction by comparing teachers whose students learned more than expected (based on entering knowledge) with teachers whose students performed at an expected or average level. The researchers focused on existing practices in American classrooms. Because the focus was on traditional forms of teaching, the research could not identify successful innovations. Effectiveness was usually defined as average improvement in standardized test scores for a whole class or school. So the results hold for large groups, but not necessarily for every student in the group. Even when the average achievement of a group improves, the achievement of some individuals may decline (T. L. Good, 1996; Shuell, 1996). Given these conditions, you can see that direct instruction applies best to the teaching of basic skills—clearly structured knowledge and essential skills, such as science facts, mathematics computations, reading vocabulary, and grammar rules (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). These skills involve tasks that are relatively unambiguous, so they can be taught step-by-step and evaluated by standardized tests. How would a teacher turn these themes into actions? ROSENSHINE’S SIX TEACHING FUNCTIONS. Rosenshine and his colleagues (Rosenshine, 1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986) have identified six teaching functions based on the research on effective instruction. These could serve as a checklist or framework for teaching basic skills. 1. Review and check the previous day’s work. Reteach if students misunderstood or made errors. 2. Present new material. Make the purpose clear, teach in small steps, and provide many examples and nonexamples of the ideas and concepts you are teaching. 3. Provide guided practice. Question students, give practice problems, and listen for misconceptions and misunderstandings. Reteach if necessary. Continue guided practice until students answer about 80% of the questions correctly. 4. Give feedback and correctives based on student answers. Reteach if necessary. (Remember, Pianta, LaParo, & Hamre’s 2008 class climate component of instructional support included quality feedback.) 5. Provide independent practice. Let students apply the new learning on their own, in seatwork, cooperative groups, or homework. The success rate during independent practice should be about 95%. The point is for the students to practice until the



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher-Centered Instruction (II, A3) Teacher-centered instruction is often thought of as the “traditional” approach to instruction. In what situations is this instructional format most effective? What are the basic steps involved in carrying out this form of instruction?



Direct instruction/explicit teaching Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information. Active teaching Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students. Basic skills Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step by step.



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skills become overlearned and automatic—until the students are confident. Hold students accountable for the work they do—check it. 6. Review weekly and monthly to consolidate learning. Include some review items as homework. Test often, and reteach material missed on the tests. These six functions are not steps to be followed in a particular order, but all of them are elements of effective instruction. For example, feedback, review, or reteaching should occur whenever necessary and should match the abilities of the students. Also, keep in mind the age and prior knowledge of your students. For younger or the lessprepared students use more and shorter cycles of presentation, guided practice, feedback, and correctives. WHY DOES DIRECT INSTRUCTION WORK? Well-organized presentations with clear explanations and reviews can all help students construct understandings. For example, reviews activate prior knowledge, so the student is ready to understand. Brief, clear presentations and guided practice manage students’ cognitive load and avoid taxing their working memories. Numerous examples and nonexamples that highlight similarities and differences give many pathways and associations for building networks of connected concepts. Guided practice can also give the teacher a snapshot of the students’ thinking as well as their misconceptions, so these can be addressed directly as misconceptions rather than simply as “wrong answers.” Teacher explanation is useful for communicating a large amount of material to many students in a short period of time, introducing a new topic, giving background information, or motivating students to learn more on their own. Teacher presentations are therefore most appropriate at the lower levels of the taxonomies described earlier: for remembering, understanding, applying, receiving, responding, and valuing. Every subject, even college English or chemistry, requires some direct instruction. Students may need some direct instruction in how to use various manipulative materials so they can actually learn from (not just play with) the materials. Students working in cooperative groups may need guidance, modeling, and practice in how to ask questions and give explanations. And to solve difficult problems, students may need some direct instruction in possible problem-solving strategies (Arends, 2001; Kindsvatter, Wilen, & Ishler, 1992).



Scripted cooperation Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and criticizing the summaries.



EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION. Direct instruction, particularly when it involves extended teacher presentations or lectures, has some disadvantages. You may find that some students have trouble listening for more than a few minutes at a time and that they simply tune you out. Teacher presentations can put the students in a passive position by doing much of the cognitive work for them; this may prevent students from asking or even thinking of questions (H. J. Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005). Critics also claim that direct instruction is based on the wrong theory of learning. Teachers break material into small segments, present each segment clearly, and reinforce or correct, thus transmitting accurate understandings from teacher to student. The student is viewed as an “empty vessel” waiting to be filled with knowledge, rather than an active constructor of knowledge (Berg & Clough, 1991; Driscoll, 2005). But for younger and less-prepared learners, student-controlled learning without teacher direction and instruction can lead to systematic deficits in the students’ knowledge. Without guidance, the understandings that students construct can be incomplete and misleading (Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007). But done well, direct instruction and explanation can help all students learn actively, not passively (Leinhardt, 2001). Scripted cooperation is one way of incorporating active learning into lectures. Several times during the presentation, the teacher asks students to work in pairs. One person is the summarizer and the other critiques the summary, then they switch roles for the next summary/critique. This gives students a chance to check their understanding, organize their thinking, and translate ideas into their own words. Other possibilities are described in Table 14.6.



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TABLE 14.6 • Active Learning and Teacher Presentations Here are some ideas for keeping students cognitively engaged in lessons. They can be adapted for many ages. Write an Answer: Pose a question, ask everyone to write a brief answer, then call on students to share what they wrote.



Voting: Pose two alternative explanations; ask how many agree with each (may be a good idea to ask the students to close their eyes and vote so they won’t be swayed by the votes of others).



I used to think , but now I know : After a lesson, ask students to fill in the blanks, then share their results with the person beside them.



Choral Response: Have the whole class restate in unison important facts and ideas, such as “In a right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2.”



Think-Pair-Share: Pose a question, have students think of an answer on their own and then consult with a neighbor to improve the answer, then ask volunteers to share their ideas.



One-Minute-Write: After a section of the lesson, students write for 1 minute to summarize the key points or raise a question about what is not clear to them.



Deanna Kuhn (2007) said it well: As for direct instruction, of course it has a place. Each young student does not need to reinvent knowledge from the ground up. The challenge is to formulate what we want direct instruction to be. In doing so, it is well to keep in mind that it is students who construct meaning from such instruction and decide what it is that they will learn. (p. 112)



See the Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction on the next page for more ideas about teaching effectively.



Seatwork and Homework SEATWORK. The conclusions of the limited research on seatwork (independent classroom-desk work) are clear; this technique is often overused. For example, a summary of research from 1975 to 2000 found that students with learning disabilities, who often have trouble improving without teacher guidance, were spending about 40% of their time on individual seatwork (Vaughn, Levy, Coleman, & Bos, 2002). Seatwork should follow up a lesson and give students supervised practice with quick feedback. It should not be the main mode of instruction. Unfortunately, many workbook pages and worksheets do little to support the learning of important goals. Before you make an assignment, ask yourself, “Does doing this seatwork help students learn anything that matters?” Students should be able to see the connection between the seatwork and the lesson. Tell them why they are doing the work. The goals should be clear, all the materials that might be needed should be provided, and the work should be moderately difficult—doable but neither too easy nor too hard. When seatwork is too easy, students are not cognitively engaged. When the work is too difficult, students often resort to guessing or copying someone else’s answers just to finish. There are several alternatives to workbooks and worksheets, such as reading silently and reading aloud to a partner; writing for a “real” audience; writing letters or journals; transcribing conversations and punctuating them properly; making up problems; working on long-term projects and reports; solving brainteasers and puzzles; and computer activities (Weinstein & Romano, 2015). One of my favorites is creating a group story. Two students begin a story on the computer. Then two more add a paragraph. The story grows with each new pair’s addition. The students are reading and writing, editing and improving. With so many different authors, each writer may spark the creative thinking of other contributors. Any independent work requires careful monitoring. Being available to students doing seatwork is more effective than offering students help before they ask for it. Short,



MyLab Education



Video Example 14.3 The teacher in this video supervises seatwork by circulating, posing questions to struggling students, and providing prompts that remind them of key elements of the lesson they have not yet transferred successfully.



Seatwork Independent classroom work.



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GUIDELINES Effective Direct Instruction Use a number of examples. Examples 1. In mathematics class, ask students to point out all the examples of right angles that they can find in the room. 2. In teaching about islands and peninsulas, use maps, slides, models, postcards. Organize your lessons carefully. Examples 1. Provide objectives that help students focus on the purpose of the lesson. 2. Begin lessons by writing a brief outline on the board, or work on an outline with the class as part of the lesson. 3. If possible, break the presentation into clear steps or stages. 4. Review periodically. Anticipate and plan for difficult parts in the lesson. Examples 1. Plan a clear introduction to the lesson that tells students what they are going to learn and how they will learn it. 2. Do the exercises and anticipate student problems— consult the teachers’ manual for ideas. 3. Have definitions ready for new terms, and prepare several relevant examples for concepts. 4. Think of analogies that will make ideas easier to understand. 5. Organize the lesson in a logical sequence; include checkpoints that incorporate oral or written questions or problems to make sure the students are following the explanations. Strive for clear explanations. Examples 1. Avoid vague words and ambiguous phrases: Steer clear of “the somes”—something, someone, sometime, somehow; “the not verys”—not very much, not very well, not very hard, not very often; and other unspecific fillers,



2. 3. 4. 5. 6.



such as most, not all, sort of, and so on, of course, as you know, I guess, in fact, or whatever, and more or less. Use specific (and, if possible, colorful) names instead of it, them, and thing. Refrain from using pet phrases such as you know, like, and Okay? Record one of your lessons to check yourself for clarity. Give explanations at several levels so all students, not just the brightest, will understand. Focus on one idea at a time, and avoid digressions.



Make clear connections by using explanatory links such as because, if–then, or therefore. Examples 1. “The North had an advantage in the Civil War because its economy was based on manufacturing.” 2. Explanatory links are also helpful in labeling visual material such as graphs, concept maps, or illustrations. Signal transitions from one major topic to another with phrases. Examples 1. “The next area,” “Now we will turn to,” or “The second step is.” 2. Outline topics, listing key points, drawing concept maps on the board, or using an overhead projector. Communicate an enthusiasm for your subject and the day’s lesson. Examples 1. Tell students why the lesson is important. Have a better reason than “This will be on the test” or “You will need to know it next year.” Emphasize the value of the learning itself. 2. Be sure to make eye contact with the students. 3. Vary your pace and volume in speaking. Use silence for emphasis.



frequent contacts are best (Brophy & Good, 1986). Sometimes you may be working with a small group while other students do seatwork. In these situations, it is especially important for students to know what to do if they need help. One expert teacher described by Weinstein and Romano (2015) taught students a rule, “Ask three, then me.” Students have to consult three classmates before seeking help from the teacher. This teacher also spends time early in the year showing students how to help each other— how to ask questions and how to explain. STOP & THINK Think back to your elementary and high school days. Do you remember any homework assignments? What sticks in your mind about those assignments? •



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HOMEWORK. Like so many methods in education, homework has moved in and out of favor. In the early 1900s, homework was viewed as an important path to mental discipline, but by the 1940s, it was criticized as too much drill and low-level learning. Then, in the 1950s, homework was rediscovered as a way to catch up with the Soviet Union in science and mathematics, only to be seen as putting too much pressure on students during the more laid-back 1960s. By the 1980s, homework was in again as a way to improve the standing of American children compared to students around the world (H. M. Cooper & Valentine, 2001). Today, homework is increasing in early elementary schools (Hofferth & Sandberg, 2000). As our first-grade granddaughter worked on her spelling, reading, and math homework (she has assignments every day), I wondered again about the value of homework. No need to guess—educators have been studying the effects of homework for over 75 years (H. M. Cooper, 2004; Cooper, Robinson, & Patall. 2006; Corno, 2000; Flunger et al., 2015; Kalenkoski & Pabilonia, 2014; Trautwein, 2007). Most of the studies involved math and reading or English homework, but not social studies, science, or other subjects. What have they learned? THE CASE AGAINST HOMEWORK. David Berliner and Gene Glass (2014) said it bluntly: “Let the dog eat it. Homework does not boost achievement” (p. 113). No matter how interesting an activity is, students will eventually get bored with it—so why give them work both in and out of school? They will simply grow weary of learning. And important opportunities are lost for community involvement or leisure activities that would create well-rounded citizens. When parents help with homework, they can do more harm than good—sometimes confusing their children or teaching them incorrectly. And students from poorer families often must work at jobs after school, so they miss doing the homework; then the learning discrepancy between the rich and poor grows even greater. Besides, the research is inconsistent about the effects of homework. For example, one study found that in-class work was better than homework in helping elementary students learn (H. M. Cooper & Valentine, 2001). Harris Cooper and his colleagues (2006) reviewed many studies of homework and concluded that there is little relationship between homework and learning for young students, but the relationship between homework and achievement grows progressively stronger for older students. Young students may be too distracted by elements of their home environment (toys, TV, games, siblings, etc.) and lack the metacognitive skills to focus attention in the midst of distractions or manage their time. HOMEWORK FOR OLDER STUDENTS. Most research examines the relationship between amount of time spent on homework (as reported by students or parents) and achievement in terms of grades or tests. Evidence indicates that students in high school who do more homework (and watch less television after school) have higher grades, even when other factors such as gender, grade level, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and amount of adult supervision are taken into consideration (H. M. Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006; H. M. Cooper & Valentine, 2001; H. M. Cooper, Valentine, Nye, & Kindsay, 1999). High schools girls spend about one hour more per week on homework than boys, even taking into account ability, parents’ help, outside activities such as jobs, and type of course work. One suggestion is that this additional time spent studying is a factor causing the gender gap that favors girls in college admission and completion—the girls know how to study (Gershenson & Holt, 2015). Consistent with all these findings, the National Education Association suggests a “10 minute rule,” which means 10 minutes of homework per night starting in the first grade and increasing by 10 minutes each grade, so a twelfth grader would be assigned about 120 minutes of homework per night (Walker, 2017). But here is the possible problem with just thinking of homework in terms of time. Not every student takes the same time to do the same homework. Another approach is to focus on effort instead of time. Students’ self-reported effort on homework is consistently and positively related to student achievement (Trautwein, Schnyder, Niggli, Neuman, & Lüdtke, 2009). “High homework effort means that a student does his or her best to solve the tasks assigned. There need not be a close relationship between effort and



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time on homework: A student putting as much effort as possible into a homework assignment might finish in 5 min or still be working after an hour” (Trautwein & Lüdtke, 2007, p. 432). Barbara Flunger and her colleagues (2015) identified 5 types of learners in eighth grade, based on their homework effort (persistence and compliance) and time spent. Fast learners invested good effort to complete homework quickly. High-effort learners invested great effort and more time in homework while average learners invested some effort and little time. Struggling learners had trouble investing effort but spent high levels of time on homework. Then there were minimalists who invested little effort or time. As you might predict, the fast learners and high effort learners did significantly better over the year in terms of grades and test scores. BEWARE OF EITHER/OR. The real question is not about assigning homework versus not assigning homework, but rather assigning the right kind of homework to the right learners. Students are more likely to put in effort if they see the homework as interesting, valuable, reasonably challenging, and not anxiety provoking—this could require some differentiated homework assignments (Dettmers, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Kunter, & Baumert, 2010). So the challenge is to get students to put their best efforts into appropriate homework and to not assign homework that is low quality. Time spent struggling is not time well spent. To benefit from homework, students must understand the assignment. It may help to do the first few questions as a class, to clear up any misconceptions. This is especially important for students who may have no one at home to consult if they have problems with the assignment. A second way to keep students involved is to hold them accountable for completing the work correctly, not just for filling in the page. This means the work should be checked, the students given a chance to correct the errors or revise work, and the results counted toward the class grade. Expert teachers often have ways of correcting homework quickly during the first minutes of class by having students check each other’s or their own work. If students get stuck on homework, they need help at home, someone who can scaffold their work without just “giving the answer” (Pressley, 1995). But many families don’t know how to help (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Homework provide ideas for helping families deal with homework. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Questioning (III, C) Effective questioning skills are among the most valuable skills that a teacher can possess—and among the more difficult to develop. For guidance on asking effective questions in the classroom, read Question Types (unl. edu/teaching/teachquestions. html).



Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback Teachers pose questions, students answer. This form of teaching, sometimes called recitation, has been with us for many years (C. S. Weinstein & Romano, 2015). The teacher’s questions develop a framework for the subject matter involved. The pattern from the teacher’s point of view consists of IRE: Initiation (teacher asks questions), Response (student answers), and Evaluation/reaction (praising, correcting, probing, or expanding) (Burbules & Bruce, 2001). These steps are repeated over and over. Let’s consider the heart of recitation—the soliciting, or questioning, phase. Effective questioning techniques may be among the most powerful tools that teachers employ during lessons. An essential element of contemporary learning techniques is keeping students cognitively engaged—and that is where skillful questioning strategies are especially effective. Questions play several roles in cognition. They can help students rehearse information for effective recall. They can work to identify gaps in students’ knowledge base, and provoke curiosity and long-term interest. They can initiate cognitive conflict and promote the disequilibrium that results in a changed knowledge structure. They can serve as cues, tips, or reminders as an expert guides a novice in a learning experience. Students as well as teachers should learn to question effectively. I tell my students that the first step in doing a good research project is asking a good question.



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Homework Make sure families know what students are expected to learn. Examples 1. At the beginning of a unit, send home a list of the main objectives, examples of major assignments, key due dates, a homework “calendar,” and a list of free resources available at libraries or on the Internet. 2. Provide a clear, concise description of your homework policy, including how homework is counted toward class grades, as well as consequences for late, forgotten, or missing homework. Help families find a comfortable and helpful role in their child’s homework. Examples 1. Have some homework assignments that are fun and involve the whole family—puzzles, family albums, watching a television program together and doing a “review.” 2. In conferences, ask families how you could help them to support their child in completing and learning from homework. Checklists? Background reading? Web sites? Explanations of study skills? Encourage parents to help structure the home for homework without becoming controlling and punitive or intrusive (Dumont, Trautwein, Nagy, & Nagengast, 2014) Examples 1. Remind families that “helping with homework” means encouraging, listening, monitoring, praising, discussing, brainstorming—not punishing, harassing, threatening, helping when help isn’t needed, or doing the work for their child. 2. Encourage families to set aside a quiet time and place for everyone in the family to study. Make this time a regular part of the daily routine.



3. Encourage parents to focus on modeling and supporting time management and persistence skills in doing homework: homework before play, friends, TV, games, or screen time. 4. Make sure the needed materials are all available so the child won’t interrupt homework to find a pen or ruler. Solicit and use suggestions from families about homework. Examples 1. Find out what responsibilities the child has at home—how much time is available for homework. 2. Periodically, have a “homework hotline” for call-in questions and suggestions. If no one is at home to help with homework, set up other support systems. Examples 1. Assign study buddies who can be available over the phone. 2. If students have computers, provide lists of Internet help lines. 3. Locate free help in public libraries, and make these resources known. Take advantage of family and community “funds of knowledge” to connect homework with life in the community, and life in the community with lessons in school (Moll et al., 1992). Examples 1. Create a class lesson about how family members use math and reading in sewing and in house construction (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001). 2. Design interactive homework projects that families do together to evaluate needed products for their home, for example, deciding on the best buy on shampoo or paper towels.



For now, we will focus on teachers’ questions. Many of the beginning teachers I work with are surprised to discover how valuable good questions can be and how difficult they are to create. STOP & THINK  Think back to your most recent class. What kinds of questions did your professor ask? What sort of thinking was required to answer the questions? Remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, or creating? How long did the professor wait for an answer? •



KINDS OF QUESTIONS. Some educators have estimated the typical teacher asks between 30 and 120 questions an hour, or about 1,500,000 questions over a teaching career (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). What are these questions like? Many can be categorized in terms of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Table 14.7 on the next page offers examples of questions at the different taxonomic levels.



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TABLE 14.7 • Classroom Questions for Learning Targets in the Cognitive Domain Questions can be posed that encourage thinking at every level of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Of course, the thinking required depends on what has gone before in the discussion. CATEGORY



TYPE OF THINKING EXPECTED



EXAMPLES



Remembering



Recalling or recognizing information as learned without really using or changing it



List the capitals of. . . . What are the six parts. . . ? Which strategy does the text say you should use here. . . ?



Understanding



Demonstrating understanding of the materials without necessarily relating it to anything else



Summarize in your own words. . . What does mean in this sentence? Predict the next step. . .



Applying



Using information to solve a problem with a single correct answer



Classify these plants. . . . Calculate the area of. . . . Select the best strategy for. . . .



Analyzing



Breaking something down into parts; identifying reasons and motives; making inferences based on specific data; analyzing conclusions to see if supported by evidence



What was the first breakthrough in. . .? The second? Explain why Washington, D.C., was chosen. . . . Which of the following are facts, and which are opinions. . .? Based on your experiment, what is the chemical. . .?



Evaluating



Judging the merits of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation, offering opinions, applying standards



Rank the top 10 U.S. senators in terms of effectiveness in. . . . Which painting do you believe to be better? Why? Which study strategy is the best for you in. . .?



Creating



Creating something new; original thinking; original plan, proposal, design, or story



What’s a good name for. . .? How could we combine those two ideas? How could we raise money for. . .? What would the United States be like if Germany had won. . .?



Another way to categorize questioning is in terms of convergent questions (only one right answer) or divergent questions (many possible answers). Questions about concrete facts are convergent: “Who ruled England in 1540?” “Who wrote the original Peter Pan?” Questions dealing with opinions or hypotheses are divergent: “In this story, which character is most like you and why?” “In 100 years, which of the past five presidents will be most admired and why?”



Convergent questions Questions with only one right answer—usually factual questions or rote knowledge questions. Divergent questions Questions that have no single correct answer.



ASKING DEEP QUESTIONS. As we have seen before, there is strong evidence that questions requiring deep explanations help students improve academic performance and enhance authentic understanding. What is a deep explanation? Examples of deep explanations include those that inquire about causes and consequences of historical events, motivations of people involved in historical events, scientific evidence for particular theories, and logical justifications for the steps of a mathematical proof. Examples of the types of questions that prompt deep explanations are why, why-not, how, what-if, how does X compare to Y, and what is the evidence for X? These questions and explanations occur during classroom instruction, class discussion, and during independent study. (Pashler et al., 2007, p. 29)



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FITTING THE QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS. All kinds of questions can be effective (Barden, 1995). Different patterns seem to be better for certain types of students, however. The best pattern for younger students and for lower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. For high-ability students, the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback (Berliner, 1987; T. L. Good, 1988). Whatever their age or ability, all students should have some experience with thought-provoking, deep questions and, if necessary, help in learning how to answer them. To master critical thinking and problem-solving skills, students must have a chance to practice those skills. They also need time to think about their answers. But classic research shows that teachers wait an average of only 1 second for students to answer (M. B. Rowe, 1974). When teachers learn to pose a question, then wait at least 3 to 5 seconds before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). This seems like a simple improvement in teaching, but 5 seconds of silence is not that easy to handle. It takes practice. You might try asking students to jot down ideas or even discuss the question with another student and formulate an answer together. This makes the wait more comfortable and gives students a chance to think. Of course, if it is clear that students are lost or don’t understand the question, waiting longer will not help. When your question is met with blank stares, rephrase the question or ask if anyone can clarify it. However, some evidence shows that extending wait times does not affect learning in university classes, so with advanced high school students, you might conduct your own evaluation of wait time (Duell, 1994; Ingram & Elliott, 2016). A word about selecting students to answer questions. If you call only on volunteers, then you may get the wrong idea about how well students understand the material. Also, the same people volunteer over and over again. Many expert teachers have some systematic way of making sure that they call on everyone: They pull names from a jar or check names off a list as each student speaks (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015; C. S. Weinstein, & Romano, 2015). Another possibility is to put each student’s name on an index card, then shuffle the cards and go through the deck as you call on people. You can use the card to make notes about the quality of students’ answers or any extra help they seem to need. RESPONDING TO STUDENT ANSWERS. What do you do after the student answers? The most common response, occurring about 50% of the time in most classrooms, is simple acceptance—“OK” or “Uh-huh” (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). But there are better reactions, depending on whether the student’s answer is correct, partially correct, or wrong. If the answer is quick, firm, and correct, simply accept the answer or ask another question. If the answer is correct but hesitant, give the student feedback about why the answer is correct: “That’s right, Chris, the Senate is part of the legislative branch of government because the Senate. . . .” This allows you to explain the material again. If this student is unsure, others may be confused as well. If the answer is partially or completely wrong but the student has made an honest attempt, you should probe for more information, give clues, simplify the question, review the previous steps, or reteach the material. If the student’s wrong answer is silly or careless, however, it is better simply to correct the answer and go on (T. L. Good, 1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). Feedback is essential for learning, especially active learning when the students construct understanding. Simply put, feedback is information about how the student’s current performance relates to the learning goal (Van den Berg, Ros, & Beijaard, 2014). John Hattie and Helen Timperley (2007) reviewed several decades of research on feedback and constructed a model to guide teachers. The model proposes three feedback questions: “Where am I going?” “How am I going?” and “Where to next?” The first question



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is about goals and goal clarity. The second is about progress—movement toward goals. The third question is about moving forward to improve understandings when goals are not met yet or to build on attained goals. The Hattie and Timperley model also considers the focus of the feedback on four levels: task, process, self-regulation, and self-feedback. Here are some examples (p. 90): Task Feedback: “You need to include more about the Treaty of Versailles.” Process Feedback: “This page may make more sense if you use the strategies we talked about earlier.” Self-Regulation Feedback: “You already know the key features of the opening of an argument. Check to see whether you have incorporated them in your first paragraph.” Self-Feedback: “You are a great student.” “That’s an intelligent response, well done.” Hattie and Timperley argue that feedback about process and self-regulation is the most powerful because it helps students move toward deep understanding, mastery, and self-direction in learning. Feedback about self (usually praise) is common in classes but is not effective unless the praise provides information about how effort, persistence, or self-regulation moved the student forward, as in, “You are terrific—you stuck with this, revised again, and now this essay makes a powerful argument.” Linda Van den Berg and her colleagues work with teachers to give more feedback that: • • • • •



is focused on students’ metacognition—thinking about thinking is focused on students’ social learning relates students’ performance or understanding explicitly to the learning goal(s) includes confirmation, criticism, and constructive remarks better balances directive and facilitative ways of giving feedback (p. 779) Sounds like good advice in general.



Group discussion Conversation in which the teacher does not have the dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions.



GROUP DISCUSSION. Classrooms “are the training grounds for citizenship, and discussions afford students opportunities not only to hear diverse viewpoints, but also to substantiate their claims with evidence” (Reisman, 2015, p. 1). During a group discussion a teacher may pose questions, listen to student answers, react, and probe for more information, but in a true group dialogue, the teacher does not have a dominant role. Students ask questions, answer each other’s questions, and respond to each other’s answers. These kinds of student-centered dialogues are relatively rare, however. One study of 64 middle schools found that only 1.6 minutes per 60-minute class were devoted to these discussions (Applebee et al., 2003). Group discussions have many advantages. Through dialogue and discussion, students can collectively construct meaning and complex understandings (Burbules & Bruce, 2001; Parker & Hess, 2001; Reznitskaya & Gregory, 2013). The students are directly involved and have the chance to participate. Motivation and engagement can be higher. They learn to express themselves clearly, to justify opinions, and to tolerate different views. Group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. So group discussions help students evaluate ideas and synthesize personal viewpoints. Discussions are also useful when students are trying to understand difficult concepts that go against common sense. By thinking together, challenging each other, and suggesting and evaluating possible explanations, students are more likely to reach a genuine understanding (Wu, Anderson, Nguyen-Jahiel, & Miller, 2013). Of course, there are disadvantages. Class discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance. You may have to do a good deal of preparation to ensure that participants have enough background knowledge for the discussion. Some members of the group may have great difficulty participating and may become anxious if forced to speak. And large groups are often unwieldy. In many cases, a few students will dominate the discussion while the others daydream. At times teachers have to intervene to keep students focused on the goal, connected to the actual



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learning materials being discussed, and listening to each other (Arends, 2004; H. J. Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005; Reisman, 2015). Are discussions effective learning tools? In a major review of research conducted from 1964 to 2003 on the value of discussing texts for improving student comprehension, Karen Murphy and her colleagues (2009) reached some surprising conclusions. They examined a wide range of discussion formats including Instructional Conversations, Junior Great Books Shared Inquiry, Questioning the Author, Literature Circles, Book Club, and Grand Conversation—to name just a few. They found many of these approaches were very successful in increasing student talk, limiting teacher talk, and promoting students’ literal interpretations of the texts they discussed. But getting students to talk more did not necessarily promote their critical thinking, reasoning, or argumentation skills. Also, discussion was more effective for students whose comprehension abilities were below average, perhaps because average and higher-ability students already had the skills to comprehend texts. A few discussion structures, such as Junior Great Books Shared Inquiry, used over a longer period of time seemed to support both comprehension of text and critical thinking. The researchers concluded, “Simply putting students into groups and encouraging them to talk is not enough to enhance comprehension and learning; it is but a step in the process” (p. 760). The Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions on the next page give some ideas for facilitating a productive group discussion.



Fitting Teaching to Your Goals In the midst of all our discussions about methods, we have to keep in mind that the first questions should be: What should students learn? and What is worth knowing today? Then, we can match methods to goals. There is no one best way to teach. Different goals and student needs require different teaching methods. Direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, whereas the open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. In addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and for stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates (Borich, 2011; Walberg, 1990). According to these conclusions, when the goals of teaching involve problem solving, creativity, understanding, and mastering processes, many approaches besides direct instruction should be effective. Every student may require direct, explicit teaching for some learning goals some of the time, but all students also need to experience more open, constructivist, student-centered teaching as well.



Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design We have covered quite a bit of territory here, from objectives to teaching strategies. Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe’s (2006) Understanding by Design (UbD) pulls it all together—expectations for high-level critical thinking, goals, evidence for learning, and teaching approaches. The focus is on deep understanding, which is characterized by the ability to (1) explain, (2) interpret, (3) apply, (4) have perspective, (5) empathize, and (6) have self-knowledge about a topic. The big idea behind UbD is backward design. Teachers first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. To focus on understanding (not just fun activities or covering the text), teachers write essential questions—questions that go to the heart of the ideas and push thinking deeper: “What is the greatest problem of the democratic system?” “Who is entitled to own the airways?” “What makes a mathematical argument convincing?” Next the teacher identifies what evidence would demonstrate deep understanding (performance tasks, quizzes, informal assessments?). Then and only then do the teachers design the learning plan—the instruction—they design backward from the end results to the teaching plan. This idea of going from clear goals to teaching plans is at the heart of every approach to using standards and specific targets in teaching.



Understanding by Design (UbD) A system of lesson and unit planning that starts with key objectives for understandings and then moves backwards to design assessments and learning activities.



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GUIDELINES Productive Group Discussions 2. “Did you consider any other alternatives?” 3. “Tell us how you reached that conclusion. What steps did you go through?”



Invite shy children to participate. Examples 1. “What’s your opinion, Joel?” or “Does anyone have another opinion?” 2. Don’t wait until there is a deadly silence to ask shy students to reply. Most people, even those who are confident, hate to break a silence. Direct student comments and questions back to another student. Examples 1. “That’s an unusual idea, Steve. Kim, what do you think of Steve’s idea?” 2. “That’s an important question, John. Maura, do you have any thoughts about how you’d answer that?” 3. Encourage students to look at and talk to one another rather than wait for your opinion. Make sure that you understand what a student has said. If you are unsure, other students may be unsure as well. Examples 1. Ask a second student to summarize what the first student said; then, the first student can try again to explain if the summary is incorrect. 2. “Karen, I think you’re saying. . . . Is that right, or have I misunderstood?”



Bring the discussion back to the subject. Examples 1. “Let’s see, we were discussing, . . . and Sarah made one suggestion. Does anyone have a different idea?” 2. “Before we continue, let me try to summarize what has happened thus far.” Give time for thought before asking for responses. Example 1. “How would your life be different if television had never been invented? Jot down your ideas on paper, and we will share reactions in a minute.” After a minute: “Hiromi, will you tell us what you wrote?” When a student finishes speaking, look around the room to judge reactions. Examples 1. If other students look puzzled, ask them to describe why they are confused. 2. If students are nodding assent, ask them to give an example of what was just said.



Probe for more information, and ask students to elaborate and defend their positions. Examples 1. “That’s a strong statement. Do you have any evidence to back it up?”



Wiggins and McTighe provide a template to guide backward design planning. You can see many examples of these templates online. Do a Web search for “Understanding by Design template.” The process for completing a plan using backward design for a unit is shown in Figure 14.1. The teacher/designer moved backwards from a core mathematics standard by identifying key understandings and essential questions based on the standard, then planning assessments including traditional tests as well as textbook assignments and performance tasks that include real-life applications, and finally to creating learning experiences that will support understanding. Can you see how many levels of Bloom’s taxonomy are represented here? So far, we have talked about approaches to teaching—targets, strategies, and learning plans. But in today’s diverse classrooms, one size does not fit all. Within the general approach, teachers have to fit their instruction to the needs and abilities of their students— they have to differentiate instruction. MyLab Education Self-Check 14.3



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FIGU RE 1 4.1 PLANNING BY DESIGN The planning process for a lesson on the Pythagorean Theorem. The teacher/designer planned backwards from the core standards. Step 1—Designing the Goal Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side lengths in right triangles in real-world and mathematical problems in two and three dimensions. Common Core www.corestandards.org/Math/Content/8/G/B/



Key Understandings 1. The area formed by the square on top of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the total area of the two squares formed on the tops of the other two sides. 2. There are multiple ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.



Essential Questions 1. What makes a mathematical argument of the Pythagorean Theorem convincing?



3.….



3.….



2. Are there any real world uses of the Pythagorean Theorem?



What Will the Student Know? 1. What is a hypotenuse of a right triangle? 2. What is the length of any side of a right triangle, given the two other sides? 3. ….. What Will the Student Be Able to Do? 1. Draw a graphic illustration that demonstrates the validity of the Pythagorean Theorem. 2. ……



Step 2—Designing the Assessment



Authentic/Real-World Assessments 1. Can you calculate the height of a flagpole based on its shadow—how? 2. You have an old media cabinet with an opening that is 34” by 34”. You want a new flat screen TV that is at least a 42” diagonal. Assume the ratio of a new TV height to width is 3/5. Will it fit? Why? 3. Given that the distance between successive bases in baseball is 90 feet, what is the distance a throw has to travel from third base and first base? 4…..



Traditional Assessments 1. Questions on homework 2. Self-questions developed based on chapter, along with answers and justifications. 3. Unit test 4…..



Step 3—Designing the Learning 1. In groups, investigate the area of squares, triangles, and rectangles around the classroom—compare your group’s areas with the areas calculated by other groups for the same objects. 2. Using cardboard pieces, scissors, a ruler, and pencil, prove the Pythagorean Theorem. 3. Modules 6 & 7 in text (For more ideas, see http://questgarden.com/ and search for “Pythagorean Theorem.”)



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DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION AND ADAPTIVE TEACHING The idea of differentiated instruction—adapting teaching to the abilities and needs of each learner—is an ancient one. To prove it, Lyn Corno (2008, p. 161) quotes these words of Quintilian from the fifth century BC: Some students are slack and need to be encouraged; others work better when given a freer rein. Some respond best when there is some threat or fear; others are paralyzed by it. Some apply themselves to the task over time, and learn best; others learn best by concentration and focus in a single burst of energy.



Obviously Quintilian appreciated the need for fitting instruction to the student. One way to do this when teachers have many students is to use appropriate groupings. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® The Teacher’s Role in Student-Centered Instruction (II, A3) The teacher’s role in studentcentered instruction is significantly different from that in teacher-centered instruction.



Differentiated instruction A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. Within-class ability grouping System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences. Flexible grouping Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs.



Within-Class and Flexible Grouping It is not unusual to have 3- to 5-year ability differences in any given classroom (Castle, Deniz, & Tortora, 2005). But even if you decided to simply forge ahead (against Quintilian’s advice) and teach the same material in the same way to your entire class, you would not be alone. Differences in students’ prior knowledge are a major challenge for teachers, especially in subjects that build on previous knowledge and skills such as math and science (Loveless, 1998). One answer has been ability grouping, but that also poses a number of problems. THE PROBLEMS WITH ABILITY GROUPING. Students in many classes and schools are grouped by ability, even though there is no definitive evidence that this within-class ability grouping is superior to other approaches (Becker et al., 2014). In a random sample of primary grade teachers in the United States, 63% reported using within-class ability groups for reading. Students in lower-ability groups were less likely to be asked critical comprehension questions and were given fewer opportunities to make choices about what to read (Chorzempa & Graham, 2006). For schools with students from lower SES families, grouping often means that these students are segregated into lower-ability tracks. According to Paul George (2005): In my 3 decades of experience with this issue, when homogenous grouping is the primary strategy for organizing students in schools with significant racial and ethnic diversity in the population, the result is almost always deep, and often starkly obvious, division of students on the basis of race, ethnicity, and social class. (p. 187)



Thoughtfully constructed and well-taught ability groups in math and reading can be effective, but the point of any grouping strategy should be to provide appropriate challenge and support—that is, to reach children within their zone of proximal development, that area where students can learn and develop, given the appropriate support (Vygotsky, 1997). Flexible grouping is one possible answer. FLEXIBLE GROUPING. In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. Arrangements might include small groups, partners, individuals, and even the whole class—depending on which grouping best supports each student’s learning of the particular academic content. Flexible grouping approaches include high-level instruction and high expectations for all students, regardless of their group placement (Corno, 2008). One 5-year longitudinal study of flexible grouping in a high-needs urban elementary school found 10% to 57% increases in students who reached mastery level, depending on the subject area and grade level. Teachers received training and support in the assessment, grouping, and teaching strategies needed, and by the end of the study, 95% of the teachers were using flexible grouping. The teachers in the study believed that some of the gains came because students were more focused on learning and more confident (Castle et al., 2005).



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GUIDELINES Using Flexible Grouping Form and re-form groups based on accurate diagnosis of students’ current performance in the subject being taught. Examples 1. Use scores on the most recent reading assessments to establish reading groups and rely on current math performance to form math groups. 2. Assess continuously. Change group placement frequently when students’ achievement changes. Make sure different groups get appropriately different instruction, not just the same material. Make sure teachers, methods, and pace are adjusted to fit the needs of the group. Examples 1. Vary more than pace; fit teaching to students’ interests and knowledge. 2. Assign all groups research reports, but make some written, and others oral or PowerPoint® presentations. 3. Organize and teach groups so that low-achieving students get appropriate extra instruction—not just the same material again. Make lower-achieving groups smaller so students get extra attention. 4. Make sure all work is meaningful and respectful—no worksheets for lower-ability groups while the higher-ability groups do experiments and projects.



5. Try alternatives. For example, DeWayne Mason and Tom Good (1993) found that supplementing whole-class instruction in math with remediation and enrichment for students when they needed it worked better than dividing the class into two ability groups and teaching these groups separately. Discourage comparisons between groups, and encourage students to develop a whole-class spirit. Examples 1. Don’t seat groups together outside the context of their reading or math group. 2. Avoid naming ability groups—save the names for mixedability or whole-class teams. Group by ability for one, or, at the most, two subjects. Examples 1. Make sure that many lessons and projects mix members from the groups. 2. Experiment with learning strategies that stress cooperation (described in Chapter 10). 3. Keep the number of groups small (two or three at most) so that you can provide as much direct teaching as possible. Leaving students alone for too long leads to less learning.



As we have seen repeatedly throughout this text, working at a challenging level, but one you can master with effort and support, is more likely to encourage learning and motivation. If you ever decide to use flexible grouping in your class, the Guidelines: Using Flexible Grouping should make the approach more effective (Arends, 2007; T. L. Good & Brophy, 2008).



Adaptive Teaching Lyn Corno (2008) has developed a model of adaptive teaching that also addresses learner differences. In this approach, teachers see “learner variation as an opportunity for learning from teaching rather than as obstacles to be overcome” (p. 171). Adaptive teaching provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes those supports as students become able to handle more on their own. Figure 14.2 on the next page shows the continuum of support and type of instruction that matches students’ needs. As shown on the far left of the figure, when students are novices in an area or have little prior knowledge and skills, the teaching is more direct and includes well-designed motivational strategies to keep them engaged. At the same time, students are taught how to apply appropriate cognitive strategies, to give them the “skills” to learn. There are short cycles of teaching, checking for understanding, and reteaching. As students develop aptitudes in the subject, teaching moves to modeling, guided practice, and coaching. By this time, students should have improved their cognitive “skills” strategies, so teaching can also focus on motivational and volitional strategies—the “will” to learn. Finally, as students gain more knowledge and skills, teaching can move to guided



Adaptive teaching Provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes these supports as students become able to handle more on their own.



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FIGUR E 14 .2 ADAPTIVE TEACHING By matching support to current student abilities and needs, teachers build on strengths to move all students toward self-regulated learning. Aptitude Circumvention More Intrusive



Support Continuum



Less Intrusive



INSTRUCTION



INSTRUCTION



INSTRUCTION



Direct Instruction Interventions Motivational Enhancements



Modeling Participant Modeling Guided Practice



Discovery Learning Independent Study Peer Tutoring Activates



Models



Short Circuits



LEARNERS



LEARNERS LEARNERS Cognitive Strategy Training



Self-regulation



Modeling of Motivational and Volitional Control Strategies



Aptitude Development Weaker/Novice



Individual Learners



Stronger/Experienced



Source: Based on Corno, L. (2008). On Teaching Adaptively. Educational Psychologist, 43(3), 161–173; and Randi, J., & Corno, L. (2005). Teaching and Learner Variation, in Pedagogy—Learning from Teaching, British Journal of Educational Psychology, Monograph Series II(3), 47–69.



discovery, independent study, and peer tutoring, with an emphasis on self-regulated learning—the kind of learning the students will need for the rest of their lives. Adaptive teaching makes sure that everyone is challenged. For example, one teacher at a magnet school described how he “iced” his curriculum with some content “just beyond the reach” of even his most advanced students. He wanted to be sure all his students found some assignments difficult. He believed “everyone needs to stretch in my class” (Corno, 2008, p. 165).



MyLab Education



Video Example 14.4 In this video, Mrs. Casey differentiates instruction by grouping students for reading. She focuses on vocabulary in both reading groups in the video, but the content is different. Listen to her description of the diversity in her classroom, and consider the importance of differentiation in order to reach every student.



Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms STOP & THINK When you think about teaching in an inclusive classroom, what are your concerns? Do you have enough training? Will you get the support you need from school administrators or specialists? Will working with the students with disabilities take time away from your other responsibilities? •



These questions are common ones, and sometimes such concerns are justified. But effective teaching for students with disabilities does not require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all your students. Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom.



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To accomplish the first goal of academic learning, students with learning disabilities appear to benefit from using extended practice distributed over days and weeks and from advanced organizers such as focusing students on what they already know or stating clear learning targets (H. L. Swanson, 2001). To accomplish the second goal of integrating students with disabilities into the dayto-day life of the classroom, Marilyn Friend and William Bursuck (2019) recommend the INCLUDE strategy: Identify the environmental, curricular, and instructional demands of your classroom. Note students’ learning strengths and needs. Check for potential areas of student success. Look for potential problem areas. Use information gathered to brainstorm instructional adaptations. Decide which adaptations to try. Evaluate student progress. Table 14.8 on the next page shows how the INCLUDE strategy might be applied to students with learning and behavioral disabilities.



Technology and Differentiation The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that all students eligible for special education services be considered for assistive technology. Assistive technology is any product, piece of equipment, or system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Goldman, Lawless, Pellegrino, & Plants, 2006). For students who require small steps and many repetitions to learn a new concept, computers are the perfect patient tutors, repeating steps and lessons as many times as necessary. A well-designed computer instructional program is engaging and interactive—two important qualities for students who have problems paying attention or a history of failure that has eroded motivation. For example, a math or spelling program might use images, sounds, and gamelike features to maintain the attention of a student with an attention-deficit disorder. Interactive digital media programs teach hearing people how to use sign language. Many programs do not involve sound, so students with hearing impairments can get the full benefit from the lessons. Students who have trouble reading can use programs that will “speak” a word for them if they touch the unknown word. With this immediate access to help, these students are much more likely to get the reading practice they need to prevent falling farther and farther behind. Other devices actually convert printed pages and typed texts to spoken words for students who are blind or others who benefit from hearing information. For the student with a learning disability whose writing is not legible, word processors produce perfect penmanship so the ideas can finally get on paper. Once the ideas are recorded, the student can reorganize and improve his or her writing without the agony of rewriting by hand (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2015). With these tremendous advances in technology have come new barriers, however. Many computers have graphic interfaces. Manipulating the programs requires precise mouse or track pad movements, as you may remember when you first learned to point and click. These maneuvers are often difficult for students with motor problems or visual impairments. And the information available on the Internet often is unusable for students with visual problems. Researchers are working on the problem—trying to devise ways for people to access the information nonvisually (Hallahan et al., 2015). One current trend is universal design—considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites (Pisha & Coyne, 2001). For gifted students, computers can be a connection with databases and computers in universities, museums, and research labs. Computer networks allow students to work on projects and share information with others across the country. And students who are gifted could write programs for students and teachers. Quite a few principals around the country rely on their students to keep the technology networks in their schools working



Assistive technology Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Universal design Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites.



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TABLE 14.8 • Making Adaptations for Students with Learning and Behavior Disabilities Using Steps in the INCLUDE Strategy IDENTIFY CLASSROOM DEMANDS



NOTE STUDENT STRENGTHS AND NEEDS



CHECK FOR POTENTIAL SUCCESSES/LOOK FOR POTENTIAL PROBLEMS



DECIDE ON ADAPTATIONS



Student desks in clusters of four



Strengths Good vocabulary skills Needs Difficulty attending to task



Success Student understands instruction if on task Problem Student off task—does not face instructor as she teaches



Change seating so student faces instructor



Small-group work with peers



Strengths Good handwriting Needs Oral expressive language— problem with word finding



Success Student acts as secretary for cooperative group Problem Student has difficulty expressing self in peer learning groups



Assign as secretary of group Place into compatible small group Develop social skills instruction for all students



Expect students to attend class and be on time



Strengths Good drawing skills Needs Poor time management



Success Student uses artistic talent in class Problem Student is late for class and frequently does not attend at all



Use individualized student contract for attendance and punctuality—if goals met, give student artistic responsibility in class



Textbook difficult to read



Strengths Good oral communication skills Needs Poor reading accuracy Lacks systematic strategy for reading text



Success Student participates well in class Good candidate for class dramatizations Problem Student is unable to read text for information



Provide taped textbooks Highlight student text



Lecture on women’s suffrage movement to whole class



Strengths Very motivated and interested in class Needs Lack of background knowledge



Success Student earns points for class attendance and effort Problem Student lacks background knowledge to understand important information in lecture



Give student video to view before lecture Build points for attendance and working hard into grading system



Whole-class instruction on telling time to the quarter hour



Strengths Good coloring skills Needs Cannot identify numbers 7–12 Cannot count by fives



Success Student is able to color clock faces used in instruction Problem Student is unable to acquire telling time skills



Provide extra instruction on number identification and counting by fives



Source: From Friend, M. & Bursuck, W. D. (2015). Including Students with Special Needs: A Practical Guide for Classroom Teachers (7th ed., pp. 229–230). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.



smoothly. These are just a few examples of what technology can do. Check with the resource teachers in your district to find out what is available in your school. No matter how you differentiate instruction, there is one part of your teaching that should be the same for all your students—appropriate high expectations.



MyLab Education Self-Check 14.4



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TEACHER EXPECTATIONS Marvin Marshall (2013) tells the story of a teacher who was delighted when she saw the listing for her new class. “Wow, have I got a bright class this year! Look at these amazing IQs—116, 118, 122, 124. . . .” The teacher designed a host of challenging activities, set high expectations for her students, and communicated her confidence in them to excel. They did. Only much later did the teacher discover that the numbers beside the students’ names were their locker numbers! Can expectations make a difference? Fifty years ago, a study by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968) captured the attention of the national media in a way that few studies by psychologists have since then. Debate about the meaning of the results continues (De Boer, Bosker, & van der Werf, 2010; Jussim, 2013; Jussim, Robustelli, & Cain, 2009; Rosenthal, 1995; R. E. Snow, 1995). What did Rosenthal and Jacobson say that has caused such a stir? They randomly chose several students in a number of elementary school classrooms, and then told the teachers that these students probably would make significant intellectual gains during the year. The students did indeed make larger gains than normal that year. The researchers presented data suggesting the existence of a Pygmalion effect or self-fulfilling prophecy in the classroom. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a groundless expectation that leads to behaviors that then make the original expectation come true (Merton, 1948). An example is a false belief that a bank is failing; this leads to a rush of patrons withdrawing money, which then causes the bank to fail as expected. STOP & THINK When you thought about the most effective teacher you ever had, was one of the characteristics that the teacher believed in you or demanded the best from you? How did the teacher communicate that belief? •



Two Kinds of Expectation Effects Two kinds of expectation effects can occur in classrooms. In the self-fulfilling prophecy just described, the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. The second kind of expectation effect occurs when teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students’ abilities and respond to students appropriately. The problems arise when students show some improvement, but teachers do not alter their expectations to take account of the improvement. This is called a sustaining expectation effect, because the teacher’s unchanging expectation sustains the student’s achievement at the expected level. The chance to raise expectations, provide more appropriate teaching, and thus encourage greater student achievement is lost. In practice, self-fulfilling prophecy effects seem to be stronger in the early grades, and sustaining effects are more likely in the later grades (Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001).



Sources of Expectations There are many possible sources of teachers’ expectations, including intelligence test scores (especially if they are not interpreted appropriately); gender; notes from previous teachers; the medical or psychological reports in students’ permanent files; prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters; appearance (higher expectations for attractive students); previous achievement; SES; race and ethnicity; and the actual behaviors of the student (Van Matre, Valentine, & Cooper, 2000). Even the student’s after-school activities can be a source of expectations. Teachers tend to hold higher expectations for students who participate in extracurricular activities than for students who do nothing after school. And one study has shown that some teachers may even hold class-level expectations; that is, they have higher or lower expectations for all the students in a particular class (Rubie-Davies, 2010). Some students are more likely than others to be the recipients of sustaining expectations. For example, withdrawn children provide little information about themselves,



Pygmalion effect Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for mythological king, Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life. Self-fulfilling prophecy A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. Sustaining expectation effect Student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements.



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MyLab Education Podcast 14.1



Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk describes academic optimism, a new concept that Anita developed along with her husband, Wayne Hoy, a professor of educational administration who works with principals and superintendents. How might academic optimism affect your teaching practice?



so teachers may sustain their expectations about these children simply for lack of new input (M. G. Jones & Gerig, 1994). Young students with lower cognitive abilities who exhibit more behavior problems are at greater risk of low expectations (Gut, Reiman, & Grob, 2013). Also, self-fulfilling prophecy effects tend to be stronger for students from lower-SES families and for African American students (De Boer, Bosker, & van der Werf, 2010). In a synthesis of over 50 studies, Harriet Tenenbaum and Martin Ruck (2007) found that teachers held higher expectations for and directed more positive questions and encouragement toward European American students compared to African American and Latino/a students. The highest expectations were reserved for Asian American students. It appears that early childhood teachers may hold higher expectations for students who are more socially competent (Hinnant, O’Brien, & Ghazarian, 2009). For example, Jennifer Alvidrez and Rhona Weinstein (1999) found teachers tended to overestimate the abilities of preschool children they rated as independent and interesting and to underestimate the abilities of children perceived as immature and anxious. Expectations and beliefs focus attention and organize memory, so teachers may pay attention to and remember the information that fits their initial expectations (Fiske, 1993). Even when student performance does not fit expectations, the teacher may rationalize and attribute the performance to external causes beyond the student’s control. For example, a teacher may assume that the low-ability student who did well on a test must have cheated and that the high-ability student who failed must have been upset that day. In both cases, behavior that seems out of character is dismissed. It may take many instances of supposedly uncharacteristic behavior to change the teacher’s beliefs about a particular student’s abilities. Thus, expectations often remain in the face of contradictory evidence (Brophy, 1998).



Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement? The answer to the question, “Do teachers expectations really affect students’ achievement?” is more complicated than it might seem. There are two ways to investigate the issue. One is to give teachers unfounded expectations about their students and note if these baseless expectations have any effects. The other approach is to identify the naturally occurring expectations of teachers and study the effects of these expectations. The answer to the question of whether teacher expectations affect student learning depends in part on which approach is taken to study the question. The original Rosenthal and Jacobson experiment used the first approach—giving teachers groundless expectations and noting the effects. A careful analysis of the results revealed that even though first through sixth-grade students participated in the study, the self-fulfilling prophecy effects could be traced to dramatic changes in just 5 students in first and second grade. After reviewing the research on teacher expectations, Raudenbush (1984) concluded that these expectations have only a small effect on student IQ scores (the outcome measure used by Rosenthal and Jacobson) and only in the early years of a new school setting—in the first years of elementary school and then again in the first years of middle school. But what about the second approach—naturally occurring expectations? Research shows that teachers do indeed form beliefs about students’ capabilities. Many of these beliefs are accurate assessments based on the best available data and are corrected as new information is collected ( Jussim & Harber, 2005). But inaccuracies can make a difference. In a longitudinal study by Nicole Sorhagen (2013), teachers’ over- and underestimations of students’ math and language abilities in first grade predicted the students’ math, reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge, and verbal reasoning standardized test scores at age 15, and the impact was greater for students for lower-income families. Perhaps the underestimation of the abilities of children in poverty is one factor contributing to the achievement gap for those students. If teachers decide that some students are less able, and if the teachers lack effective strategies for working with lower-achieving students, then students may experience a double threat—low expectations and inadequate teaching (T. L. Good & Brophy, 2008).



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TABLE 14.9 • Teacher Expectations and Instruction Here are some ways that teachers differentiate their instruction and communications toward students based on the teacher’s expectations about student abilities EXPECTATIONS



INSTRUCTION



INTERACTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS



High



More challenging lessons More opportunities for choice More likely to be assigned to high or gifted group



More opportunities and time to respond to teacher questions More opportunity for follow-up questions—tell me more More stay-with behavior—teacher provides clues or rephrases the questions More teacher praise Greater teacher warmth, smiles, affective support



Low



Less challenging lessons, more drill and practice Fewer opportunities for choice More likely to be assigned to low groups



Fewer opportunities and less time to respond to teacher questions Less opportunity for follow-up questions More give-up behavior—teacher provides the answer or calls on another student to do so More teacher criticism for wrong answers, less praise for correct answers Less corrective feedback for wrong answers Fewer teacher smiles, less personal warmth



Even though it is clear that teacher expectations can affect student achievement, the effects are modest on average and tend to dissipate somewhat over the years ( Jussim, 2013). The power of the expectation effect depends on the age of the students (generally speaking, younger students are more susceptible) and on how differently a teacher treats high- versus low-expectation students, an issue we turn to next (Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001). Teachers may use different instructional strategies and also have different interactions and relationships with students based on expectations, as shown in Table 14.9 (Good, 2014). In terms of instruction, when students who are ready for more challenging work are not given the opportunity to try it because teachers believe they cannot handle it, a sustaining expectation effect is likely. In terms of interactions and relationships, the effects can be huge, as the expectation differences build year after year with many teachers (Trouilloud, Sarrazin, Bressoux, & Bois, 2006).



Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations Of course, not all teachers form inappropriate expectations or act on their expectations in unconstructive ways (Babad, Inbar, & Rosenthal, 1982). The Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations on the next page may help you avoid some of these problems. But avoiding the problem may be more difficult than it seems. In general, low-expectation students also tend to be the most disruptive students. (Of course, low expectations can reinforce their desire to disrupt or misbehave.) Teachers may call on these students less, wait a shorter time for their answers, and give them less praise for right answers, partly to avoid the wrong, careless, or silly answers that can cause disruptions, delays, and digressions. The challenge is to deal with these very real threats to classroom management without communicating low expectations to some students or fostering their own low expectations of themselves. And sometimes, low expectations become part of the culture of the school—beliefs shared by teachers and administrators alike (R. S. Weinstein, Madison, & Kuklinski, 1995). MyLab Education Self-Check 14.5



MyLab Education



Video Example 14.5 Mrs. Casey communicates clear expectations as she prepares students to work in groups at various centers. She uses ability grouping for guided reading, but her instructions to the class do not show distinctions in levels of expectation. Notice how she expresses trust in her students and encourages them to support one another. In the reading group, notice her unbiased expectations and praise.



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GUIDELINES Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations Use information about students from tests, cumulative folders, and other teachers very carefully. Examples 1. Avoid reading cumulative folders early in the year. 2. Be critical and objective about the reports you hear from other teachers. 3. Be flexible in your expectations—a student’s label or your judgment might be wrong. Be flexible in your use of grouping strategies. Examples 1. Review work of students often, and experiment with new groupings. 2. Use different groups for different subjects. 3. Use mixed-ability groups in cooperative exercises. Provide both challenge and support. Examples 1. Don’t say, “This is easy, I know you can do it.” 2. Offer a wide range of problems, and encourage all students to try a few of the harder ones for extra credit. Find something positive about these attempts. 3. Make sure your high expectations come with academic and emotional support for students’ struggles. “Holding high standards without providing a warm environment is merely harsh. A warm environment without high standards lacks backbone” (Jussim, 2013). Be especially careful about how you respond to lowachieving students during class discussions. Examples 1. Give them prompts, cues, and time to answer. 2. Give ample praise for good answers. 3. Call on low achievers as often as you do high achievers. Use materials that show a wide range of ethnic groups. Examples 1. Check readers and library books. Is there ethnic diversity? 2. Ask students to research and create their own materials, based on community or family sources.



Make sure that your teaching does not reflect racial, ethnic, or sexual stereotypes or prejudice. Examples 1. Use a checking system to be sure you call on and include all students. 2. Monitor the content of the tasks you assign. Do boys get the “hard” math problems to work at the board? Do you avoid having students with limited English give oral presentations? Be fair in evaluation and disciplinary procedures. Examples 1. Make sure equal offenses receive equal punishment. Find out from students in an anonymous questionnaire whether you seem to be favoring certain individuals. 2. Try to grade student work without knowing the identity of the student. Ask another teacher to give you a “second opinion” from time to time. Communicate to all students that you believe they can learn—and mean it. Examples 1. Return papers that do not meet standards with specific suggestions for improvements. 2. If students do not have the answers immediately, wait, probe, and then help them think through an answer. Involve all students in learning tasks and in privileges. Examples 1. Use some system to make sure you give each student practice in reading, speaking, and answering questions. 2. Keep track of who gets to do what job. Are some students always on the list, whereas others seldom make it? Monitor your nonverbal behavior. Examples 1. Do you lean away or stand farther away from some students? Do some students get smiles when they approach your desk, whereas others get only frowns? 2. Does your tone of voice vary with different students? For more information see chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/ teacherexpect.html



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. SUMMARY Research on Teaching (pp. 552–555) What methods have been used to study teaching? For years, researchers have tried to unravel the mystery of effective teaching using classroom observation, case studies, interviews, experimentation with different methods, stimulated recall (teachers view videotapes and explain their teaching), analysis of lesson transcripts, and other approaches to study teaching in real classrooms. What are the general characteristics of good teaching? A variety of teacher qualities are related to good teaching. Research suggests teachers who receive proper training and certification have more successful students. Although it is important, teacher knowledge of a subject is not sufficient for effective teaching. Thorough knowledge does lead to greater clarity and better organization, which are both tied to good teaching. Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively. Teacher warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the traits most strongly related to positive student attitudes about the teacher and the course in general. What do expert teachers know? It takes time and experience to become an expert teacher. These teachers have a rich store of well-organized knowledge about the many specific situations of teaching. This knowledge is very complex and specific to the situation, topic, students, and even the individual teacher. Within the particular situation and topic, expert teachers have clear goals and take individual differences into account when planning for their students. Expert teachers also know how to be reflective practitioners—how to use their experience as a way to grow and improve in their teaching. What does the latest research on teaching reveal to us? A program of large-scale, longitudinal research has identified three aspects of classroom climate that are related to the development and learning of preschool and elementary school students. These three dimensions are consistent with the characteristics of teachers identified in earlier research on teaching and cover affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions. The affective dimension is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research. The cognitive dimension is instructional support, which includes concept development (activities and discussions that promote student higher-order thinking) and quality feedback that is specific and focused on the learning process. The third dimension is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management with clear activities and routines that make more time for learning and really engage students—similar to the teacher characteristics of clarity and organization.



The First Step: Planning (pp. 555–563) What are the levels of planning, and how do they affect teaching? Teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit, week, and day. All the levels must be coordinated. The plan determines how time and materials will be turned into activities for students. There is no single model



of planning, but all plans should allow for flexibility. Planning is a creative problem-solving process for experienced teachers. It is more informal—“in their heads.” What is the Common Core? To address problems with inconsistency, lack of rigor, and redundancies in many statelevel standards, beginning in 2009, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) led an effort to define consistent national standards for each grade, K–12, in two broad areas: (1) English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects, and (2) mathematics. Today adoption of the Common Core is a moving target. In early 2017, 35 states and the District of Columbia were using the standards, but 10 states were rewriting or replacing them. What is a learning target, and what are the three taxonomies of educational outcomes? Learning targets tell what students should know and be able to do—what would successful learning look like. Bloom and others have developed taxonomies categorizing basic objectives in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. A taxonomy encourages systematic thinking about relevant targets and ways to evaluate them. Six outcomes objectives are listed in the cognitive domain: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating, acting on four kinds of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Outcomes in the affective domain run from least committed to most committed. Outcomes in the psychomotor domain generally move from basic perceptions and reflex actions to skilled, creative movements. A more concise way to think about learning outcomes is to target knowledge, reasoning, performance skills, products, or dispositions. Describe constructivist planning. Planning is shared and negotiated in student-centered, or constructivist, approaches. Rather than having specific student behaviors as objectives, the teacher has overarching goals or “big ideas” that guide planning. Integrated content and teaching with themes are often part of the planning. Assessment of learning is ongoing and mutually shared by teacher and students.



Teaching Approaches (pp. 563–575) How should teachers use direct instruction and homework? Direct instruction is appropriate for teaching basic skills and explicit knowledge. It includes the teaching functions of review/overview, presentation, guided practice, feedback and correctives (with reteaching if necessary), independent practice, and periodic reviews. The younger or less able the students, the shorter the presentation should be, with more cycles of practice and feedback. The “10-minute rule” for homework means 10 minutes of homework per night starting in the first grade and increasing by 10 minutes each grade, so a twelfth grader would be assigned about 120 minutes. Distinguish between convergent and divergent questions and describe deep questions. Convergent questions have only one right answer. Divergent questions have many possible



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answers. Deep questions (such as why, why-not, how, what-if, how does X compare to Y, and what is the evidence for?) require thoughtful and well-reasoned explanations—students have to think for themselves. The best pattern for younger students and for lower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. For high-ability students, the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback. Whatever their age or ability, all students should have some experience with deep, thought-provoking questions and, if necessary, help in learning how to answer them. How can wait time affect student learning? When teachers pose a question and then learn to wait at least 3 to 5 seconds before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers. What are the uses and disadvantages of group discussion? Group discussion helps students participate directly, express themselves clearly, justify opinions, and tolerate different views. Group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. So group discussions help students evaluate ideas and synthesize personal viewpoints. However, discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance. How can you match teaching to your goals? Different goals and student needs require different teaching methods. Direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, but the open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. In addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and for stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates. How can you use Understanding by Design to plan quality instruction? The focus of UbD is on deep understanding, which is characterized by the ability to (1) explain, (2) interpret, (3) apply, (4) have perspective, (5) empathize, and (6) have self-knowledge about a topic. The big idea behind UbD is backward design. Teachers first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. To focus on understanding (not just fun activities or covering the text), teachers write essential questions—questions that go to the heart of the ideas and push thinking deeper. The UbD template guides planning based on these considerations.



Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching (pp. 576–580) What are the problems with ability grouping? Academic ability groupings can have disadvantages and advantages for students and teachers. Students in higher-ability groups may benefit, but students in lower-ability groups are less likely to



be asked critical comprehension questions and are given fewer opportunities to make choices about readings and assignments. For schools with students from lower SES families, grouping often means that these students are segregated even in their own classes, so ability grouping can create segregation within diverse schools. What are the alternatives available for grouping in classes, including flexible grouping? In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. Arrangements might include small groups, partners, individuals, and even the whole class—depending on which grouping best supports each student’s learning of the particular academic content. Within-class ability grouping, if handled sensitively and flexibly, can have positive effects, but alternatives such as cooperative learning may be better. What is adaptive teaching? Adaptive teaching provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes those supports as students are able to handle more on their own. What characterizes effective teaching for students with disabilities? Effective teaching for students with disabilities does not require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all students. Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom. What approaches are helpful for teaching students with disabilities? Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom. To accomplish the first goal, students with learning disabilities benefit from using extended practice distributed over days and weeks and from advanced organizers such as focusing students on what they already know or stating clear learning targets. The INCLUDE strategy is one possibility for accomplishing the second goal of integrating students into the day-to-day life of the classroom: identify classroom demands, note student’s strengths and needs, check for possible areas of success, look for potential problem areas, use information gathered to plan adaptations, decide on adaptations, evaluate student progress.



Teacher Expectations (pp. 581–584) What are some sources of teacher expectations? Sources include intelligence test scores, gender, notes from previous teachers, medical or psychological reports found in cumulative folders, ethnic background, prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters, physical characteristics, previous achievement, SES, and the actual behaviors of the student. What are the two kinds of expectation effects, and how do they happen? The first is the self-fulfilling prophecy, in which the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. The second is a sustaining expectation effect, in which teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students’ abilities and respond to students appropriately, but they do not alter their expectations to take account of any improvement. When this happens, the teacher’s



TE A C H I NG E V ERY S T U DEN T unchanging expectation can sustain the student’s achievement at the expected level. In practice, sustaining effects are more common than self-fulfilling prophecy effects. What are the different avenues for communicating teacher expectations?  Some teachers tend to treat students differently, depending on their own views of how well the students



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are likely to do. Differences in treatment toward low-expectation students may include setting less-challenging lessons, focusing on lower-level learning, giving fewer choices, providing inconsistent feedback, and communicating less respect and trust. Students may behave accordingly, fulfilling teachers’ predictions or staying at an expected level of achievement.



. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below.



Rosenshine’s Teaching Functions



Using a Backward Design to Plan Instruction



Teacher Attributions and Expectations



Step 1—Designing the Goal Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side lengths in right triangles in real-world and mathematical problems in two and three dimensions. Common Core www.corestandards.org/Math/Content/8/G/B/



Key Understandings 1. The area formed by the square on top of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the total area of the two squares formed on the tops of the other two sides. 2. There are multiple ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.



Essential Questions 1. What makes a mathematical argument of the Pythagorean Theorem convincing?



3.….



3.….



2. Are there any real world uses of the Pythagorean Theorem?



What Will the Student Know? 1. What is a hypotenuse of a right triangle? 2. What is the length of any side of a right triangle, given the two other sides? 3. ….. What Will the Student Be Able to Do? 1. Draw a graphic illustration that demonstrates the validity of the Pythagorean Theorem. 2. ……



Step 2—Designing the Assessment



Authentic/Real-World Assessments 1. Can you calculate the height of a flagpole based on its shadow—how? 2. You have an old media cabinet with an opening that is 34” by 34”. You want a new flat screen TV that is at least a 42” diagonal. Assume the ratio of a new TV height to width is 3/5. Will it fit? Why? 3. Given that the distance between successive bases in baseball is 90 feet, what is the distance a throw has to travel from third base and first base? 4…..



Traditional Assessments 1. Questions on homework 2. Self-questions developed based on chapter, along with answers and justifications. 3. Unit test 4…..



Step 3—Designing the Learning 1. In groups, investigate the area of squares, triangles, and rectangles around the classroom—compare your group’s areas with the areas calculated by other groups for the same objects. 2. Using cardboard pieces, scissors, a ruler, and pencil, prove the Pythagorean Theorem. 3. Modules 6 & 7 in text (For more ideas, see http://questgarden.com/ and search for “Pythagorean Theorem.”)



MyLab Education Application Exercise 14.1



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 14.2



Application Exercise 14.3



. KEY TERMS Active teaching (p. 563) Adaptive teaching (p. 577) Affective domain (p. 560) Assistive technology (p. 579) Basic skills (p. 563) Cognitive domain (p. 559) Constructivist approach (p. 562) Convergent questions (p. 570) Differentiated instruction (p. 576)



Direct instruction/explicit teaching (p. 563) Divergent questions (p. 570) Expert teachers (p. 553) Flexible grouping (p. 576) Group discussion (p. 572) Lesson study (p. 556) Pedagogical content knowledge (p. 553) Psychomotor domain (p. 561) Pygmalion effect (p. 581)



Reflective (p. 553) Scripted cooperation (p. 564) Seatwork (p. 565) Self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 581) Sustaining expectation effect (p. 581) Taxonomy (p. 559) Understanding by Design (p. 574) Universal design (p. 579) Within-class ability grouping (p. 576)



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CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE



MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Direct instruction is best used when teachers do which one of the following? A. Teach basic skills B. Have their students explore numerous pathways to solve a mathematics problem C. Encourage their students to refine their creativity in art D. Assign critical thinking exercises 2. Homework has long been a staple of education. For students to gain the most from their homework experience, ALL BUT which one of the following suggestions should be followed? A. Establish that students understand the assignment B. Hold students accountable for completing the work correctly C. Check students’ work and allow for corrections and revisions D. Require a parent signature to ensure collaboration with family 3. Ellen Baker knew that her new job in a middle school would require that she understand differentiated instruction. Using this strategy, her students would be more apt to progress and master the concepts they needed to succeed throughout their school years. One of the techniques she decided to use involved grouping students by their learning needs. She would group students who had scored poorly on their fractions tests with similar students to remediate and develop that skill. She likened this type of differentiated instruction to having students continually work in their zone of proximal development. The type of strategy Ellen Baker wants to use is referred to as which one of the following? A. Flexible grouping B. Jigsaw C. Collaborative group work D. Peer tutoring



4. Teachers sometimes make determinations about their students’ abilities based on little evidence. When teachers expect their students will not do well, their words and actions can make that expectation come true regardless of the validity. This effect is referred to as which one of the following? A. Self-fulfilling prophecy B. The zone of proximal development C. Professional license D. Supportive withdrawal



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case Although Casey Yost had done well in her college classes, she was having a difficult time with her student teaching. Her mentor teacher continually scolded her for not correctly writing her objectives and rushing through lessons. Casey did not understand how she could both make her lessons clear and manage to cover the material necessary for the students’ upcoming standardized tests. “Casey, if your students don’t understand the material, it won’t make a difference if you cover the material or not. Let’s review one of your objectives for the upcoming lesson. ‘Students will understand fractions.’ This objective is too general. How can you measure if your students ‘understand’? You need to select words that correspond to specific actions that you can observe or measure. Let’s try to develop a few objectives that are more specific.” 5. In what ways can Casey Yost avoid writing objectives that are too general? 6. List several strategies that Casey can employ during instruction to teach her students more effectively.



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK Reaching and Teaching Every Student Here is how some practicing teachers would differentiate instruction for the class described at the beginning of the chapter. LOU DE LAURO • Fifth-Grade Language Arts John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ



In your hometown you probably know a lot of people. To be successful you are going to have to use the town to help you. If you plan properly, you should be able to secure one guest a week for the entire school year. The kids will love meeting new people each week and reading with them. But you need more than a guest a week to visit your classroom. So ask the businesses in town. Maybe a business can run a fundraiser so you can purchase alternative texts for your students. Maybe the local library can introduce you to their biggest donor who might donate texts to you. Maybe you can apply for a grant with the local educational foundation to get new materials. But you need more help. You are a teacher; you were probably a strong student who connected with your former teachers. Visit any teachers that are still teaching, and get their advice on what to do. What has worked in the past may work well now, too. Devote many hours after school to your students. Smallgroup instruction will help these kids. Get the two students who are practically ready for college small stipends donated by a local business so they stay after school and help you with your challenging students. I think that if you fully take advantage of your home court, this is one situation in which you can easily prevail. MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • Eighth-Grade Foreign Language Teacher (German and French) Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH



To start, I would encourage a teacher to look beyond the general classifications of “white, working, middle class, and English speaking.” Even in a class full of students who fit this demographic, there is an array of individuals. Each student learns differently and has different interests. A good teacher will recognize this and challenge students as people, not as groups. Do your best to layer as much as you can throughout your lessons. Give students choices. Use what resources you have—in this case particularly resources for students who are learning English as a second language. Even praising students’ individual characteristics and accomplishments outside the classroom sets the tone. Finally, keep in mind that you are only one person and can only give your best. Don’t overwork yourself and burn out—you are no good to your students or your family if you are wiped out. M. DENISE LUTZ • Technology Coordinator Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH



Studies have shown that student success is directly related to teacher effectiveness. In today’s diverse classrooms a teacher must develop effective classroom pedagogy that incorporates effective instructional strategies, uses effective classroom management strategies, and designs effective classroom curriculum



to meet the needs of all learners. It is necessary to communicate learning goals for all students, track individual progress, and celebrate successes. Under the guidance of the teacher, students should learn to work collaboratively in small groups and as a cohesive class encouraging and helping one another to be successful. A teacher who establishes and maintains classroom rules and procedures while acknowledging students who do and do not follow these rules and procedures fosters this kind of environment. Consistency, trust, and authenticity will help to advance the development of effective relationships between the teacher, the home, and among class members. Effective classroom curriculum always begins with the end in mind. The teacher should have a clear picture of what mastery of content would look like for each of his or her students. Understanding the big idea and defining essential questions will guide the collection of activities and lessons that will move each student in the direction of success. The direction of success will remain the same for all students, but lessons and activities may present different paths for individuals to traverse. Today’s teacher must work from day one to get to know each individual and to establish a culture of collaboration among the group. PATRICIA A. SMITH • High School Math Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX



Because this new teacher is a product of the same school system, it will be imperative to begin classroom instruction with absolutely no preconceived opinions toward any particular student. Likewise, a diverse population requires the teacher to resolve student situations discreetly and judiciously, and not publicly. The initial goals of the teacher would be to facilitate student work in a cooperative manner and engender teacher trust. Planning and organizing icebreaker exercises the first few days of the school year could prove extremely profitable. With a wide range of reading levels, small groups would work to the teacher’s advantage. I would not suggest grouping students according to reading level at all times, but would opt to appoint a recognized student leader to orchestrate daily oral recitations. Moreover, I would select reading materials suited to all students and keep the assignments brief to avoid overwhelming struggling readers. The student leader could also design questions to gauge comprehension and give the group a follow-up spelling test. Initially, the spelling test would be composed of 5 to 10 simple words that students could either print or write. Subsequently, as the students gain confidence and experience success, the readings could be assigned as homework and the students would be required to write a short paragraph answering a reading comprehension question. If the teacher remains well organized, the instructional time allotted for small-group interaction should not extend over 15 minutes in a single class period. Thus, the teacher would not forfeit traditional grammar lessons for the entire class but would still provide limited individualized instruction. I would also supplement SAT reading and English practice for all college-bound students.



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TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Giving Meaningful Grades



WHAT WOULD YOU DO?



CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT, GRADING, AND STANDARDIZED TESTING Your school requires that you give letter grades to your class. You can use any method you want, as long as an A, B, C, D, or F appears for each of the subject areas on every student’s report card, every grading period. Some teachers are using worksheets, quizzes, homework, and tests. Others are assigning group work and portfolios. A few teachers are individualizing standards by grading on progress and effort more than on final achievement. Some are trying contract approaches and experimenting with longer-term projects, while others are relying almost completely on daily class work. Two teachers who use group work are considering giving credit toward grades for being a “good group member” or competitive bonus points for the top-scoring group. Others are planning to use improvement points for class rewards, but not for grades. Your only experience with grading was using written comments and a mastery approach that rated the students as making satisfactory or unsatisfactory progress toward particular learning targets. You want a system that is reliable, fair, and manageable, but also encourages learning, not just performance. And you want a system that gives the students feedback they can use to prepare for the state proficiency tests. CRITICAL THINKING • What would you choose as your major graded assignments and projects? • Would you include credit for behaviors such as group participation or effort? • How would you put all the elements together to determine a grade for every student for every marking period? • How would you justify your system to the principal and to the students’ families, especially when the teachers in your school are using so many different criteria? • What do you think of the wide range of criteria being used by different teachers—is this fair to students? • How will these issues affect the grade levels you will teach?



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OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES As you read this chapter, you will examine assessment, testing, and grading, focusing not only on the effects they are likely to have on students, but also on practical ways to develop better methods for testing and grading. We begin with a consideration of the basic concepts in assessment including reliability and validity. Next, we examine the many types of tests teachers prepare each year and approaches to assessment that don’t rely on traditional testing. Then, we explore the effects grades are likely to have on students and the very important topic of communication with students and families. How will you justify the grades you give? Finally, because standardized tests are so important today, we spend some time looking at testing, the meaning of test scores, and alternatives to traditional testing. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: Objective 15.1



Describe the basics of assessment including types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments.



Objective 15.2



Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing.



Objective 15.3



Explain how to use formative assessment to improve instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics.



Objective 15.4



Describe the effects of grading on students and the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to parents about grades.



Objective 15.5



Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile rank, stanine, gradeequivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches.



OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Basics of Assessment Measurement and Assessment Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity Classroom Assessment: Testing Interpreting Any Test Score Using the Tests from Textbooks Selected-Response Testing Constructed Responses: Essay Testing Assessing Traditional Testing Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments Informal Assessments Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Assessing Complex Thinking Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers Grading Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading Effects of Grading on Students Grades and Motivation Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families Standardized Testing Types of Scores Interpreting Standardized Test Reports Accountability and High-Stakes Testing New Directions: PARCC and SBAC



BASICS OF ASSESSMENT Would it surprise you to learn that published tests, such as college entrance exams and IQ tests, are creations of the twentieth century? In the early to mid-1900s, college entrance was generally based on grades, essays, and interviews. From your own experience, you know that testing has come a long way since then—too far, say some critics. Published tests today are called standardized tests because they are administered, scored, reported, and interpreted in a standard manner—same directions, time limits, and scoring for all (Popham, 2017). The schools where you teach probably will use standardized tests, especially to meet the growing demands for accountability. In most schools, however, teachers do not have much say in selecting these tests. Classroom assessments, on the other hand, are created and selected by teachers. Classroom assessments can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, group projects, performances, oral presentations, videos, designs and plans, journals, or products such as artwork or clothing—the list is long. Assessments are critical because teaching involves making many kinds of judgments— decisions based on values: “Is this software or book appropriate for my students?” “Should Olivia get a B− or a C+ on the project?” This chapter is about the judgments involved in all forms of assessment and grading, with an emphasis on classroom assessments—the kind you will create and interpret. Before we look at either classroom or standardized assessments, let’s examine some key distinctions that apply to both, beginning with the difference between measurement and assessment.



Measurement and Assessment Measurement is quantitative—the description of an event or



characteristic using numbers. Measurement tells how much, how often, or how well by providing scores, ranks, or ratings. Instead of saying, “Sarah doesn’t seem to understand addition,” a teacher might say, “Sarah answered only 2 of the Teacher Accountability and Evaluation 15 problems correctly in her addition homework.” MeasureQuality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for ment also allows a teacher to compare one student’s perforTeachers mance on a particular task with either a specific standard Summary and Key Terms or the performances of other students on the same task. Not all the decisions made by teachers involve measTeachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do? urement. Some decisions are based on information that is difficult to express numerically: student preferences, discussions with families, previous experiences, even intuition. But measurement does play a large role in many classroom Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® decisions, and, when properly done, it can provide unbiased data for decisions. In fact, Types of Assessment (II, C1, 4) data-based decision making is very important in today’s schools. Understand the purposes Increasingly, measurement specialists are using the term assessment to describe of formative and summative the process of gathering information from a range of sources about students’ learning. assessment. Explain how Assessment consists of many ways—quantitative and qualitative—to sample and observe teachers and students can students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities, so assessment is the broader term that includes make effective use of the measurement along with many other techniques (R. L. Linn & Miller, 2005). Assessments information generated by each type of test. can be formal, such as planned unit tests, or informal, such as observing who emerges Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests



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as a leader during group work. Assessments can be designed by classroom teachers or by local, state, or national agencies such as school districts or the Educational Testing Service. And today, assessments can go well beyond paper-and-pencil exercises to include judgments based on students’ performances, portfolios, projects, or products (Popham, 2017). FORMATIVE, INTERIM, AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT. There are three general uses or purposes for assessment, depending on where you are in the instructional cycle: formative, interim, and summative assessment (NWEA, 2015). Formative assessment is a process that occurs before or during instruction. The purposes of formative assessment are to guide the teacher in planning and adjusting instruction and to provide feedback to help students improve learning. In other words, formative assessment helps form instruction by providing feedback that supports the efforts of both teachers and students (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Students often take a formative assessment before instruction, a pretest that helps the teacher determine what students already know. Teachers sometimes assess during instruction to see what areas of weakness remain, so they can direct teaching toward the problem areas. These formative assessments are not graded, so students who tend to be very anxious about “real” tests may find this low-pressure practice in test taking especially helpful. Also, the feedback from formative tests can help students become better judges of quality and more self-regulated in their learning (I. Clark, 2012). Interim (growth) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. These assessments might be used to differentiate instruction, determine if special services are appropriate, assess progress in Response to Intervention (RtI) programs (see Chapter 4), or evaluate whether a particular curriculum is working as hoped (NWEA, 2015). Some standardized test packages now have interim assessments to help teachers determine whether their students are making good progress and if they will be ready for the standardized test when it comes (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). For an example of interim assessments used by about 15 states, see the Smarter Balanced Assessment System at https://www.smarterbalanced.org Summative assessment occurs at the end of instruction. Its purpose is measure the students’ level of proficiency—have they learned the prescribed content and skill? Summative assessment, therefore, provides a summary of students’ accomplishments. The final exam is a classic example. Standardized tests such as the SAT or GRE are also summative—they assess what you have learned. The distinctions among formative, interim, and summative assessments are based on how the results are used. If the purpose of the assessment is to improve your teaching and help students guide their own learning, then the evaluation is formative. If the purpose is to track growth and progress over time, the assessment is interim. And if the purpose is to evaluate final achievement (and help report a course grade), the assessment is summative (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Some educators say formative assessment supports learning and summative assessment reports learning (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). In fact, the same assessment could be used as a formative evaluation at the beginning of the unit, as an interim assessment during the unit, and as a summative evaluation at the end. Because the formative uses of assessment are really the most important in teaching, we will spend more time on them later. For now let’s consider how to judge any assessment.



Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity One of the most common problems with the use of assessments, especially tests, is misinterpretation of results. No assessment provides a perfect picture of a person’s abilities; the results from a test provide only one small sample of behavior. Three factors are important in developing good assessments and interpreting results: reliability, validity, and absence of bias. These terms are applied most often to test scores, even though the underlying considerations apply to all assessments.



Standardized tests Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures. Classroom assessments Classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, and so on. Measurement An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms. Assessment Procedures used to obtain information about student performance. Formative assessment Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis. Pretest Formative test for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities. Interim (growth) assessments Assessments that occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Summative assessment Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement.



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RELIABILITY OF TEST SCORES. Scores are reliable if a test gives a consistent and stable “reading” of a person’s ability from one occasion to the next, assuming the person’s ability remains the same. A reliable thermometer works in a similar manner, giving you a reading of 100°C each time you measure the temperature of boiling water. There are several ways to compute reliability, but all the possibilities give numbers between 0.0 and 1.0, like a correlation coefficient. Above .90 is considered very reliable; .80 to .90 is good, and below .80 is not very good reliability for commercially produced standardized tests such as the SAT or ACT (Haladyna, 2002). Generally speaking, longer tests are more reliable than shorter ones. Errors in Test Scores. All tests are imperfect estimators of the qualities or skills they are trying to measure. There are sources of error related to the student such as mood, motivation, test-taking skills, or even cheating. Sometimes the errors are in your favor, and you score higher than your knowledge might warrant; sometimes the errors go against you. There are also sources of error related to the test itself: the directions are unclear, the reading level is too high, the items are ambiguous, or the time limits are wrong. The score each student receives always includes some amount of error. How can error be reduced? As you might guess, this returns us to the question of reliability. The more reliable the test scores are, the less error there will be in the score actually obtained. On standardized tests, test developers take this into consideration and make estimations of how much the students’ scores would probably vary if they were tested repeatedly. This estimation is called the standard error of measurement. Thus, a reliable test can also be defined as one with a small standard error of measurement.



Reliability Consistency of test results. Standard error of measurement Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated. Confidence interval Range of scores within which an individual’s true score is likely to fall. True score The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error free. Validity Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.



Confidence Interval. Never base an opinion of a student’s ability or achievement on the exact score the student obtains. For standardized tests, many test companies now report scores using a confidence interval, or “standard error band,” that encloses the student’s actual score. This makes use of the standard error of measurement and allows a teacher to consider the range of scores that might include a student’s true score— the score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free. Assume, for example, that two students in your class take a standardized achievement test in Spanish. The standard error of measurement for this test is 5. One student receives a score of 79 and the other, a score of 85. At first glance, these scores seem quite different. But when you consider the standard error bands around the scores, not just the scores alone, you see that the bands overlap. The first student’s true score might be anywhere between 74 and 84 (that is, the actual score of 79 plus or minus the standard error of 5). The second student’s true score might be anywhere between 80 and 90. Both students could have the same true score of 80, 81, 82, 83, or 84, because the score bands overlap at those numbers. It is crucial to keep in mind the idea of standard error bands when selecting students for special programs. No child should be rejected simply because the score obtained missed the cutoff by 1 or 2 points. The student’s true score might well be above the cutoff point. See Figure 15.5 later in this chapter for a report that includes these score bands. VALIDITY. If test scores are sufficiently reliable, the next question is whether the scores are valid, or more accurately, whether the judgments and decisions based on the test scores are valid. To have validity, the decisions and inferences based on the test must be supported by evidence. This means that validity is judged in relation to a particular use or purpose—that is, in relation to the actual decision being made and the evidence for that decision. A particular test might be valid for one purpose, but not for another (Oosterhof, 2009; Popham, 2017). Different kinds of evidence support a particular judgment. If the purpose of a test is to measure the skills covered in a course or unit, then we would hope to see test questions on all the important topics and not on extraneous information. If this condition is



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met, we would have content-related evidence of validity. Have you ever taken a test that dealt only with a few ideas from one lecture or just a few pages of the textbook? Then decisions based on that test (like your grade) certainly lacked content-related evidence of validity. Some tests are designed to predict outcomes. The SATs, for example, are intended to predict performance in college. If SAT scores correlate with academic performance in college as measured by the criterion of, say, grade-point average in the first year, then we have criterion-related evidence of validity for the use of the SAT in admissions decisions. Most standardized tests are designed to measure some psychological characteristic or “construct” such as reasoning ability, reading comprehension, achievement motivation, intelligence, creativity, and so on. It is a bit more difficult to gather constructrelated evidence of validity, yet this is a very important requirement—probably the most important. Construct-related evidence of validity is gathered over many years. It is indicated by a pattern of scores. For example, older children can answer more questions on intelligence tests than younger children can. This fits with our construct of intelligence. If the average 5-year-old answered as many questions correctly on a test as the average 13-year-old, we would doubt that the test really measured intelligence. Construct-related evidence for validity can also be demonstrated when the results of a test correlate with the results of other well-established, valid measures of the same construct. Today, many psychologists suggest that construct validity is the broadest category and that gathering content- and criterion-related evidence is another way of determining if the test actually measures the construct it was designed to measure. A test must be reliable in order to be valid. For example, if an intelligence test yields different results each time it is given to the same child over the course of a few months, then, by definition, it is not reliable. Certainly, it couldn’t be a valid measure of intelligence because intelligence is assumed to be fairly stable, at least over a short period of time. However, reliability will not guarantee validity. If that intelligence test gave the same score every time for a particular child, but didn’t predict school achievement, speed of learning, or other characteristics associated with intelligence, then performance on the test would not be a true indicator of intelligence. The test would be reliable—but invalid. Reliability and validity are issues with all assessments, not just standardized tests. Classroom tests should yield scores that are reliable, that are as free from error as possible, and that are valid—in other words, they accurately measure what they are supposed to measure. ABSENCE OF BIAS. The third important criterion for judging assessments is absence of bias. Assessment bias “refers to qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion, or other such group-defining characteristic” (Popham, 2017, p. 125). Biases are aspects of the assessment such as content, language, or examples that might distort the performance of a group—either for better or for worse. For example, if a reading test used passages that described mixed martial arts scenarios, we might expect males on average to do better than females. Two forms of assessment bias are unfair penalization and offensiveness. The reading assessment with heavy sports content is an example of unfair penalization—girls may be penalized for their lack of mixed martial arts knowledge. Offensiveness occurs when a particular group might be insulted by the content of the assessment. Offended, angry students may not perform at their best. What about biases based on ethnicity or social class? Many people believe that tests can unfairly penalize some groups who may not have an equal opportunity to show what they know on the test because the language of the test and the tester may be different from the languages of the students. Also, tests may reflect unfair penalization because different groups have had different opportunities to learn the material tested. The questions asked tend to center on experiences and facts more familiar to



Assessment bias Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so on.



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students from the dominant culture than to students from minority groups. Consider this test item for fourth graders described by Popham (2014, p. 391): My uncle’s field is computer programming. Look at the sentences below. In which sentence does the word field mean the same as it does in the boxed sentence above? A. B. C. D.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Traditional Assessment (II C1, 2, 4) Selected-response and essay tests continue to have important roles in effective assessment and evaluation programs. Describe the appropriate uses of these types of tests. Identify the advantages and limitations of each.



The softball pitcher knew how to field her position. They prepared the field by spraying and plowing it. I know the field I plan to enter when I finish college. The doctor used a wall chart to examine my field of vision.



Items like this are included on most standardized and textbook tests. But not all family members describe their work as a field of employment. If your parents work in professional fields such as information technology, medicine, law, or education, the item would make sense, but what if your parents worked at a grocery store or a car repair shop? Are these fields? Life outside class has prepared some students, but not others, for this item. The meaning of “field” is part of your cultural knowledge. When you think about it, how can you separate background, context, and culture from cognition? Every student’s learning is embedded in his or her culture, and every test question emerges from some kind of cultural knowledge, so be sensitive to the kinds of questions you ask. With this background in the basic concepts of formative, interim, and summative assessments and attention to reliability, validity, and absence of bias, we are ready to enter the classroom, where learning is supported by frequent assessments using cumulative questions that ask students to apply and integrate knowledge (Rawson & Dunlosky, 2012). MyLab Education Self-Check 15.1



CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT: TESTING STOP & THINK Think back to your most recent test. What was the format? Did you feel that the test results were an accurate reflection of your knowledge or skills? Have you ever had to design a test? What makes a good, fair test?  •



When most people think of assessments in a classroom, they usually think of testing. As you will see shortly, although teachers today have many other options, testing is still a significant activity in most classrooms. In this section, we will examine how to interpret test scores, evaluate the tests that accompany standard curriculum materials, and write your own test questions. MyLab Education



Podcast 15.1 Some people are just better at taking tests than others. What do they know, and how do they do it? Hear textbook author Anita Woolfolk discuss some ideas for improving your own test taking and also how to help your students improve.



Interpreting Any Test Score Before we even look at different kinds of tests, there is an important consideration. The answers on any test have no meaning by themselves; we must make some kind of comparison in order to interpret test results. There are two basic types of comparisons: In the first, a test score is compared to the scores obtained by other people who have taken the same test. This is called a norm-referenced comparison. The second type is criterion-referenced. Here, the score is compared to a fixed standard or minimum passing score. The same test can be interpreted either in a norm-referenced or criterionreferenced way, depending on the type of comparison made.



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NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS. In norm-referenced testing and grading, the people who have taken the test provide the norms for determining the meaning of a given individual’s score. You can think of a norm as being the typical level of performance for a particular group. By comparing the individual’s raw score (the actual number correct) to the norm, we can determine if the raw score is above, below, or around the average for that group. There are at least four types of norm groups (comparison groups) in education—the class or school itself, the school district, national samples, and international samples. Students in national norm groups used for large-scale assessment programs are tested one year, and then the scores for that group serve as comparisons or norms every year for several years until the test is revised, or re-normed. The norm groups are selected so that all socioeconomic status (SES) levels are included in the sample. Because students from high-SES backgrounds tend to do better on many standardized tests, a high-SES school district will almost always have higher scores compared to the national norm group. Norm-referenced tests cover a wide range of general outcomes. They are especially appropriate when only the top few candidates can be admitted to a program. However, norm-referenced measurement has its limitations. The results of a norm-referenced test do not tell you whether students are ready to move on to more advanced material. For instance, knowing that two students are in the top 3% of the class on a test of algebraic concepts will not tell you if they are ready to move on to advanced math; everyone in the class may have a limited understanding of the algebraic concepts, and no one may be ready to move on. Norm-referenced tests also are not particularly appropriate for measuring affective and psychomotor outcomes. To measure individuals’ psychomotor learning, you need to compare their performance to a clear description of standards. In the affective area, attitudes and values are personal; comparisons among individuals are not really appropriate. For example, how could we measure an “average” level of artistic preferences or opinions? Finally, norm-referenced tests tend to encourage competition and comparison of scores. Some students compete to be the best. Others, realizing that being the best is impossible, may compete to be the worst. Both goals have their casualties. CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS. When test scores are compared, not to the scores of others, but to a given criterion or standard of performance, this is called criterion-referenced testing or grading. To decide who should be allowed to drive a car, it is important to determine just what standard of performance works for selecting safe drivers. It does not matter how your test results compare to the results of others. If your performance on the test was in the top 10%, but you consistently ran through red lights, you would not be a good candidate for receiving a license, even though your score was high. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of a very specific learning target. For example, a criterion-referenced test would be useful in measuring the students’ ability to add three-digit numbers. A test could be designed with 20 different problems, and the standard for mastery could be set at 17 correct out of 20. (The standard is often somewhat arbitrary and may be based on such things as the teacher’s experience.) If two students receive scores of 7 and 11, it does not matter that one student did better than the other because neither met the standard of 17. Both need more help with addition. The results of a criterion-referenced test should tell the teacher exactly what the students can and cannot do, at least under certain conditions; thus these are the right kinds of tests for formative and interim assessments. When teaching basic skills, comparison to a preset standard is often more important than comparison to the performance of others. It is not very comforting to know, as a parent, that your child is better in reading than most of the students in her class if none of the students is reading at grade level. Sometimes standards for meeting the criterion must be set at 100% correct. You would not like to have your appendix removed by a surgeon who left surgical instruments inside the body only 10% of the time.



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Criterion-/Norm-Referenced Tests (II, C5) The ERIC Digest Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Testing (ericdigests.org/1998–1/ norm.htm) describes the purposes, content, and issues related to criterion- and norm-referenced tests. Giving accurate feedback to parents is part of a teacher’s job. When talking with a parent about a child’s abilities, do you think the use of norm-referenced or criterion-referenced test results is more desirable?



Norm-referenced testing Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others. Norm group Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests. Criterion-referenced testing/grading Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard.



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Criterion-referenced tests are not appropriate for every situation. Many subjects cannot be broken down into a set of specific targets. And, although standards are important in criterion-referenced testing, they can often be arbitrary, as you have already seen. When deciding whether a student has mastered the addition of three-digit numbers comes down to the difference between 16 or 17 correct answers, it seems difficult to justify one particular standard over another. Finally, at times, it is valuable to know how the students in your class compare to other students at their grade level both locally and nationally. You can see that each type of test is well suited for certain situations, but each also has its limitations.



Using the Tests from Textbooks Most elementary and secondary school texts today come complete with supplemental materials such as teaching manuals and ready-made tests. Using these tests can save time, but is this good teaching practice? The answer depends on your learning targets, the way you teach the material, and the quality of the tests provided. If the textbook test is of high quality, matches your testing plan, and fits the instruction you actually provided for your students, then it may be the right test to use. Check the reading level of the items provided and be prepared to revise and improve them to meet the needs of your class (McMillan, 2018; Russell & Airasian, 2012). Table 15.1 gives key points to consider in evaluating textbook tests. What if no tests are available for the material you want to cover, or the tests provided in your teachers’ manuals are not appropriate for your students? Then it’s time for you to create your own tests. We will consider the two major kinds of traditional tests— selected-response and constructed response/essay.



Selected-Response Testing Multiple-choice questions, matching exercises, true/false statements, and short-answer or fill-in items are all types of selected-response testing. The scoring of these types of items is relatively straightforward because the answers are more clear-cut than essay answers. These types of items are what many of us envision when we think of “traditional” testing (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). How should you decide which item format is best for a particular test? Use the one that provides the most direct measure of the learning outcome you intended for your students. In other words, if you want to see how well students can write a letter, have them write a letter, don’t ask multiple-choice questions about letters. But if many different item formats will work equally well, then use multiple-choice questions because they are easier to score fairly and can cover many topics. Switch to other formats if writing TABLE 15.1 • Key Points to Consider in Judging Textbook Tests



Selected-response testing A form of testing in which students choose the correct response from a set of possible responses provided by the teacher or the test developer instead of creating their own response. Multiple choice and true-false tests are common examples of selected response testing.



1. The decision to use a textbook test or pre-made standard achievement test must come after a teacher identifies the learning goals that he or she has taught and now wants to assess. 2. Textbook and standard tests are designed for the typical classroom, but because few classrooms are typical, most teachers deviate somewhat from the text to accommodate their pupils’ needs. 3. The more classroom instruction deviates from the textbook, the less valid the textbook tests are likely to be. 4. The main consideration in judging the adequacy of a textbook or standard achievement test is the match between its test questions and what pupils were taught in their classes: a. b. c. d. e.



Are questions similar to the teacher’s goals and instructional emphases? Do questions require pupils to perform the behaviors they were taught? Do questions cover all or most of the important learning goals taught? Is the language level and terminology appropriate for pupils? Does the number of items for each target provide a sufficient sample of pupil performance?



Source: From Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications (7th ed.), by M. K. Russell & P. W. Airasian (2012), p. 134. New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 161. With permission from The McGraw-Hill Companies.



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TABLE 15.2 • Guidance for Using True/False, Matching, and Fill-in-the-Blank Items Here is a checklist for your test preparation. GUIDELINE FOR TRUE/FALSE ITEMS Make items entirely true or entirely false as stated. GUIDELINES FOR MATCHING ITEMS Provide clear directions for the match to be made. Keep the list of items to be matched short—no more than 10. Include only homogeneous items—don’t mix names, dates, events, etc. Keep the wording of the response options short and grammatically the same. Don’t let grammar be a clue. Provide more responses than items to be matched so students can’t guess the last match because only one answer is left. GUIDELINES FOR FILL-IN ITEMS Ask a question. Don’t just make a statement with a blank in it—more than one answer might work in a statement. Provide one blank per item—having the same number of blanks as the correct fill-in gives a clue. Don’t make the length of the blank a clue either. Put the blank toward the end. Source: From Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2017). An Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning, p. 131. Boston: Pearson. Adapted with permission. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



good multiple-choice items for the material is not possible or appropriate. For example, if related concepts such as terms and definitions need to be linked, then a matching item is a better format than multiple-choice. If it is difficult to come up with several wrong answers for a multiple-choice item, try a true/false question instead. Alternatively, ask the student to supply a short answer that completes a statement (fill in the blank). Variety in testing can lower students’ anxiety because the entire grade does not depend on one type of question that a particular student may find difficult. Table 15.2 gives guidance for using true/false, matching, and fill-in-the-blank items. We will look closely at the multiple-choice format because it is the most versatile— and the most difficult to use well. USING MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS. Even though your education professors may reject the use of multiple-choice tests, about 50% of public school teachers endorse these tests (S. R. Banks, 2012), so you should know how to use them well. In fact, many schools require teachers to give students experience answering multiple-choice tests to prepare them for state achievement testing (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017). Multiple-choice items can test facts, but also can assess higher-order outcomes if you ask students to apply or analyze a concept (McWaugh & Gronlund, 2013). For example, the following multiple-choice item is designed to assess students’ ability to recognize unstated assumptions, one of the skills involved in analyzing an idea: An educational psychology professor states, “A z score of +1 on a test is equivalent to a percentile rank of approximately 84.” Which of the following assumptions is the professor making? 1. The scores on the test range from 0 to 100. 2. The standard deviation of the test scores is equal to 3.4.



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If you did not know the correct answer above, don’t worry. We will get to z scores later in this chapter, and it will all make sense. WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS. All test items require skillful construction, but good multiple-choice items are a real challenge. Some students jokingly refer to multiple-choice tests as “multiple-guess” tests—a sign that these tests are often poorly designed. Your goal in writing test items is to design them so that they measure student achievement, not test-taking and guessing skills. The stem of a multiple-choice item is the part that asks the question or poses the problem. The choices that follow are called alternatives. The wrong answers are called distractors because their purpose is to distract students who have only a partial understanding of the material. If there were no good distractors, students with only a vague understanding would have no difficulty in finding the right answer. The Guidelines: Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items should help you write good stems and alternatives.



Constructed Responses: Essay Testing The best way to measure some learning targets is to ask students to create answers on their own; essay questions are one way to accomplish this. The most difficult part of essay testing is judging the quality of the answers, but writing good, clear questions is not particularly easy, either. We will look at writing, administering, and grading essay tests. We will also consider factors that can bias the scoring of essay questions and ways you can overcome these problems. CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS. Because answering essay questions takes time, true essay tests cover less material than selected-response tests. Thus, for efficiency, essay tests should be limited to the assessment of important, complex learning outcomes. A good essay question includes: (1) a clear and specific context for the question, (2) a statement of what students should describe or explain, and (3) guidelines for what should be covered in the answer. Here is an example: We have been studying the importance of the carbon cycle and how it works [context]. Based on your understanding of the carbon cycle, explain (1) why we need to know about it, and (2) how carbon moves from one place to another [what to describe or explain]. Be sure to include the following [guidelines]: • Why it is important to understand the carbon cycle (5 points) • The four major reservoirs where carbon is stored (4 points) • At least six ways that carbon gets transferred from one place to another (6 points) (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, pp. 155–156)



Students need ample time to answer a question like this. If more than one essay is assigned in the same class period, you may want to suggest time limits for each question. Remember, however, that time pressure increases anxiety and may prevent accurate assessment of some students. Whatever your approach, do not try to make up for the limited amount of material an essay test can cover by including a large number of questions. It would be better to plan on more frequent testing than to include more than two or three essay questions in a single class period. Combining an essay question with a number of selected-response items is one way to avoid the problem of limited sampling of course material (Waugh & Gronlund, 2013). Stem The question part of a multiple-choice item. Distractors Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item.



EVALUATING ESSAYS. When possible, a good first step in grading essays is to construct a set of scoring criteria or a rubric (more on this later) and share it with students. After all, students can succeed only if they know what success means—what does success look like (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017)? Here is an example of a question and criteria from TenBrink (2003, p. 326).



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GUIDELINES Writing Multiple-Choice Items Make the stem clear and simple, and present only a single problem. Unessential details should be left out. Example  Better Poor An advantage of an IQ score is There are several different kinds of standard or derived scores. An IQ score is especially useful because State the problem in the stem in positive terms. Negative language is confusing. If you must use words such as not, no, all but, or except, underline them or type them in all capitals. Example Poor Which of the following is not a standard score?



Better Which of the following is NOT a standard score?



Do not expect students to make extremely fine discriminations among answer choices. Example The percentage of area in a normal curve falling between +1 and −1 standard deviations is about: Better Poor e. 14% g. 68% a. 66% c. 68% f. 34% h. 95%. b. 67% d. 69%.



Avoid including two distractors that have the same meaning. If only one answer can be right and if two answers are the same, then these two must both be wrong. This narrows down the choices considerably. Avoid using categorical words such as always, all, only, or never unless they can appear consistently in all the alternatives. Most smart test takers know that categorical answers are usually wrong. Avoid using the exact wording found in the textbook. Poor students may recognize the answers without knowing what they mean. Avoid overuse of all of the above and none of the above. Such choices may be helpful to students who are simply guessing. In addition, using all of the above may trick a quick student who sees that the first alternative is correct and does not read on to discover that the others are correct, too. Avoid obvious patterns on a test. They aid students who are guessing. The position of the correct answer should be varied, as should its length.



Make sure each alternative answer fits the grammatical form of the stem, so that no answers are obviously wrong. Example  Poor The Stanford-Binet test yields an a. IQ score. b. reading level. c. vocational preference. d. mechanical aptitude.



Better The Stanford-Binet is a test of a. intelligence. b. reading level. c. vocational preference. d. mechanical aptitude.



Question: Defend or refute the following statement: Civil wars are necessary to the growth of a developing country. Cite reasons for your argument, and use examples from history to help substantiate your claim. Scoring Rubric: All answers, regardless of the position taken, should include (1) a clear statement of the position, (2) at least five logical reasons, (3) at least four examples from history that clearly substantiate the reasons given.



Once you have set your expectations for answers, you can assign points to the various parts of the essay. You might also give points for the organization of the answer and the internal consistency of the essay. You can then assign grades such as 1 to 5 or A, B, C, D, and F, and sort the papers into piles by grade. As a final step, skim the papers



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in each pile to see if they are comparable in quality. These techniques will help ensure fairness and accuracy in grading. When grading essay tests that contain several questions, it makes sense to grade all responses to one question before moving on to the next. This helps prevent the quality of a student’s answer to one question from influencing your reaction to the student’s other answers. After you finish reading and scoring the first question, shuffle the papers so that no students end up having all their questions graded first (e.g., when you may be taking more time to give feedback or are applying stricter standards) or last (when you may be tired of writing feedback or more lax in your standards). You may achieve greater objectivity if you ask students to put their names on the back of the paper, so that grading is anonymous.



Assessing Traditional Testing First the positives of testing—right answers are important. Even though schooling is about learning to think and solve problems, it is also about knowledge. Students must have something to think about—facts, ideas, concepts, principles, theories, explanations, arguments, images, opinions. One reason that American students, compared to students in many other developed countries, lack essential knowledge may be because American schools emphasize process—critical thinking, self-esteem, problem solving—more than content. To teach more about content, teachers will need to determine how well their students are learning the content. Well-designed traditional tests can evaluate students’ knowledge effectively and efficiently (Russell & Airasian, 2012). In fact, taking more frequent tests improves learning, even if there is no feedback from the test—bad teaching, but a powerful result (Carpenter, 2012; Pashler et al., 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). But there are strong criticisms. Traditional testing has been under fire since at least the 1990s. As Grant Wiggins (1991) noted then: We do not judge Xerox, the Boston Symphony, the Cincinnati Reds, or Dom Perignon vineyards on the basis of indirect, easy to test, and common indicators. Nor would the workers in those places likely produce quality if some generic, secure test served as the only measure of their success in meeting a standard. Demanding and getting quality, whether from students or adult workers, means framing standards in terms of the work that we undertake and value. (p. 22)



Wiggins continues to argue for assessment that makes sense, that tests knowledge as it is applied in real-world situations. Understanding cannot be measured by tests that ask students to use skills and knowledge out of context. Your stand on traditional testing is part of your philosophy of teaching. Let’s look at a few alternative approaches to classroom assessment. MyLab Education Self-Check 15.2



FORMATIVE AND AUTHENTIC CLASSROOM ASSESSMENTS Formative assessments, as you saw earlier, help form and support instruction. Formative assessments may be as informal and “on the fly” as the teacher noticing many students in Spanish class are having trouble with one particular verb construction in conversations and homework, to as formal as quizzes embedded in the curriculum that are just like tests but don’t count toward a grade. As emphasis on formative assessment has increased around the world, achievement is increasing as well (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017; Decristan et al., 2015). Early on in a unit, assessments should be formative (provide feedback, but not count toward a grade), saving the actual graded assessments for later in the unit when all students



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have had the chance to learn the material (Tomlinson, 2005a). To use formative assessment well, teachers need to plan different strategies for collecting information about what students know and what they still need to study. One approach is informal assessments.



Informal Assessments Informal assessments are ungraded assessments that gather information from multiple



sources to help teachers make decisions (S. R. Banks, 2012). Two examples of informal assessment are exit tickets and journals. EXIT TICKETS. The exit ticket is a simple assessment and can even be done “on the fly” as you notice students struggling. After a lesson, the teacher poses a question or problem. Then each student answers on a separate sheet of paper that becomes her or his ticket to leave the class. Before the next class, the teacher reviews the tickets and creates small discussion groups made up of at least one student with a solid understanding of the material mixed in with students who are struggling. After reviewing and reteaching the concepts that seem to have been the most misunderstood, the teacher tells the students to discuss the exit ticket question in their groups and identifies the students who have a solid understanding as the “topic leaders” (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Other exit ticket assessments include a 2-minute fast write about the key ideas in the lesson or a description of the “muddiest point,” the idea that was most confusing or unclear. Students don’t even have to put their names on these exit tickets, but a quick read will tell the teacher where reteaching and explanation are needed the next day. JOURNALS. Journals are very flexible and widely used informal assessments. Students usually have personal or group journals and write in them on a regular basis. In their study, Michael Pressley and his colleagues (2007) found that excellent first grade literacy teachers used journaling for three purposes: • As communication tools that allowed students to express their own thoughts and ideas • As an opportunity to apply what they have learned • As an outlet to encourage fluency and creative expression in language usage Teachers may use journals to learn about their students in order to better connect their teaching to the students’ concerns and interests. But often journals focus on academic learning, usually through responses to prompts. S. R. Banks (2012, p. 113) describes one high school physics teacher who asked his students to respond to these three questions in their journals: 1. How can you determine the coefficient of friction if you know only the angle of the inclined plane? 2. Compare and contrast magnetic, electronic, and gravitational fields. 3. If you were to describe the physical concept of sound to your best friend, what music would you use to demonstrate this concept? When he read the students’ journals, the teacher realized that many of the students’ basic assumptions about friction, acceleration, and velocity came from personal experiences and not from scientific reasoning. His approach to teaching had to change to reach the students. The teacher never would have known to make the changes in his instruction without reading the journals, which served in this case as a formative assessment. There are many other kinds of informal assessments—making notes and observations about student performance, using rating scales, and keeping checklists. Every time teachers ask questions or watch students perform skills, the teachers are conducting informal assessments. INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS. One way to provide feedback and develop students’ sense of efficacy for learning is to involve the students in the formative assessment process. Students can keep track of their own progress and assess



MyLab Education



Video Example 15.1 A portfolio conference is a good way to involve students in the assessment process and help them learn to regulate their own learning.



Informal assessments Ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions.



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their improvement. Here are other ideas, some taken from Chappuis and Stiggins (2017). Students might: • Learn about the criteria for judging work by examining and discussing with a peer examples of good, average, and poor products or performances. Then pick a poor example, and revise to improve it. • Describe to the teacher or a peer (orally or in writing) the way they approached an assignment, the problems they encountered, the options they considered, and the final result. • Analyze their strengths and weaknesses before starting a project, then discuss with the teacher or peers how they will use their strengths and overcome their weaknesses as they work on the project. • In pairs, make up questions that might be on the test, explain why those are good questions, and then answer them together. • Look back at earlier work and analyze how they have grown by describing “I used to think . . . but now I know. . . .” After doing a few of these analyses, summarize using a frame such as: What did I know before I started? What did I learn? What do I want to learn next? • Before a major test, do a free write on these prompts “What exactly will be on the test?” “What kinds of questions will be asked (multiple-choice, essay, etc.)?” “How well will I do?” “What do I need to study to make sure I am ready?” Students also can provide themselves with formative feedback by completing the quiz analysis sheet in Figure 15.1. After an ungraded quiz, students analyze their mistakes and make plans for improving. This approach makes good use of the quiz—especially because many students just toss the papers without learning anything from the outcome.



Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions Authentic assessments ask students to apply skills and abilities as they would in real life.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Authentic Tests (II, C1, 2, 4) The emphasis on studentcentered learning has been accompanied by an emphasis on authentic tests. Understand the purpose, value, and advantages of these forms of assessment. Describe their characteristics and the potential problems with their use.



Authentic assessments Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Performance assessments Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning.



For example, they might use fractions to enlarge or reduce recipes. If our instructional goals for students include the abilities to write, speak, listen, create, think critically, do research, solve problems, or apply knowledge, then our tests should ask students to write, speak, listen, create, think, research, solve, and apply. How can this happen? Many educators suggest we look to the arts and sports for analogies to solve this problem. If we think of the “test” as being the recital, exhibition, game, mock court trial, or other performance, then teaching to the test is just fine. All coaches, artists, and musicians gladly “teach” to these “tests” because performing well on these tests is the whole point of instruction. Authentic assessment asks students to perform. The performances may be thinking performances, physical performances, creative performances, or other forms. So performance assessment is any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product to demonstrate learning (Russell & Airasian, 2012). It may seem odd to talk about thinking as a performance, but there are many parallels. Serious thinking is risky, because real-life problems are not well defined. Often, the outcomes of our thinking are public; others evaluate our ideas. Like a dancer auditioning for a Broadway show, we must cope with the consequences of being evaluated. Like a potter looking at a lump of clay, a student facing a difficult problem must experiment, observe, redo, imagine, and test solutions; apply both basic skills and inventive techniques; make interpretations; decide how to communicate results to the intended audience; and often accept criticism and improve the initial solution (Clark, 2012; Eisner, 1999). The concern with authentic assessment has led to the development of several approaches based on the goal of performance in context. Instead of circling answers to “factual” questions about nonexistent situations, students are required to solve real problems. Facts are used in a context where they apply. For example, instead of asking students, “If you bought a toy for 69 cents and gave the clerk a dollar, how much change would you get back?” have students work in pairs with real money to role-play making different purchases, or set up a mock class store and have students make purchases and give change (Kim & Sensale Yazdian, 2014; Popham, 2017; Waugh & Gronlund, 2013).



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FIGU RE 1 5.1 REVIEWING AND ANALYZIING A QUIZ OR ASSIGNMENT A form like this can help students analyze a quiz or assignment to serve as formative assessment. After identifying mistakes as “fixable” or “I don’t get it,” the student makes plans to relearn. Reviewing My Results Name:



Assignment:



Date:



Please look at your corrected test and mark whether each problem is right or wrong. Then look at the problems you got wrong and decide if you made a mistake you can fix without help. If you did, mark the “Fixable Mistake” column. For all the remaining problems you got wrong, mark the “Don’t Get it” column.



Problem



Learning Target



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Fixable Mistake



Don’t Get it



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10



Analyzing My Results I AM GOOD AT THESE! Learning targets I got right: I AM PRETTY GOOD AT THESE, BUT NEED TO DO A LITTLE REVIEW Learning targets I got wrong because of a fixable mistake: What I can do to keep this from happening again: I NEED TO KEEP LEARNING THESE Learning targets I got wrong and I’m not sure what to do to correct them: What I can do to get better at them:



Source: Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2017). An Introduction to Student-Involved Assessment for Learning. Boston: Pearson, p. 137. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.



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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Portfolio Assessment (II, C1, 2) For a discussion of the advantages, limitations, design, and implementation of portfolio programs, go to nea.org/assets/docs/ June2011AdvOnline.pdf.



MyLab Education



Video Example 15.2 In this video, elementary students collect items for portfolios in social studies, and high school art students collect twelve pieces of their original art concentrated on a central idea. Notice how these two types of portfolios demonstrate students’ achievement and growth.



MyLab Education



Video Example 15.3 A science fair is a public exhibition of student achievement.



Portfolio A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, selfreflection, and achievement. Exhibition A performance test or demonstration of learning that is public and usually takes an extended time to prepare. Scoring rubrics Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance.



The Center for Technology in Learning of SRI International, a nonprofit science research institute, also provides an online resource bank of performance-based assessments linked to the National Science Education Standards. The resource is called PALS (Performance Assessment Links in Science). Go to the Web site pals.sri.com; search for the performance tasks for kindergarten through twelfth grade. You can select tasks by standard and grade level. PORTFOLIOS. For years, photographers, artists, models, and architects have had portfolios to display their skills and show to prospective employers. A portfolio is a systematic collection of work, often including work in progress, revisions, student self-analyses, and reflections on what the student has learned. Written work or artistic pieces are common contents of portfolios, but student portfolios might also include letters to the portfolio readers describing each entry and its importance, graphs, diagrams, pictures or digital slideshows, PowerPoint presentations, recordings of the students reading their work, unedited and final drafts of persuasive essays or poems, lists of books read, annotated Web site addresses, peer comments, video recordings, laboratory reports, and computer programs—anything that demonstrates learning in the area being taught and assessed (Popham, 2017). There is a distinction between process portfolios and final, or “best-work,” portfolios. The distinction is similar to the difference between formative and summative evaluation. Process portfolios document learning and show progress. Best-work portfolios showcase final accomplishments (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 2002). Table 15.3 shows some examples of portfolios for both individuals and groups. The Guidelines: Creating Portfolios on page 608 give some ideas for using portfolios in your teaching. EXHIBITIONS. An exhibition is a performance assessment that has two additional features. First, it is public, so students preparing exhibitions must take the audience into account; communication and understanding are essential. Second, an exhibition often requires many hours of preparation, because it is the culminating experience of a whole program of study. Thomas Guskey and Jane Bailey (2001) suggest that exhibits help students understand the qualities of good work and recognize those qualities in their own productions and performances. Students also benefit when they select examples of their work to exhibit and articulate their reasons for making the selections. Being able to judge quality can encourage students’ motivation as they progress toward clear goals.



Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Checklists, rating scales, and scoring rubrics are helpful when you assess performances, because assessments of performances, portfolios, and exhibitions are criterion referenced, not norm referenced. In other words, the students’ products and performances are compared to established public standards, not ranked in relation to other students’ work. SCORING RUBRICS. A checklist or rating scale gives specific feedback about elements of a performance. Scoring rubrics are rules that are used to determine the quality of a student performance, often on a 4-point scale from “excellent” (4) to “inadequate” (1) or on a scale that assigns points to each category—10 points for excellent, 6 for good, and so on (Mabry, 1999). For example, a rubric describing excellent delegation of responsibility in a group research project might be: Each student in the group can clearly explain what information the group needs, what information s/he is responsible for locating, and when the information is needed.



This rubric was generated using Rubistar, an online service for educators that allows you to select a subject area and category, and then create a rubric. To get the preceding rubric, I chose the subject of writing—“group planning and research project”—and the category of “delegation of responsibility.”



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TABLE 15.3 • Process and Best-Works Portfolios for Individuals and Groups Here are a few examples of how to use portfolios in different subjects. THE PROCESS PORTFOLIO SUBJECT AREA



INDIVIDUAL STUDENT



COOPERATIVE GROUP



Science



Documentation (running records or logs) of using the scientific method to solve a series of laboratory problems



Documentation (observation checklists) of using the scientific method to solve a series of laboratory problems



Mathematics



Documentation of mathematical reasoning through doublecolumn mathematical problem solving (computations on the left side and running commentary explaining thought processes on the right side)



Documentation of complex problem solving and use of higher-level strategies



Language Arts



Evolution of compositions from early notes through outlines, research notes, response to others’ editing, and final draft



Rubrics and procedures developed to ensure high-quality peer editing



THE BEST-WORKS PORTFOLIO SUBJECT AREA



INDIVIDUAL STUDENT



COOPERATIVE GROUP



Language Arts



The best compositions in a variety of styles—expository, humor/ satire, creative (poetry, drama, short story), journalistic (reporting, editorial columnist, reviewer), and advertising copy



The best dramatic production, video project, TV broadcast, newspaper, advertising display



Social Studies



The best historical research paper, opinion essay on a historical issue, commentary on current event, original historical theory, review of a historical biography, account of participation in academic controversy



The best community survey, paper resulting from academic controversy, oral history compilation, multidimensional analysis of a historical event, press corps interview with a historical figure



Fine Arts



The best creative products such as drawings, paintings, sculptures, pottery, poems, thespian performance



The best creative products such as murals, plays written and performed, inventions thought of and built



Source: Based on D. W. Johnson and R. T. Johnson (2002), Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and Cooperative Process. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.



James Popham (2017) emphasizes that rubrics should be neither too specific nor too general. For example: • Write a two-paragraph poem about trees using four adjectives and two adverbs. (Too specific—describes only one task and does not address the more general skill of writing poems.) • Poems will be judged poor, fair, good, or excellent. (Too general—provides no more information than grading poems as D, C, B, or A.)



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Scoring Rubrics (II, C3) Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Educators (schrockguide. net/assessment-and-rubrics. html) provides information about every aspect of the use of scoring rubrics in the classroom as well as an extensive collection of rubrics that can be used or adapted by teachers.



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GUIDELINES Creating Portfolios Involve students in selecting the pieces that will make up their portfolios. Examples 1. During the unit or semester, ask each student to select work that fits certain criteria, such as “my most difficult problem,” “my best work,” “my most improved work,” or “three approaches to.” 2. For their final submissions, ask students to select pieces that best show how much they have learned. Make sure the portfolios include information that shows student self-reflection and self-criticism. Examples 1. Ask students to include a rationale for their selections. 2. Have each student write a “guide” to his or her portfolio, explaining how strengths and weaknesses are reflected in the work included. 3. Include self- and peer critiques, indicating specifically what is good and what might be improved. 4. Model self-criticism of your own productions. Make sure the portfolios reflect the students’ activities in learning. Examples 1. Include a representative selection of projects, writings, drawings, and so forth. 2. Ask students to relate the goals of learning to the contents of their portfolios.



Be aware that portfolios can serve different functions at different times of the year. Examples 1. Early in the year, it might hold unfinished work or “problem pieces.” 2. At the end of the year, it should contain only what the student is willing to make public. 3. Throughout the year, the portfolios may be the basis for family night conferences. Students can lead the discussion and explain to their family what they have learned by talking them through their portfolios. Be certain that portfolios demonstrate students’ growth. Examples 1. Ask students to make a “history” of their progress along certain dimensions and to illustrate points in their growth with specific works. 2. Ask students to include descriptions of activities outside class that reflect the growth illustrated in the portfolio. Teach students how to create and use portfolios. Examples 1. Keep models of very well done portfolios as examples, but stress that each portfolio is an individual statement. 2. Examine your students’ portfolios frequently, especially early in the year when they are just getting used to the idea. Give constructive feedback.



Rubrics should be focused on worthwhile skills that can be taught and assessed. Here is a skill-focused rubric for judging the organization of students’ narrative essays: Two aspects of organization will be employed in the appraisal of students’ narrative essays—namely, overall structure and sequence. To earn maximum credit, an essay must embody an overall structure containing an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The content of the body of the essay must be sequenced in a reasonable manner—for instance, in a chronological, logical, or order-of-importance sequence. (Popham, 2017, p. 209)



This type of skill-focused rubric gives teachers guidance in teaching and students guidance in writing. In addition, the rubric focuses on skills that can be applied in many forms of narrative writing. The Guidelines: Developing a Rubric give more ideas; some are taken from Goodrich (1997), D. W. Johnson and Johnson (2002), and Popham (2017). It is often helpful to have students join in the development of rating scales and scoring rubrics. When students participate, they are challenged to decide what quality work looks or sounds like in a particular area. They know in advance what is expected. As students gain practice in designing and applying scoring rubrics, their work and their learning often improve.



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GUIDELINES Developing a Rubric 1. Make sure the skill to be assessed is important and can be taught. It takes time to develop good rubrics, so make sure the skill being assessed is worth everyone’s time and that the skill can be improved with instruction and practice. 2. Look at models. Show students examples of good and not-so-good work based on composites of work not linked to individual students. Identify the characteristics that make the good ones good and the bad ones bad. 3. List criteria. Use the discussion of models to begin a list of what counts in quality work. 4. Articulate gradations of quality. Describe the best and worst levels of quality; then fill in the middle levels based on your knowledge of common problems and the discussion of not-so-good work. 5. Practice on models. Have students use the rubrics to evaluate the models you gave them in Step 2. 6. Use self- and peer assessment. Give students their task. As they work, stop them occasionally for self- and peer assessment.



7. Revise. Always give students time to revise their work based on the feedback they get in Step 6. 8. Use teacher assessment. In your grading, be sure to use the same rubric students used to assess their work.



Note: Step 3 may be necessary only when you are asking students to engage in a task with which they are unfamiliar. Steps 5 and 6 are useful but time-consuming; you can do these on your own, especially when you’ve been using rubrics for a while. A class experienced in rubric-based assessment can streamline the process so that it begins with listing criteria, after which the teacher writes out the gradations of quality, checks them with the students, makes revisions, then uses the rubric for self-, peer, and teacher assessment. For a great explanation of using rubrics, see Mertler (2001). This online article includes several links that allow you to create and customize rubrics for your class rubistar.4teachers.org/



RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, GENERALIZABILITY. Because the teacher’s personal judgment plays such a central role in evaluating performances, issues of reliability, validity, and generalizability are critical considerations. One teacher’s “excellent” could be another teacher’s “adequate.” Research shows that when raters are experienced and scoring rubrics are well developed and refined, reliability may improve (Herman & Winters, 1994; LeMahieu, Gitomer, & Eresh, 1993). Some of this improvement in reliability occurs because a rubric focuses the raters’ attention on a few dimensions of the work and gives limited scoring levels to choose from. If scorers can give only a rating of 1, 2, 3, or 4, they are more likely to agree than if they could score based on a 100-point scale. In terms of validity, some evidence shows that students who are classified as “master” writers on the basis of portfolio assessment are judged less capable using standard writing assessments. Which form of assessment is the best reflection of enduring qualities? It is hard to say. In addition, when rubrics are developed to assess specific tasks, the results of applying them may not predict performance on anything except very similar tasks, so we do not know whether a student’s performance on a specific task will generalize to the larger area of study (Haertel, 1999; Herman & Winters, 1994; McMillan, 2004). DIVERSITY AND BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT. Equity is an issue in all assessment and no less so with performances and portfolios. With a public performance, there could be bias effects based on a student’s appearance and speech or the student’s access to expensive audio, video, or graphic tools. Performance assessments have the same potential as other tests to discriminate unfairly against students who are not wealthy or who are culturally different. And the extensive group work, peer editing, and out-of-class time devoted to portfolios means that some students may have access to greater networks of support, technology, and outright help. Many students in your classes will come from families that have sophisticated tech devices and publishing capabilities. Others may have little support from home. These differences can be sources of bias and inequity, especially in portfolios and exhibitions.



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Assessing Complex Thinking In order to develop complex thinking ability, we have to be able to assess it. The good news is that assessing complex thinking and higher-order outcomes actually can help students master and retain core facts as well. In other words, testing for complex understanding improves learning at all the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, from remembering factual knowledge to analyzing and creating high-level knowledge ( Jensen, McDaniel, Woodard, & Kummer, 2014). So you don’t have to choose between testing facts and testing complex thinking. Assessments of complex thinking don’t have to be tests. Carol Lee and Susan Golman (2015) have developed assessments of complex thinking in literacy that involve authentic reading and writing. For example, to assess middle and high school students’ abilities to cite evidence in making claims about symbolism in the text, the students had to (1) put events in order from the reading to show they comprehended the plot, (2) use a graphic guide to organize claims and evidence they used to answer the question, and (3) write an essay in which they compared and contrasted two stories in relation to the generalizations of the author and the structure of the text. The two stories had the theme of coming of age and incorporated symbolism as a rhetorical tool. Students’ essays were judged with a rubric that evaluated the quality of the claims, whether the evidence cited was supported by the texts, the ability to organize the essay around similarities and differences, and the general clarity of the writing. You can see that assessing complex thinking is demanding for both the students and the teacher!



Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers One major message in this chapter is the importance of correctly matching the type of assessment tools used with the target—the knowledge being assessed. The provisions of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) described in Chapter 1 allow greater flexibility in assessment at the district and state levels, so it makes sense to be smart about what you are measuring and how you are measuring it. Look at Table 15.4, which summarizes the possibilities and limitations of aligning different assessment tools with their targets. No matter how you assess students, ultimately you will assign grades. We turn to that job next. MyLab Education Self-Check 15.3



GRADING STOP & THINK  Think back on your report cards and grades over the years. Did you ever receive a grade that was lower than you expected? How did you feel about yourself, the teacher, the subject, and school in general as a result of the lower grade? What could the teacher have done to help you understand and profit from the experience?  •



“Grading is the process of condensing a great deal of information into a single symbol for ease of communication” (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, p. 294). Although some people claim that the purpose of grading is to sort students or motivate them to work, the best reason (maybe the only legitimate reason) is to communicate the students’ current achievement level to the students and their families. In determining a final grade, the teacher must make a major decision. Should a student’s grade reflect his or her status in comparison with the rest of the class, or should the grade reflect the amount of material learned and how well it has been learned? In other words, should grading be norm referenced or criterion referenced?



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TABLE 15.4 • Aligning Different Assessment Tools with Their Targets Different learning outcomes require different assessment methods. ASSESSMENT METHOD TARGET TO BE ASSESSED



PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT



PERSONAL COMMUNICATION



Essay exercises can tap understanding of relationships among elements of knowledge



Not a good choice for this target—three other options preferred



Can ask questions, evaluate answers, and infer mastery— but a timeconsuming option



Can assess understanding of basic patterns of reasoning



Written descriptions of complex problem solutions can provide a window into reasoning proficiency



Can watch students solve some problems and infer about reasoning proficiency



Can ask student to “think aloud” or can ask follow-up questions to probe reasoning



Skills



Can assess mastery of the prerequisites of skillful performance—but cannot tap the skill itself



Can assess mastery of the prerequisites of skillful performance—but cannot tap the skill itself



Can observe and evaluate skills as they are being performed



Strong match when skill is oral communication proficiency; also can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to skillful performance



Ability to Create Products



Can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to the ability to create quality products—but cannot assess the quality of products themselves



Can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to the ability to create quality products—but cannot assess the quality of products themselves



A strong match can assess: (a) proficiency in carrying out steps in product development and (b) attributes of the product itself



Can probe procedural knowledge and knowledge of attributes of quality products—but not product quality



SELECTED-RESPONSE



ESSAY



Knowledge Mastery



Multiple-choice, true/ false, matching, and fill-in can sample mastery of elements of knowledge



Reasoning Proficiency



Source: From “Where Is Our Assessment Future and How Can We Get There?” by R. J. Stiggins. In R. W. Lissitz, W. D. Schafer (Eds.), Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and Cooperative Process. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education. Adapted by permission of the publisher.



Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading In norm-referenced grading, the major influence on a grade is the student’s standing in comparison with others who also took the course. If a student studies very hard and almost everyone else does too, the student may receive a disappointing grade, perhaps a C or D. One common type of norm-referenced grading is called grading on the curve. How you feel about this approach probably depends on where your grades generally fall along that “curve.” There is good evidence that this type of grading damages the relationships among students and between teachers and students and also diminishes motivation for most students (Krumboltz & Yeh, 1996). When you think about it, if the curve arbitrarily limits the number of good grades that can be given, then, in the game of grading, most students will be losers (Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Haladyna, 2002; Kohn, 1996b). Tom Guskey (2011) pointed out the fallacy of grading on the curve: “The normal bell-shaped curve describes the distribution of randomly occurring events when nothing intervenes” (p. 17). But teaching is intervening—we want to teach in such a way that all students learn. Finally, grading on the curve really does not communicate what the



Norm-referenced grading Assessment of students’ achievement in relation to one another. Grading on the curve Norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level.



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student knows or can do, which is the main reason for grading in the first place. For this purpose, we need criterion-referenced grading. In criterion-referenced grading, the grade represents a list of accomplishments. If clear learning targets have been set for the course, the grade may represent a certain number of targets reached satisfactorily. When a criterion-referenced system is used, criteria for each grade generally are spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade she or he wants to receive. Theoretically, in this system, all students can achieve an A if they reach the criteria. Criterion-referenced grading has the advantage of relating judgments about a student to the achievement of clearly defined instructional goals or standards. Some school districts have developed reporting systems in which report cards list learning targets along with judgments about the student’s attainment of each target. Reporting is done at the end of each unit of instruction. The secondary school report card shown in Figure 15.2 demonstrates the relationship between assessment and the goals of the unit. FIGUR E 15 .2 A CRITERION-REFERENCED REPORT CARD This is one example of a criterion-referenced report card. Other forms are possible, but all criterion-referenced reports indicate student progress toward specific goals.



Criterion-referenced grading Assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives.



Source: Guskey, T. R., Swan, G. M., & Jung, L. A. (2011). Grades That Mean Something. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(2), p. 53. Used with permission.



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Most schools have a specified grading system, so we won’t spend time here on the many possible systems. Let’s consider a different question—one with research behind it. What are the effects of grades on students?



Effects of Grading on Students When we think of grades, we often think of competition. Highly competitive classes may be particularly hard on anxious students, students who lack self-confidence, and students who are less prepared. So, although high standards do tend to be generally related to increased academic learning, it is clear teachers must strike a balance between high standards and a reasonable chance to succeed. So, should low grades and failure be avoided in school? The situation is not that simple. THE VALUE OF FAILING? Some level of failure may be helpful for most students, especially if teachers help the students see connections between hard work and improvement. Efforts to protect students from failure and to guarantee success may be counterproductive. Carol Tomlinson, an expert on differentiated instruction, puts it this way: “Students whose learning histories have caused them to believe that excellence can be achieved with minimal effort do not learn to expend effort, and yet perceive that high grades are an entitlement for them” (2005b, p. 266). So maybe not failure, but accurate and critical feedback can be especially important for students who are used to easy As (Shute, 2008). RETENTION IN GRADE. What about the effect of failing an entire grade—that is, of being “held back”? Retained children are more likely to be male, members of minority groups, living in poverty, younger, and less likely to have participated in early childhood programs (Beebe-Frankenberger, Bocian, Macmillan, & Gresham, 2004; G. Hong & Raudenbush, 2005). Is retention a good policy? See the Point/Counterpoint on the next page to examine the issue.



Grades and Motivation If you are relying on grades to motivate students, you had better think again ( J. K. Smith, Smith, & De Lisi, 2001). The assessments you give should support students’ motivation to learn—not their motivation to work for a good grade. But is there really a difference between working for a grade and working to learn? The answer depends in part on how a grade is determined. If you test only at a simple but detailed level of knowledge, you may force students to choose between complex learning and a good grade. But when a grade reflects meaningful learning, and learning is supported by formative assessments with useful feedback, working for a grade and working to learn become the same thing. Finally, low grades generally do not encourage greater efforts. Students receiving low grades are more likely to withdraw, blame others, decide that the work is “dumb,” or feel responsible for the low grade but helpless to make improvements. They give up on themselves or on school. In fact, low grades at the beginning of the year may set up a downward spiral: lower grades less engagement in schoolwork lower grades less engagement, and on and on (Poorthuis et al., 2015; Tomlinson, 2005b). Rather than assigning a failing grade, you might consider the work incomplete and give students support in revising or improving it. Maintain high standards, and give students a chance to reach them. Formative assessment and quality feedback are key (Guskey, 2011; Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Polio & Hochbein, 2015). Another effect on motivation that occurs in high schools is the race for valedictorian. Sometimes, students and families find clever ways to move ahead of the competition—but the strategies have little to do with learning. As Tom Guskey and Jane Bailey (2001) note, when a valedictorian wins by a 1/1,000 of a decimal point, how meaningful is the learning behind the difference? Some high schools now name multiple valedictorians—as many as meet the highest standards of the school—because they believe that the educators’ job is “not to select talent, but, rather, to develop talent” (Guskey & Bailey, 2001, p. 39). The Guidelines: Using Any Grading System on page 616 give ideas for fair and reasonable use of any grading system.



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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?



Yes, it just makes sense. Retention in kindergarten for children considered “not ready” for first grade is a common practice. Compared to students who are relatively younger (January to August birthdays), students who are relatively older (born September to November) have higher achievement in school on average (Cobley, McKenna, Baker, & Wattie, 2009). In fact, some parents hold their son or daughter back to give the child an edge over peers in each grade thereafter or because the child was born late in the year—a practice sometimes called “academic red-shirting” (Wallace, 2014). About 4% to 5.5% of children delay entry to kindergarten. The most likely to be redshirted are White, male, and high-SES children. Schools that serve those populations have higher rates of school delay (Bassok & Reardon, 2013). The results on academic red-shirting are mixed. Some studies have found benefits for students who have been held back by their parents, but other studies have found no benefits. With the increased emphasis on high standards and accountability, the idea of social promotion has come under fire, and retention is seen as the better way. Guanglei Hong and Stephen Raudenbush (2005) summarize this and other arguments that have been made in favor of retention: A widely endorsed argument is that, when low-achieving students are retained in a grade, the academic status of children in a classroom will become more homogeneous, easing the teacher’s task of managing instructional activities (Byrnes, 1989; also see Shepard & Smith, 1988, for a review). In particular, retaining some children in kindergarten may allow the first-grade teacher to teach at a higher level, benefiting those who would be promoted under the policy. Meanwhile, children who view grade retention as a punishment may study harder to avoid being retained in the future. Some have argued that, in comparison with the social promotion policy, repeating a grade is perhaps developmentally more appropriate and may make learning more meaningful for children who are struggling (Plummer & Graziano, 1987; Shepard & Smith, 1988). If these arguments are correct, adopting a policy of grade retention will benefit those promoted and those retained, thus boosting achievement overall. (p. 206)



COUNTERPOINT .



POINT .



In 2014, about 1,313,000 students (kindergarten through grade 12) were retained in grade (Digest of Educational Statistics, 2015). For the last 100 years, parents and educators have debated about the value of retention versus social promotion (passing students on to the next grade with their peers). What does the evidence say? What are the arguments?



No, retention is not effective.  Even though a few



studies support the value of retention (e. g., Marsh, 2015), almost a century of research indicates that it is not helpful and may even be harmful. Most research finds that grade retention is associated with poor long-term outcomes such as dropping out of school, higher arrest rates, fewer job opportunities, lower self-esteem (Andrews, 2014; Jimerson, Anderson, & Whipple, 2002; Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007; Shepard & Smith, 1989). Lucy Barnard-Brak (2008) studied a national sample of 986 children who had been identified as having learning disabilities and concluded, “delayed kindergarten entrance was not associated with better academic achievement for children with learning disabilities across time” (p. 50). Even though G. Hong and Raudenbush (2005) acknowledged the arguments for retention (see the Point section), their extensive study that followed almost 12,000 kindergarten students through the end of first grade found just the opposite. The researchers compared retained and promoted students from schools that practice retention as well as promoted students from schools that practice social promotion. They found no evidence that retention improved either reading or mathematics achievement. In addition, retention did not seem to improve instruction in the first grade by making the class more similar in academic ability. After 1 year, the retained students were an average of 1 year behind, and evidence indicated that these children would have done better if promoted. Another study that followed retained and promoted students for 4 years found some short-term advantages for retained students in social and behavioral skills, followed by long-term problems and vulnerabilities. The authors suggest that the “struggle-succeed-struggle” pattern may undermine academic motivation for retained students and interfere with peer relations (Dermanet & Van Houtte, 2016; Wu, West, & Hughes, 2010). And the negative impact may not be limited to the retained student. In one study of over 79,000 students, seventh graders who simply attended school with many peers who were old for their grade (because they had been retained or “redshirted”) were more likely to get in trouble at school or be suspended (Muschin, Glennie, & Beck, 2014). Beware of Either/Or: Using Research for Children. No matter what, children who are having trouble should get help, whether they are promoted or retained. However, just covering the same material again in the same way won’t solve the children’s academic or social problems. The best approach may be to promote the children along with their peers, but to give them special remediation during the summer or over the next year (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2016). In addition, because the inability to focus attention and self-regulate is an important aspect of readiness to learn (Blair, 2002), help should also focus on improving these skills as well. An even better approach would be to prevent the problems before they occur by providing extra resources in the early years.



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Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families No number or letter grade conveys the totality of a student’s experience in a class or course. Students, families, and teachers sometimes become too focused on the end point—the grade. But communicating with families should involve more than just sending home grades. There are a number of ways to be in touch with and report to families. Many teachers I know have a beginning-of-the-year newsletter or student handbook that communicates homework, behavior, and grading policies to families. Other options described by Guskey and Bailey (2001) are: • • • •



Notes attached to report cards Phone calls, especially “Good News” calls School open houses Student-led conferences



• • • •



Portfolios or exhibits of student work Homework hotlines School or class Web pages Home visits



Conferences with parents or caregivers are often expected of teachers in elementary school and can be equally important in middle and high school. Clearly, the more skilled teachers are at communicating, the more effective they will be at conducting these conferences. Listening and problem-solving skills such as those discussed in Chapter 13 can be particularly important. When you are dealing with families or students who are angry or upset, make sure you really hear their concerns, not just their words. The atmosphere should be friendly and unrushed. Any observations about the student should be as factual as possible, based on observation or information from assignments. Information gained from a student or a parent/caregiver should be kept confidential. One kind of information that will interest parents is their child’s standardized test scores. In the next section we look at these tests.



MyLab Education



Video Example 15.4 The teacher in this video holds a conference to discuss Cody’s progress with his mother. The teacher is concerned about reporting more than just a grade. She and Cody’s mother discuss how to improve his understanding of math concepts.



MyLab Education Self-Check 15.4



STANDARDIZED TESTING For as long as I can remember, educators and policy makers have been concerned about the test performance of American students. Today, politicians point to the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) data collected in 1995, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011 and 2015 showing that the United States is behind many other developed countries in math and science test scores. Part of the response to these test results has been more testing, no matter what grade you teach. Teachers must be knowledgeable about testing. Understanding what standardized test scores really mean and how they can be used (or misused) is a good start.



Types of Scores PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE At your first parent conference, a mother and father are concerned about their child’s percentile rank of 86. They say that they expect their child to “get close to 100 percent. We know she should be able to do that because her grade-equivalent score is half a year above her grade!” Do they understand the meaning of these scores?  •



To understand the scores from tests, you need to know some basics about different types of scores and what they tell you, but first you need to know some (easy) statistics. MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION. You have probably had a great deal of experience with means. A mean is simply the arithmetical average of a group of scores. To calculate the mean, you add the scores and divide the total by the number of scores in the distribution. The mean offers one way of



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Concepts of Standardized Testing (II, C5) Be able to define norm groups, measures of central tendency, standard deviation, normal distribution, reliability, and validity, and to explain their roles in standardized tests.



Mean Arithmetical average.



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GUIDELINES Using Any Grading System Explain your grading policies to students early in the course, and remind them of the policies regularly. Examples 1. Give older students a handout describing the assignments, tests, grading criteria, and schedule. 2. Explain to younger students in a low-pressure manner how their work will be evaluated. Base grades on clearly specified, reasonable standards. Examples 1. Specify standards by developing a rubric with students. Show anonymous examples of poor, good, and excellent work from previous classes. 2. Discuss workload and grading standards with more experienced teachers. 3. Give a few formative tests to get a sense of your students’ abilities before you give a graded test. 4. Take tests yourself first to gauge the difficulty of the test and to estimate the time your students will need. Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible. Examples 1. Plan in advance how and when you will test. 2. Keep a portfolio of student work. This may be useful in student or parent conferences.



Correct, return, and discuss tests as soon as possible. Examples 1. Have students who wrote good answers read their responses for the class; make sure they are not the same students each time. 2. Discuss why wrong answers, especially popular wrong choices, are incorrect. 3. As soon as students finish a test, give them the answers to questions and the page numbers where answers are discussed in the text. As a rule, do not change a grade. Examples 1. Make sure you can defend the grade in the first place. 2. DO change any clerical or calculation errors. Guard against bias in grading. Examples 1. Ask students to put their names on the backs of their papers. 2. Use a point system or model papers when grading essays. Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class. Examples 1. Write the distribution of scores on the board after tests. 2. Schedule periodic conferences to go over work from previous weeks.



Be sure students understand test directions. Examples 1. Outline the directions on the board. 2. Ask several students to explain the directions. 3. Go over a sample question first.



Central tendency Typical score for a group of scores. Median Middle score in a group of scores. Mode Most frequently occurring score. Standard deviation Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean.



measuring central tendency, the score that is typical or representative of the whole distribution of scores. But very high or very low scores affect the mean, so when there are a few very high or low scores, the median may be a better representative of the central tendency of a group than the mean. The median is the middle score in a ranked list of scores, the point at which half the scores are larger and half are smaller. The mode is the score that occurs most often. The measure of central tendency gives a score that is representative of the group of scores, but it does not tell you anything about how the scores are distributed. Two groups of scores may both have a mean of 50, but be alike in no other way. One group might contain the scores 50, 45, 55, 55, 45, 50, 50; the other group might contain the scores 100, 0, 50, 90, 10, 50, 50. In both cases, the mean, median, and mode are all 50, but the distributions are quite different. The standard deviation is a measure of how widely the scores vary from the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores are in the distribution. The smaller the standard deviation, the more the scores are clustered around the mean.



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Give students the benefit of the doubt. All measurement techniques involve error. Examples 1. Unless there is a very good reason not to, give the higher grade in borderline cases. 2. If a large number of students miss the same question in the same way, revise the question for the future and consider throwing it out for that test. Avoid reserving high grades and high praise for answers that conform to your ideas or to those in the textbook. Examples 1. Give extra points for correct and creative answers. 2. Withhold your opinions until all sides of an issue have been explored. 3. Reinforce students for disagreeing in a rational, productive manner. 4. Give partial credit for partially correct answers. Make sure each student has a reasonable chance to succeed, especially at the beginning of a new task. Examples 1. Pretest students to make sure they have prerequisite abilities. 2. When appropriate, provide opportunities for students to take a retest to raise their grades, but make sure the retest is as difficult as the original. 3. Consider failing efforts as “incomplete,” and encourage students to revise and improve. 4. Base grades more on work at the end of the unit; give ungraded work in the beginning of the unit.



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Balance written and oral feedback. Examples 1. Consider giving short, lively written comments with younger students and more extensive written comments with older students. 2. When the grade on a paper is lower than the student might have expected, be sure the reason for the lower grade is clear. 3. Tailor comments to the individual student’s performance; avoid writing the same phrases over and over. 4. Note specific errors, possible reasons for errors, ideas for improvement, and work done well. Make grades as meaningful as possible. Examples 1. Tie grades to the mastery of important learning targets. 2. Give ungraded assignments to encourage exploration. 3. Experiment with performances and portfolios. Base grades on more than just one criterion. Examples 1. Use essay questions as well as multiple-choice items on a test. 2. Grade oral reports and class participation.



Source: General conferencing guidelines adapted from Problems in Middle and High School Teaching: A Handbook for Student Teachers and Beginning Teachers (pp. 182–187), by A. M. Drayer, 1979, Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 1979 by Allyn & Bacon. Adapted by permission of the author and publisher.



For example, in the distribution 50, 45, 55, 55, 45, 50, 50, the standard deviation is much smaller than in the distribution 100, 0, 50, 90, 10, 50, 50. Another way of saying this is that distributions with very small standard deviations have less variability in the scores. Knowing the mean and the standard deviation of a group of scores gives you a better picture of the meaning of an individual score. For example, suppose you received a score of 78 on a test. You would be very pleased with the score if the mean of the test were 70 and the standard deviation were 4. In this case, your score would be 2 standard deviations above the mean, a score well above average. Consider the difference if the mean of the test had remained at 70, but the standard deviation had been 20. In the second case, your score of 78 would be less than 1 standard deviation from the mean. You would be much closer to the middle of the group, with a score above average, but not high. Knowing the standard deviation tells you much more than simply knowing the range of scores. No matter how the majority scored on the tests, one or two students may do very well or very poorly and thus make the range very large.



Variability Degree of difference or deviation from mean. Range Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group.



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THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION. Standard deviations are very useful in understanding test results. They are especially helpful if the results of the tests form a normal distribution. You may have encountered the normal distribution before. It is the bell-shaped curve, the most famous frequency distribution because it describes many naturally occurring physical and social phenomena. Many scores fall in the middle, giving the curve its bell appearance. You find fewer and fewer scores as you look out toward the end points, or tails, of the distribution. The normal distribution has been thoroughly analyzed by statisticians. The mean of a normal distribution is also its midpoint. Half the scores are above the mean, and half are below it. In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all the same point. Another convenient property of the normal distribution is that the percentage of scores falling within each area of the curve is known, as you can see in Figure 15.3. A person scoring within 1 standard deviation of the mean obviously has company. Many scores pile up here. In fact, 68% of all scores are located in the area from 1 standard deviation below to 1 standard deviation above the mean. About 16% of the scores are higher than 1 standard deviation above the mean. Of this higher group, only 2% are higher than 2 standard deviations above the mean. Similarly, only about 16% of the scores are less than 1 standard deviation below the mean, and of that group only about 2% are lower than 2 standard deviations below the mean. At 2 standard deviations from the mean in either direction, the scorer has left the pack. The SAT college entrance exam is one example of a normal distribution. The mean of the SAT Mathematics and the SAT Evidence-Based Reading and Writing tests is about 500 and the standard deviation is about 100. If you know people who made a score of 700 on one of these tests, you know they did very well. Only about 2% of the people who take the test do that well, because only 2% of the scores are better than 2 standard deviations above the mean in a normal distribution. Your score of 78 would be in the top 2% on a test with a mean of 70 and a standard deviation of 4. Now we are ready to look at different kinds of test scores. PERCENTILE RANK SCORES. Ranking is the basis for one very useful kind of score reported on standardized tests, a percentile rank score. In percentile ranking, each FIGUR E 15 .3 THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION The normal distribution, or bell-shaped curve, has certain predictable characteristics. For example, 68% of the scores are clustered within 1 standard deviation below to 1 standard deviation above the mean.



Normal distribution The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean. Percentile rank Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below an individual’s score.



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student’s raw score (actual number correct) is compared with the raw scores of the students in the norm group (comparison group). The percentile rank shows the percentage of students in the norm group that scored at or below a particular raw score. If a student’s score were the same as or better than three quarters of the students in the norm group, the student would score in the 75th percentile or have a percentile rank of 75. You can see that this does not mean that the student had a raw score of 75 correct answers or even that the student answered 75% of the questions correctly. Rather, the 75 refers to the percentage of people in the norm group whose scores on the test were equal to or below this student’s score. A percentile rank of 50 means that a student has scored as well as or better than 50% of the norm group and has achieved an average score. There is one caution in interpreting percentile scores. Differences in percentile ranks do not mean the same thing in terms of raw score points in the middle of the scale as they do at the fringes. For example, the difference between the 50th and 60th percentile might be just 2 raw points, whereas the difference on the same test between the 90th and 99th percentile could be about 10 points. So a few answers right or wrong can make a bigger difference in percentile scores if you are near the middle. GRADE-EQUIVALENT SCORES. Grade-equivalent scores are generally obtained from separate norm groups for each grade level. The average of the scores of all the tenth graders in the norm group defines the tenth-grade–equivalent score. Suppose the rawscore average of the tenth-grade norm group is 38. Any student who attains a raw score of 38 on that test will be assigned a grade-equivalent score of tenth grade. Gradeequivalent scores are generally listed in numbers such as 8.3, 4.5, 7.6, 11.5, and so on. The whole number gives the grade. The decimals stand for tenths of a year, but they are usually interpreted as months. Suppose a student with the grade-equivalent score of 10 is a seventh grader. Should this student be promoted immediately? Probably not. Different forms of tests are used at different grade levels, so the seventh grader may not have had to answer items that would be given to tenth graders. The high score may represent superior mastery of material at the seventh-grade level rather than a capacity for doing advanced work. Even though an average tenth grader could do as well as our seventh grader on this particular test, the tenth grader would certainly know much more than this seventh-grade test covered. Also, grade-equivalent score units do not mean the same thing at every grade level. For example, a second grader reading at the first-grade level would have more trouble in school than an eleventh grader who reads at the tenth-grade level. Because grade-equivalent scores are misleading and are often misinterpreted, especially by parents, most educators and psychologists strongly believe they should not be used at all. Several other forms of reporting are more appropriate. STANDARD SCORES. As you may remember, one problem with percentile ranks is the difficulty in making comparisons among ranks. A discrepancy of a certain number of raw-score points has a different meaning at different places on the scale. With standard scores, on the other hand, a difference of 10 points is the same everywhere on the scale. Standard scores are based on the standard deviation. A very common standard score is called the z score. A z score tells how many standard deviations above or below the average a raw score is. In the example described earlier, in which you were fortunate enough to get a 78 on a test where the mean was 70 and the standard deviation was 4, your z score would be +2, or 2 standard deviations above the mean. If a person were to score 64 on this test, the score would be 1.5 standard deviations below the mean, and the z score would be –1.5. A z score of 0 would be no standard deviations above the mean—in other words, right on the mean. Measurements similar to z scores are used when you take a bone density test. Your score will compare your bone density to that of a healthy 30-year-old. If your score is below –1, you are moving toward osteoporosis. Below –2, you are there. Because it is often inconvenient to use negative numbers, other standard scores have been devised to eliminate this difficulty. The T score has a mean of 50 and uses a standard deviation of 10. Thus, a T score of 50 indicates average performance. If you multiply the z score by 10 (which eliminates the decimal) and add 50



Grade-equivalent score Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Standard scores Scores based on the standard deviation. z score Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean that a particular score falls. T score Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.



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(which gets rid of the negative number), you get the equivalent T score as the answer. The person whose z score was 21.5 would have a T score of 35. First multiply the z score by 10: 21.5 × 10 5 215 Then add 50: 215 1 50 5 35 Before we leave this discussion of types of scores, we should look at one other widely used method. Stanine scores (the name comes from “standard nine”) are standard scores. There are only nine possible scores on the stanine scale, the whole numbers 1 through 9. The mean is 5, and the standard deviation is 2. Stanine scores provide a method of considering a student’s rank, because each of the nine scores includes a specific range of percentile scores in the normal distribution. For example, a stanine score of 1 is assigned to the bottom 4% of scores in a distribution. A stanine of 2 is assigned to the next 7%. Of course, some raw scores in this 7% range are better than others, but they all get a stanine score of 2. Each stanine score represents a wide range of raw scores. This has the advantage of encouraging teachers and parents to view a student’s score in more general terms instead of making fine distinctions based on a few points. Figure 15.4 compares the four types of standard scores we have considered, showing how each would fall on a normal distribution curve. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Interpreting Achievement Tests (II, C4) Accurate information from the teacher is essential for students’ academic progress. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of how to use praise effectively. These guidelines apply to written feedback as well.



Interpreting Standardized Test Reports STOP & THINK Look at the test printout in Figure 15.5. What are this student’s strengths and weaknesses? How do you know?  • What specific information can teachers expect from achievement test results? Test publishers usually provide individual profiles for each student, showing scores on each subtest.



FIGUR E 15 .4 FOUR TYPES OF STANDARD SCORES ON A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE Using this figure, you can translate one type of standard into another.



Stanine scores Wholenumber scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores.



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FIGU RE 1 5.5 A TYPICAL SCORE REPORT A sample test score report, with no actual test data used.



Source: Sample Stanford Student Report in Score Report Sampler: Guide-Teaching and Learning Toward High Academic Standards for the Stanford Achievement Test Series, 10th Edition (Stanford 10). Copyright © 2009 by NCS Pearson, Inc. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.



Figure 15.5 is an example of a Student Report for a Sally, a fourth grader, on the Stanford Achievement Test, 10th Edition. Note that the Student Report has three sections. The first (About This Student’s Performance) is a brief narrative explanation that may include a Lexile Measure™ (see lexile.com), which is computed from the Reading Comprehension score and helps teachers identify Sally’s reading level in order to select appropriate texts. The second section (Subtests and Totals) attempts to paint a picture of the student’s achievement in Reading, Mathematics, Language, Spelling, Science, Social Science, Listening, and Thinking Skills. That section also includes total scores on the battery of tests and scores on the Otis-Lennon School Ability test—a kind of group IQ or scholastic aptitude test. Some of the subtests are further divided into more specific assessments. For example, Reading is broken down into Word Study Skills, Reading Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension. Next to each subtest are several different ways of reporting Sally’s score. The school decides which scores are reported, based on a list of possible reporting formats. This school chose the following types of scores:



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Number Correct: Under the second column is the number of items that Sally answered correctly for that subtest (the total number of items on the subtest is in the first column, Number Possible). Scaled Score: This is the basic score used to derive all the other scores, sometimes called a growth score because it describes growth in achievement that typically occurs as students move through the grades. For example, the average score for third graders might be 585, whereas the average score for tenth graders might be 714 on tests with possible scores that range from 0 to 1,000 across the entire K–12 grades. Often, the difficulty of items is included in calculating scale scores (Popham, 2017). National PR-S (National Percentile Rank and Stanine): This score tells us where Sally stands in relation to students at her grade level across the country in terms of percentile rank (percent with the same score or lower) and stanine, so a score of 59-5 is a percentile of 59 and a stanine of 5. National NCE (Normal Curve Equivalent): This is a standard score derived from the percentile rank, with a range of 1 to 99, a mean of 50, and a standard deviation of 21. Grade Equivalent: This indicates that Sally’s scaled score is the same as an average student in the indicated grade and month of school. Beware of the problems with grade-equivalent scores described earlier. AAC (Achievement/Ability Comparison) Range: The ACC score compares Sally’s achievement on each subtest to a norm group of other students who have her same ability as measured by the Otis-Lennon School Ability test. The ACC range categorizes Sally’s ACC score as HIGH, MIDDLE, or LOW. You can see that Sally is in the middle on most of the subtests, so her achievement is in the middle compared to students with abilities similar to hers. National Grade Percentile Bands: The range of national percentile scores in which Sally’s true score is likely to fall. You may remember from our discussion of true scores that this range, or confidence interval, is determined by adding and subtracting the standard error of the test from Sally’s actual score. Chances are high that Sally’s true score is within this range. Bands that do not overlap indicate likely differences in achievement. The bottom of Figure 15.5 (Clusters) breaks Sally’s subtests down into even more specific skills. For each skill we see the number of questions possible to answer (NP), the number Sally attempted (NA), and the number she got correct (NC). The check marks beside the skills indicate if she is average, above average, or below average in each. Notice that some skills are assessed with only a few (3 to 8) questions. Remember that fewer items mean less reliability. DISCUSSING TEST RESULTS WITH FAMILIES. As a teacher you probably will be expected to explain test results to your students and their families. Make sure you know the meaning of all the types of scores your school reports—raw scores, percentiles and percentile bands, scale scores, Lexiles, grade equivalents, stanines, or any others that appear on test reports. With high school students it is also useful to tell both the students and their parents that only 25% of academic success in college is associated with a student’s scores on the SAT or ACT. The other 75% is due to motivation, hard work, study habits, interests, and other factors under the student’s control (Popham, 2017). This can be critically important information for families who are afraid their children “aren’t meant for college.” The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give some other tips.



Accountability and High-Stakes Testing STOP & THINK How has standardized testing affected your life so far? What opportunities have been opened or closed to you based on test scores? Was the process fair?  • Every day, many decisions about individuals are based on the results of tests. Should Russell be issued a driver’s license? How many and which students from the eighth



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Conferences and Explaining Test Results GENERAL CONFERENCING GUIDELINES Decide on a few clear goals for the conference. Examples 1. Gather information about the student to help in your instruction. 2. Explain grades or test results. 3. Let parents know what is coming during the next unit or marking period. 4. Solicit help from parents. 5. Make suggestions for use at home. Begin and end with a positive statement. Examples 1. “Jacob is a natural leader.” 2. “Eve really enjoys the science center.” 3. “Yesim is really supportive when other students are upset.” 4. “Ashanti’s sense of humor keeps the class positive.” Listen actively. Examples 1. Accept the emotions of parents or caregivers. Don’t try to talk them out of what they feel. 2. “You seem to feel frustrated when Lee doesn’t do his homework.” Respect family members’ time and their concern about their child—establish a partnership. Examples 1. Speak plainly and briefly, and avoid jargon. 2. Be tactful, but don’t avoid talking about tough issues. 3. Ask families to follow through on class goals at home: “Ask Leona for her homework checklist, and help her keep it up to date. I will do the same at school.” Learn from the family members. Examples 1. Send home a brief questionnaire to be returned before the conference so you can prepare: What are the parents’ concerns and questions? 2. What are the students’ interests and strengths as revealed in hobbies or extracurricular activities? Follow up and follow through. Examples 1. Send a brief note thanking the family members for attending. 2. Share student successes through notes or email messages. 3. Keep families informed before problems develop.



EXPLAINING AND USING TEST RESULTS In nontechnical terms, explain the meaning of each type of score on the test report and explain why tests are not “perfect.” Examples 1. If the test is norm referenced, know what the comparison group was (national? state? local district?). Explain that the child’s score shows how he or she performed in relation to the other students in the comparison group. 2. If the test is criterion referenced, explain that the scores show how well their child performed specific tasks such as word problems or reading comprehension. 3. Encourage parents to think of the score not as a single point, but as a range or band that includes the score. 4. Ignore small differences between scores. For norm-referenced tests, use percentile scores. They are the easiest to understand. Examples 1. Percentile scores tell what percentage of students in the comparison group made the same score or lower. Higher percentiles are better, and 99 is as high as you can get; 50 is average. 2. Percentile scores do not tell the “percent correct,” so scores that would be bad on a classroom test (say 65% to 75% or so) are above average—even good—as percentile scores. Avoid using grade-equivalent scores. Examples 1. If parents want to focus on the “grade level” of their child, tell them that high grade-equivalent scores reflect a thorough understanding of the current grade level and NOT the capacity to do higher grade-level work. 2. Tell parents that the same grade-equivalent score has different meanings in different subjects—reading versus mathematics, for example.



Source: Based on ideas from The Successful Classroom: Management Strategies for Regular and Special Education Teachers, by D. P. Fromberg & M. Driscoll. Published by Teachers College, Columbia University; Scholastic. (2011). Teacher Tips for Successful ParentTeacher Conferences, retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/ teachers/articles/teaching-content/teacher-tips-successful-parentteacher-conferences/; and T. E. Eissenberg & Lawrence M. Rudner (1988). Explaining Test Results to Parents. Retrieved from http:// pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=1&n=1



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grade would benefit from an accelerated program in science? Who needs extra tutoring? Test scores may affect “admission” to first grade, promotion from one grade to the next, high school graduation, access to special programs, teacher licensure and tenure, and school funding. Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Standardized Testing: Major Issues (II, C5) Since their inception, there have been controversies regarding the use of standardized tests in the schools. Familiarize yourself with the major issues that underlie these controversies. Explain the positions of the different camps in these controversies.



MAKING DECISIONS. When making decisions about individuals based on test results, it is important to distinguish between the quality of the test itself and the way the test is used. Who will be tested? What are the consequences of choosing one test over another for a particular purpose with a given group? What is the effect of the testing on the students? How will the test scores of minority-group students be interpreted? What do we really mean by intelligence, achievement, growth, and proficiency? Do the tests we use to measure these constructs capture what we intended to assess? How will test results be integrated with other information about the individual to make judgments? Answering these questions requires ethical choices based on values, as well as accurate information about what tests can and cannot tell us. Keep these values issues in mind as we examine testing uses and decisions. Because the decisions affected by test scores are so critical, many educators call this process high-stakes testing. One of the high-stakes uses for test results is to hold teachers, schools, and administrators accountable for student performance. For example, teacher bonuses might be tied to their students’ achievement or schools’ funding may be affected by testing results. But, as James Pellegrino (2015) noted, accountability should never be the only purpose of testing: “The problem is that other purposes of assessment, such as providing instructionally relevant feedback to teachers and students, get lost when the sole goal of states is to use them to obtain an estimate of how much students have learned in the course of a year” (p. 1). We need whole systems of assessments that give teachers and students tools for instruction and learning. WHAT DO TEACHERS THINK? The teachers I work with are frustrated that test results often come too late in the year to help them plan instruction or remediation for their current students. This is one reason formative and interim assessments are becoming more popular—the teachers get the information in time to modify and improve instruction. Teachers also are troubled by the amount of time that testing takes—both to prepare for the tests and to give them. They complain that the tests cover material that their curriculum does not include. Today, the Common Core Standards and new tests are meant to help align what is taught with what is tested. Teachers around the country echo these concerns. The New Teacher Project (tntp. org) surveyed 117 of the nation’s top teachers from 36 states and the 10 largest school districts. Most of the teachers (81%) felt successful when their students did well on standardized tests, but 50% felt that on balance, these tests do more harm than good. One teacher said, “I believe that our students are over-tested and many schools feel pressure to teach to the test, which is actually a very low bar” (The New Teacher Project, 2013, p. 9). What are other problems with high-stakes testing?



High-stakes testing Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions. Accountable Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with high-stakes tests.



DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING. Studies have found that in some states, 80% of the elementary schools spend about 20% of their instructional time preparing for the end-of-grade tests (Abrams & Madaus, 2003). Studies of the actual high-stakes tests in action show other troubling consequences. Testing narrows the curriculum. In fact, after examining the results of years of testing, Lisa Abrams and George Madaus (2003) concluded, “In every setting where a high-stakes test operates, the exam content eventually defines the curriculum” (p. 32). For example, using the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills has led to curriculum changes that overemphasize what is tested and neglect other areas. In addition, it seems that the test of mathematics is also a test of reading. Students with poor reading ability have trouble with the math test, especially if their first language is not English. Some uses of standardized tests just are not appropriate, as illustrated in Table 15.5.



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TABLE 15.5 • Inappropriate Uses for High-Stakes Test Results Beware of some uses for standardized test results. Tests were not designed for these purposes. Pass/Fail Decisions



To deny students graduation from any grade, there must be strong evidence that the test used is valid, reliable, and free of bias. Some tests have been challenged in the courts and found to meet these standards, but not all tests are good enough to make pass/fail decisions.



State-to-State Comparisons



You cannot really compare states using standardized test scores. States do not have the same curriculum, tests, resources, or challenges. If comparisons are made, they usually tell us what we already know— some states have more funding for schools and more families with higher incomes or higher education levels.



Evaluation of Teachers or Schools



Many influences on test scores—family and community resources—are outside the control of teachers and schools. Often students move from school to school, so many students taking a test in the spring may have been attending that school only for a few weeks.



Identifying Where to Buy a House



Generally speaking, the schools with the highest test scores are in the neighborhoods where families have the highest levels of education and income. They may not be the “best schools” in terms of teaching, programs, academic growth for their students, or leadership, but they are the schools lucky enough to have the “right” students.



Source: From Haladyna, T. H. (2012). Essentials of Standardized Achievement Testing: Validity & Accountability. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission.



New Directions: PARCC and SBAC In the early 2010s, the federal government gave millions of dollars to two large consortia of states, the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC), to develop high-quality assessments aligned to the Common Core Standards. The assessments were meant to measure complex thinking using a range of testing approaches including performance assessment. Since then, some states have formed smaller consortia or are working independently to develop their own assessments that match the standards in their states (Popham, 2017). Most of these assessments are online—no more paper-andpencil tests—so feedback can be faster and can help inform instruction. Stay tuned for changes in your state. But no matter how fancy the computer-based testing is, the same questions still apply to these new tests: Are they valid? Are they reliable? Do they measure what you taught? Do they measure important outcomes that match the challenges of life today? Do they give you information to improve your teaching (Pelligrino, 2014)? IN SUM: USING HIGH-STAKES TESTING WELL. To be valuable, testing programs must have a number of characteristics. Of course, the tests used must be reliable, valid for the purposes used, and free of bias. In addition, the testing program must: 1. Match the content standards of the district—this is a vital part of validity. 2. Be part of the larger assessment plan. No individual test provides all the necessary information about student achievement. It is critical that schools avoid making pass/ fail decisions based on a single test. 3. Test complex thinking, not just skills and factual knowledge.



Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Alternatives to Standardized Testing (II, C1) For an overview of the major forms of authentic testing, go to Teachervision.com (teachervision.com/lessonplans/lesson-6385.html).



MyLab Education



Video Example 15.5 In this video, a principal and assistant principal discuss their school’s approach to using state test data. Note the overall goals of state tests and the constructive use of test data to improve teaching and learning to help every student achieve.



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GUIDELINES Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing ADVICE FOR TEACHERS Make sure the test actually covers the content of the unit of study. Examples 1. Compare test questions to course learning goals. Make sure that there is good overlap. 2. Check to see if the test is long enough to cover all important topics. 3. Find out if there are any complications your students experience with the test, such as not enough time, too difficult a level of reading, and so on. If there are issues, discuss these problems with appropriate school personnel. Make sure students know how to use all the test materials. Examples 1. Several days before the testing, do a few practice questions with a similar format. 2. Demonstrate the use of the answer sheets, especially computer-scored answer sheets. 3. Check with new students, shy students, slower students, and students who have difficulty reading to make sure they understand the questions. 4. Make sure students know if and when guessing is appropriate. Follow instructions for administering the test exactly. Examples 1. Practice giving the test before you actually use it. 2. Follow the time limits exactly. Make students as comfortable as possible during testing. Examples 1. Do not create anxiety by making the test seem like the most important event of the year. 2. Help the class relax before beginning the test, perhaps by telling a joke or having everyone take a few deep breaths. Don’t be tense yourself! 3. Make sure the room is quiet. 4. Discourage cheating by monitoring the room. Don’t become absorbed in your own paperwork. ADVICE FOR STUDENTS Use the night before the test effectively. Examples 1. Study the night before the exam, ending with a final look at a summary of the key points, concepts, and relationships. 2. Get a good night’s sleep. If you know you generally have trouble sleeping the night before an exam, try getting extra sleep on several previous nights.



Set the situation so you can concentrate on the test. Examples 1. Give yourself plenty of time to eat and get to the exam room. 2. Don’t sit near a friend. It may make concentration difficult. If your friend leaves early, you may be tempted to do so, too. Make sure you know what the test is asking. Examples 1. Read the directions carefully. If you are unsure, ask the instructor or proctor for clarification. 2. Read each question carefully to spot tricky words, such as not, except, all of the following but one. 3. On an essay test, read every question first, so you know the size of the job ahead of you and can make informed decisions about how much time to spend on each question. 4. On a multiple-choice test, read every alternative, even if an early one seems right. Use time effectively. Examples 1. Begin working right away and move as rapidly as possible while your energy is high. 2. Do the easy questions first. 3. Don’t get stuck on one question. If you are stumped, mark the question so you can return to it easily later, and go on to questions you can answer more quickly. 4. On a multiple-choice test, if you know you will not have time to finish, fill in all the remaining questions with the same letter if there is no penalty for guessing. 5. If you are running out of time on an essay test, do not leave any questions blank. Briefly outline a few key points to show the instructor you knew the answer but needed more time. Know when to guess on multiple-choice or true/false tests. Examples 1. Always guess when only right answers are scored. 2. Always guess when you can eliminate some of the alternatives. 3. Don’t guess if there is a penalty for guessing, unless you can confidently eliminate at least one alternative. 4. Are correct answers always longer? shorter? in the middle? more likely to be one letter? more often true than false? 5. Does the grammar give the right answer away or eliminate any alternatives?



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Check your work. Examples 1. Even if you can’t stand to look at the test another minute, reread each question to make sure you answered the way you intended. 2. If you are using a machine-scored answer sheet, check occasionally to be sure the number of the question you are answering corresponds to the number of the answer on the sheet. On essay tests, answer as directly as possible. Examples 1. Avoid flowery introductions. Answer the question in the first sentence and then elaborate.



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2. Don’t save your best ideas till last. Give them early in the answer. 3. Unless the instructor requires complete sentences, consider listing points, arguments, and so on by number in your answer. It will help you organize your thoughts and concentrate on the important aspects of the answer. Learn from the testing experience. Examples 1. Pay attention when the teacher reviews the answers. You can learn from your mistakes, and the same question may reappear in a later test. 2. Notice if you are having trouble with a particular kind of item; adjust your study approach next time to handle this type of item better.



4. Provide alternate assessment strategies for students with identifiable disabilities. 5. Provide opportunities for retesting when the stakes are high. 6. Include all students in the testing, but also provide informative reports of the results that make the students’ situations clear if they have special challenges or circumstances such as disabilities. 7. Provide appropriate remediation when students fail. 8. Make sure all students taking the test have adequate opportunities to learn the material being tested. 9. Take into account the first language of the students. Students who have difficulty reading or writing in English will not perform well on tests that require English proficiency. 10. Use test results for children, not against them (Haladyna, 2002).



Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests Erik Carter and his colleagues (2005) tested a procedure for preparing students with learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and language impairments for a highstakes state test. The students were ages 15 to 19; over half were African American males, and all had individualized education programs (IEPs—see Chapter 4) to guide their education. None had passed the state-required achievement tests. Over six class periods, an instructor taught the students strategies such as filling in bubbles on answer sheets completely, sorting problems by difficulty and doing the easy ones first, using rounding to estimate answers in math, identifying exactly what the question is asking by underlining key words and phrases, and employing strategies for eliminating alternatives that have redundant information or extreme qualifiers. The good news is that after completing the preparation program, students improved their scores significantly on the tests. But the bad news is that the increases were not large enough to bring most of the students to the passing level. The authors recommend that preparation for testing should occur much earlier for students with disabilities. At an average age of 16, the students in this study already were discouraged (Carter et al., 2005). The Guidelines: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing should help you and all your students prepare for high-stakes testing.



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Teacher Accountability and Evaluation One use of standardized tests that worries educators is that they are sometimes employed to evaluate schools and even individual teachers. Concerns about the problems with the quality of high-stakes tests, the unfairness in evaluating teachers based on test scores of students who began the year far below grade level, and the variability in curriculums in different school districts and states have led to new ideas about test scores and testing. Even here, there are strong cautions—read on. VALUE-ADDED MEASURES. What would you say about a teacher whose students began the year reading at the third-grade level and ended the year reading at the fifthgrade level? Sounds like a great year of growth in reading, right? But what if the students were sixth graders? If we judge that teacher only by her students’ achievement at the end of the year, we might think the teacher failed—students ending the sixth grade and still reading at the fifth-grade level! No teaching awards for her! But actually the teacher was very effective (assuming she had the students all year). She added value to their learning—2 years’ worth, in fact. The idea of value-added measures is to assess actual growth compared to some baseline of expected average growth. If students can be expected to grow 1 grade level, but they grow 2, that is above expected growth. Value-added measures use statistical procedures to determine what students could be expected to learn based on student data from previous years in the subject and maybe other relevant information. If the actual student achievement is greater than predicted, then the estimate of the teacher’s or school’s effect is positive (value is added). If students score as predicted, the effect is zero, and if they score lower than predicted, then the effect is negative. So a simple definition of a teacher’s value-added effect is “the average test-score gain for his or her students, adjusted for differences across classrooms in student characteristics such as prior scores” (Chetty, Friedman, & Rockoff, 2011, p. 1). You can imagine that to make good judgments with a value-added approach, the tests used must be valid and reliable, the tests must be aligned with the curriculum, and there must be room at the top and the bottom of the test scores to capture a full range of achievement. Most current standardized tests, however, measure only gradelevel standards, so they are not good at assessing growth for students who perform well above or below the grade level. To assess growth, you also need comparable tests—tests over time that capture the same developing knowledge and skills. Teachers should have the students for most of the year. Also, the smaller the focus (on just one class instead of a whole school), the more uncertain is the estimate of effects, so the same teacher might seem to have larger effects in some years and smaller effects in other years. To be useful, the value-added scores must be based on several years of data from a large number of students. These measures are not perfect, so they should be used to identify strengths and weaknesses in the school or the curriculum and guide professional development, but not to evaluate individual teachers. To evaluate teachers and schools, more information and solid evidence is needed (AERA, 2015; Blazar, Litke, & Barmore, 2016). “VAM [value-added] scores must never be used alone or in isolation in educator or program evaluation systems” (AERA, 2015, p. 450). Still, you may be in a school that uses value-added measures, so it makes sense to learn about them.



Value-added measures Measures that use statistical analyses to indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their student characteristics such as prior level of achievement.



Quality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for Teachers You may hear discussions about what standardized tests should measure—growth or proficiency (Valant & Hansen, 2017). Value-added assessments attempt to assess growth, which is exactly what teachers and schools are trying to accomplish. We want all students to move from where they were when they entered the classroom door to knowing much more by the end of the year. But what the students actually know, their proficiency at the end of the year, is important, too. We want our students to be prepared for the next grade so they keep growing, and we want our graduates ready for college, careers, and life in



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FIGU RE 1 5.6 THE POWER OF TWO IN ASSESSING STUDENT LEARNING



Source: Meade, J. (2014). Value-Added Data quality: Too Often, It’s in the Ryes of the Beholder. Columbus, OH: Battelle for Kids. Available at http://battelleforkids.org/learning-hub/learning-hub-item/value-added-data-quality-too-often-it’s-in-the-eyes-of-the-beholder



the twenty-first century. Parents want their children in schools where they will grow, but also where they (and their classmates) will achieve so they can succeed. Jamie Meade (2014) calls this the “Power of Two” to capture a complete picture of student learning, as shown in Figure 15.6. So, in your teaching, may the Force of Two be with you! MyLab Education Self-Check 15.5



. SUMMARY Basics of Assessment (pp. 592–596) Distinguish between measurement and assessment.  Measurement is the description of an event or characteristic using numbers. Assessment includes measurement, but is broader because it includes all kinds of ways to sample and observe students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities. Distinguish between formative, interim, and summative assessment.  In the classroom, formative (ungraded, diagnostic assessment) helps form and support learning by providing feedback to both the student and the teacher. Interim (growth) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress in an objective way—to see if the student is moving toward proficiency. Summative assessment occurs at the end of instruction and summarizes students’ accomplishments in order to report on achievement. What is test reliability? Some tests are more reliable than others; that is, they yield more stable and consistent estimates. Care must be taken in the interpretation of test results. Each test is only a sample of a student’s performance on a given day. The score is only an estimate of a student’s hypothetical true score. The standard error of measurement takes into account the possibility for error and is one index of test reliability. What is test validity? The most important consideration about a test is the validity of the decisions and judgments that are



based on the test results. Evidence of validity can be related to content, criterion, or construct. Constructrelated evidence for validity is the broadest category and encompasses the other two categories of content and criterion. Tests must be reliable to be valid, but reliability does not guarantee validity. What is absence of bias?  Tests must be free of assessment bias. Bias occurs when tests include material that offends or unfairly penalizes a group of students because of the students’ gender, SES, race, religion, or ethnicity. Culture-fair tests have not proved to solve the problem of assessment bias.



Classroom Assessment: Testing (pp. 596–602) Distinguish between norm-referenced and criterionreferenced tests.  In norm-referenced tests, a student’s performance is compared to the average performance of others. In criterion-referenced tests, scores are compared to a preestablished standard. Norm-referenced tests cover a wide range of general learning goals. However, results of normreferenced tests do not tell whether students are ready for advanced material, and they are not appropriate for affective and psychomotor learning goals. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of very specific goals.



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How can testing support learning? Learning is supported by frequent testing using cumulative questions that ask students to apply and integrate knowledge. With the goals of assessment in mind, teachers are in a better position to design their own tests or evaluate the tests provided by textbook publishers. Describe two kinds of traditional testing. Two traditional formats for testing are the selected-response test and the constructed-response/essay test. Selected-response tests, which can include multiple-choice, true/false, fill-in, and matching items, should be written with specific guidelines in mind. Writing and scoring essay questions requires careful planning, in addition to criteria to discourage bias in scoring.



Authentic Classroom Assessments (pp. 602–610) How can teachers use formative assessment?  Formative assessments may be informal and “on the fly,” such as exit tickets or journals, or formal assessments, such as quizzes embedded in the curriculum. Whatever the form, students can participate in the formative assessment by analyzing their work and making plans for improvement. What is authentic assessment?  Critics of traditional testing believe that teachers should use authentic tests and other authentic assessment procedures. Authentic assessment requires students to perform tasks and solve problems that are similar to the real-life performances that will be expected of them outside of school. Describe portfolios and exhibitions.  Portfolios and exhibitions are two examples of authentic assessment. A portfolio is a collection of a student’s work, sometimes chosen to represent growth or improvement or sometimes featuring “best work.” Exhibitions are public performances of a student’s understandings. Portfolios and exhibitions emphasize performing real-life tasks in meaningful contexts. What are the issues of reliability, validity, and equity with portfolios and performance assessment?  Using authentic assessments does not guarantee reliability, validity, and equity (absence of bias). Using rubrics is one way to make assessment more reliable and valid. But the results from assessment based on rubrics may not predict performance on related tasks. Also, rater bias based on the appearance, speech, or behavior of students or a lack of resources may place students from minority groups at a disadvantage in performance assessments or projects. Why assess complex thinking?  Assessing complex thinking and higher-order outcomes actually can help students master and retain core facts as well. In other words, testing for complex understanding improves learning at all the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, from remembering factual knowledge to analyzing and creating high-level knowledge. There are approaches in each subject that assess students’ abilities to analyze, apply, evaluate, and create.



Grading (pp. 610–615) Describe two kinds of grading. Grading can be either norm referenced or criterion referenced. One popular norm-referenced system is grading on the curve, based on a ranking of students in relation to the average performance level. This is not recommended. Criterion-referenced report cards usually indicate how well the individual student has met each of several learning goals.



How can failure support learning? Students need experience in coping with failure, so standards must be high enough to encourage effort. Occasional failure can be positive if appropriate feedback is provided. Students who never learn how to cope with failure may give up quickly when their first efforts are unsuccessful. Which is better, “social promotion” or being “held back”? Simply retaining or promoting a student who is having difficulty will not guarantee that the student will learn. Unless the student is very young or emotionally immature compared to others in the class, the best approach may be to promote, but provide extra support such as tutoring or summer school sessions. Differentiated instruction could prevent problems. Can grades promote learning and motivation?  Learning is increased by written or oral feedback that includes specific comments on errors or faulty strategies, but that balances this criticism with suggestions about how to improve—along with comments on the positive aspects of the work. Grades can encourage students’ motivation to learn if they are tied to meaningful learning. How can communications with families support learning?  Not every communication from the teacher needs to be tied to a grade. Communication with students and families can be important in helping a teacher understand students and present effective instruction by creating a consistent learning environment. Students and families have a legal right to see all the information in the students’ records, so the contents of files must be appropriate, accurate, and supported by evidence.



Standardized Testing (pp. 615–629) What are mean, median, mode, and standard deviation? The mean (arithmetical average), median (middle score), and mode (most common score) are all measures of central tendency. The standard deviation reveals how scores spread out around the mean. A normal distribution is a frequency distribution represented as a bell-shaped curve. Many scores cluster in the middle; the farther from the midpoint, the fewer the scores. Describe different kinds of scores.  There are several basic types of standardized test scores: percentile rankings, which indicate the percentage of others who scored at or below an individual’s score; grade-equivalent scores, which indicate how closely a student’s performance matches average scores for a given grade; and standard scores, which are based on the standard deviation. T and z scores are both common standard scores. A stanine score is a standard score that incorporates elements of percentile rankings. What are some current issues in testing?  Controversy over standardized testing has focused on the role of tests and interpretation of results, the problems with accountability based on test scores, and the ways testing restricts the curriculum. If the test matches important learning targets of the curriculum, is given to students who actually studied the curriculum for a reasonable period of time, is free of bias, fits the students’ language capabilities, and was administered properly, then test results provide some information about the effectiveness of the school. Expert teachers see both the advantages of and problems with standardized testing, but about 50% believe such tests do more harm than good. Teachers should use results to improve instruction, not to stereotype students or justify lowered expectations. PARCC and SBAC, two large consortia of



CLAS S R OOM A SS E S SM E NT, G R AD I NG , A ND S TA ND A R D I Z ED T ESTI N G states, are developing a new set of K–12 assessments in English and math anchored in what it takes to be ready for college and careers and consistent with the Common Core Standards. Can students become better test takers? How? Performance on standardized tests can be improved if students gain experience with this type of testing and are given training in study skills and problem solving. Many students can profit from direct instruction about how to prepare for and take tests. Involving students in designing these test preparation programs can be helpful. Students with learning challenges may benefit from intensive and ongoing preparation for taking tests, particularly if the test-taking strategies are tied to specific problems and content learned and tested.



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What are some current directions in teacher evaluation?  Concerns about the problems with high-stakes tests, the unfairness in evaluating teachers based on test scores of students who began the year far below grade level, and the variability in curriculums in different school districts and states have led to new ideas about test scores and testing. Value-added measures indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their characteristics such as prior level of achievement (where they started the year). Experts agree that value-added scores alone cannot be used to evaluate schools or teachers. Also, measures of both growth and proficiency together give a more complete picture of students’ learning.



. PRACTICE USING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED To access and complete the exercises, click the link under the images below. Distinguishing Between Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Assessments



Using Rubrics



Explaining Standardized Test Results



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



MyLab Education



Application Exercise 15.1



Application Exercise 15.2



Application Exercise 15.3



. KEY TERMS Accountable (p. 624) Assessment (p. 592) Assessment bias (p. 595) Authentic assessments (p. 604) Central tendency (p. 616) Classroom assessments (p. 592) Confidence interval (p. 594) Criterion-referenced grading (p. 612) Criterion-referenced testing (p. 597) Distractors (p. 600) Exhibition (p. 606) Formative assessment (p. 593) Grade-equivalent score (p. 619) Grading on the curve (p. 611) High-stakes testing (p. 624) Informal assessments (p. 603)



Interim (growth) assessments (p. 593) Mean (p. 615) Measurement (p. 592) Median (p. 616) Mode (p. 616) Norm group (p. 597) Norm-referenced grading (p. 611) Norm-referenced testing (p. 597) Normal distribution (p. 618) Percentile rank (p. 618) Performance assessments (p. 604) Portfolio (p. 606) Pretest (p. 593) Range (p. 617) Reliability (p. 594) Scoring rubrics (p. 606)



Selected-response testing (p. 598) Standard deviation (p. 616) Standard error of measurement (p. 594) Standard scores (p. 619) Standardized tests (p. 592) Stanine scores (p. 620) Stem (p. 600) Summative assessment (p. 593) T score (p. 619) True score (p. 594) Validity (p. 594) Value-added measures (p. 628) Variability (p. 617) z score (p. 619)



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CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE



MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following assessment methods provides feedback that is nonevaluative, occurs before or during instruction, and guides teachers in planning and improving instruction? A. Summative B. Criterion referenced C. Formative D. Norm referenced 2. The yearly standardized test in Mr. Taylor’s class is given in the spring. By the summer, Mr. Taylor’s students received their scores in the mail. Many of the parents were upset and contacted Mr. Taylor regarding their children’s “low scores.” “Mr. Taylor, I don’t understand how my daughter could be in Honors classes and have scores on her standardized test in the 70s?” “Your daughter’s scores are above the average nationally. The average score would be a 50.” What type of scoring is being used in the yearly tests Mr. Taylor’s class must take? A. Criterion referenced B. Norm referenced C. Raw scores D. Authentic scoring 3. Maria had proven to be a very good student in Mr. Rhodes’s class despite having just moved to the United States from another country. So it came as a surprise when Maria performed poorly on her tests. When Mr. Rhodes consulted another teacher who also had Maria as a student, he learned that his test questions may have had something to do with it. His colleague explained that Maria came from a relatively primitive area that does not have television. Her exposure to concepts that draw on a wide variety of cultural experiences was limited. This indicated to Mr. Rhodes that his tests unfairly penalized Maria. This type of assessment that unfairly penalizes a student for his or her lack of resources or cultural knowledge demonstrates which of the following? A. Attribution bias B. Assessment bias



C. Reliability bias D. Validity bias 4. Which one of the following types of assessments would be most beneficial for assessing a student’s ability to debate? A. Formative assessment B. Portfolio assessment C. Summative assessment D. Performance assessment



CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Case “How will you grade our oral book reports, Miss Wren?” “I am going to grade them with each of you! We will develop what is called a rubric. It is a list of items on which you should focus while preparing and presenting your book report.” “How will we be involved?” “You will help me make the rubric. What are some of the things you think should be included in your oral report?” “I think we should have to have audience participation, or else it gets too boring!” “Good idea, Terry. What else?” The class continued to add to the rubric until there were six aspects on which to focus. “Class, you will also assist me in grading your performance by using the rubric. By making the rubric and using it to grade yourself, you should do very well.” “There are no surprises that way!” Lisa shouted. 5. In addition to listing the criteria for what constitutes quality work and having students self-assess, list some additional guidelines for Miss Wren to remember when developing a rubric. 6. Grades, a form of extrinsic reinforcement, can be a source of celebration for Miss Wren’s students or a punishment. To make the most of grades and increase her students’ chances for success, what should Miss Wren keep in mind when grading her students?



MyLab Education Licensure Exam



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. WHAT WOULD THEY DO? TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK Giving Meaningful Grades Here is how some practicing teachers responded to the grading challenge at the beginning of the chapter. KATIE CHURCHILL • Third-Grade Teacher Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL



I use a combination of assessment tools to evaluate my students. Using a rubric that students and parents alike are familiar with provides an easy-to-follow-and-understand grading system. The rubric needs to remain in a focal area in the classroom as a constant reminder to the students of what their expectations are. By differentiating instruction consistently to cover all learning styles and modalities, the students hopefully become more involved and invested in their own learning and, as a result, produce better quality work and exceed expectations. Several factors play a part in obtaining a particular letter grade. The letter grade is earned through a combination of group work, completing objectives, and following the rubric guidelines for quality work. MADYA AYALA • High School Teacher of Preperatoria Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico



I think it is important to assess a cross-section of student work. First, portfolios can be a useful way to gather various types of work throughout the year. Using a portfolio, a teacher can then attach a letter grade to student progress and achievement. It is important to grade children not only on progress, but also on their understanding of material. I use meaningful, written assessments to test for retention and understanding of my students’ knowledge. Finally, I grade various projects and experiments so that the students who are better project-based learners will be graded fairly. I also like the idea of using a rubric system to grade students on writing or projects. Under a rubric system, a teacher allocates a certain number of points to each content area. It is then easy to attach a letter grade based on the number of points received.



KATIE PIEL • K-6 Teacher West Park School, Moscow, ID



Students should be given the latitude to express achievement in different ways like group projects, daily class work, tests, and individual projects. All students are held accountable for demonstrating their own learning. With each teacher grading on a different standard, the teachers must also take on the responsibility of collaborating with their peers. Communicating to other teachers the skills a student can be expected to bring with him or her to the next level is crucial. ALLAN OSBORNE • Assistant Principal Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA



Any grading system should consider a student’s progress and effort. Grading systems also should be individualized to account for a student’s unique strengths and weaknesses. Thus, a student with a learning disability should not be held to the same expectations as a gifted student. The most critical aspect of any successful grading system is that it is fair. Fairness dictates that students and their parents be given information in advance about class requirements and expectations, along with a description of grading criteria. A system that is fair can be easily justified. It is also important to keep accurate and detailed records of student progress. In addition to recording grades on tests, quizzes, and projects, anecdotal records describing a student’s typical performance should be kept. These records can be valuable if a report card grade is questioned. Although group assignments can be an important learning experience, I would be reluctant to place too much emphasis on a group project grade. As we all know, each member of the group does not participate equally, and thus, a group grade does not reflect the contribution of each individual member.



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LICENSURE APPENDIX



LICENSURE APPENDIX



Part 1



Licensure Examination Study Guide You probably will have to take a licensure examination in order to become a teacher in your state. In over 40 states and jurisdictions, the Praxis II® test is the required licensure examination. This section highlights the concepts from each chapter that may be on your licensure test.



Chapter 1 Developing relationships with professionals: Until you become a teacher, it will be difficult to establish a working relationship with other practitioners. However, you might find this site beneficial: K–12 Practitioners’ Circle (nces.ed.gov/practitioners/teachers.asp). Keeping current with educational issues: Education Week (edweek.org) will keep you up-to-date about innovations in teaching, policy initiatives, and changes in public laws related to education. These issues are often highly complex. The use of critical thinking skills is essential when making judgments about the information you will encounter in this type of publication.



Chapter 2 Understand how the brain works: • • • •



Brain imaging techniques Neurogenesis and brain development Plasticity Brain-based educational strategies



For theories of cognitive development, you should understand: • Basic assumptions of Piagetian and Vygotskian theories • How students build their unique knowledge bases • How students acquire skills • Important terms and concepts related to each theory



• The key steps, mechanisms, or milestones related to each theory • The limitations of each theory



Chapter 3 Understand the major concepts and progressions related to: • Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development • Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development • Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s perspectives on moral development • Gilligan’s theory of caring • The distinction between moral judgments and social conventions • Haidt’s social intuitionist model Design or choose strategies that: • Support optimal social and emotional development of students • Help students cope with major life transitions and challenges to safety, as well as physical and mental health • Help students build a sense of self-concept, selfesteem, and self-identity (including racial identity) Recognize signs or behaviors that indicate sexual abuse or child abuse.



Chapter 4 Explain the effects of legislation on public education: • Americans with Disabilities Act • Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act • Section 504 • Individualized education programs • Inclusion and least restrictive environment A-1



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L I CE NS UR E APPENDIX



Understand views of intelligence and describe its measurement: • • • •



Types of intelligence tests and their uses Multiple intelligences Interpreting intelligence scores Modifications to testing



Explain how creativity is defined and assessed. Describe and differentiate among learning styles and preferences. Accommodate the needs of students with exceptionalities: • • • • •



Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Visual, speech, and physical difficulties Learning disabilities Intellectual disabilities Autism spectrum disorders



Chapter 5 For the development of language, you should understand: • Diversity in language development • The major accomplishments of language development of school-age children • The relationship between language and literacy • Basic steps that teachers can take to enhance literacy among their students • Strategies that support English acquisition in non-English–speaking students



Chapter 6 Recognize the influences that ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and community values may have on: • Student–teacher relationships and parent–teacher relationships • Student learning preferences • Academic achievement • Attitudes, self-esteem, and expectations for success • Opportunities for quality educational experiences Understand the influences that gender may have on: • Teachers’ attention to students • Differences in mental abilities Devise strategies that: • Eliminate sexist teaching practices • Promote positive school–home relationships • Reduce or eliminate racial and ethnic stereotypes and biases



Chapter 7 Understand the basic assumptions and contributions of these behaviorists: • Pavlov • Skinner



Determine appropriate behavioral techniques to: • Foster appropriate classroom conduct • Help students monitor and regulate learning Understand basic processes of operant conditioning and their roles in learning, including: • Antecedents and consequences • Types of reinforcement and reinforcement schedules • Punishment • Shaping



Chapter 8 Understand how memory and recall are affected by: • The limitations, capacities, and capabilities of the various structures of human memory (e.g., memory stores) • The manner in which humans process information • Prior knowledge of a topic • Executive control processes Explain how students and teachers can enhance learning through the use of: • Elaboration and mnemonic devices • Organized presentations • Meaningful learning and instructional activities



Chapter 9 Focus on each of these major topics: • Metacognitive knowledge and learning • Learning strategies + Basic principles of teaching these strategies + Cognitive processes involved in various strategies + Appropriate uses of different strategies • Problem solving + General problem-solving strategies/heuristics and algorithms + The value of problem representation + Factors that impede problem solving • Critical thinking • Transfer of learning + Types of transfer and promoting transfer



Chapter 10 Explain the advantages and appropriate uses of major student-centered approaches to learning and instruction: • • • •



Inquiry learning Problem-based learning Cognitive apprenticeships Cooperative learning



Understand important concepts related to student-centered models of instruction: • • • • •



Situated learning Complex learning environments Authentic tasks Multiple representations of content Piaget and Vygotsky: theories of constructivism



Recognize how technology influences learning both positively and negatively.



Chapter 11 Focus on these major topics: • • • • •



Bandura’s theory of social learning Modeling and observational learning Self-regulated learning Self-efficacy Teachers’ sense of efficacy



Chapter 12 Describe the theoretical foundations of the major approaches to motivation. • Identify and define important terms related to motivation including goals, attributions, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and self-determination. • Use your knowledge of motivation to: + Identify situations and conditions that can enhance or diminish student motivation to learn + Design strategies to support individual and group work in the classroom + Implement practices that help students become self-motivated



Chapter 13 Understand principles of classroom management that promote positive relationships by: • Establishing daily procedures and routines • Responding effectively to minor student misbehavior • Implementing reasonable rules, penalties, and rewards • Keeping students actively engaged in purposeful learning Diagnose problems and prevent or reduce inappropriate behaviors by: • Communicating effectively with students and parents • Addressing misbehaviors in the least intrusive way possible • Confronting disruptive behaviors in an effective, efficient manner



A -3



Chapter 14 Develop plans for instruction and consider: • The role of objectives in instruction • Writing learning targets • The use of educational taxonomies to identify effective objectives • The role of independent practice (i.e., seatwork and homework) • Direct instruction + Basic assumptions + Appropriate uses/principles of implementation Understand the basic principles of teacher-centered and student-centered forms of instruction, including: • • • • • • •



Appropriate uses and limitations The role of the teacher Effective questioning techniques Whole-group discussions Recitation Thematic/interdisciplinary instruction Differentiated instruction and adaptive teaching



Chapter 15 Describe the characteristics and purposes of major types of tests: • Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests • Achievement, aptitude, and diagnostic tests Explain the major issues related to concerns about standardized testing, including: • High-stakes testing • Bias in testing • Test-taking programs Understand major concepts related to classroom assessment and grading: • Formative and summative assessment • Reliability and validity • Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced grading Describe the characteristics, uses, and limitations of major assessment techniques, including: • • • •



Multiple-choice items Essays Portfolios Exhibitions



Design a scoring rubric for an authentic learning task that possesses: • • • •



Validity Reliability Generalizability Equity



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Part 2



Correlating Text Content to the PRAXIS II® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests and InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards Each state in the country has its own set of licensure requirements that new teachers must meet in order to work in the classroom. An increasing number of states are basing their requirements on standards developed by InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium). These standards are based on 10 principles and foundations of effective teaching practice that InTASC has identified as essential for optimal student learning. Many states assess new teachers’ knowledge of those principles through the use of tests from the Praxis II® series published by the Educational Testing Service. Within the Praxis II series are three Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) tests, one each



for grades K–6, 5–9, and 7–12. Each PLT test assesses students’ knowledge of educational psychology and its application in the classroom. The following table is designed to help you study for your PLT test and meet the Essesntial Knowledge indicators for each of InTASC’s 10 principles of effective teaching. The left-hand column of the table lists the topics assessed in a PLT test. The right-hand column contains InTASC’s Knowledge standards. In the center column, you will find the chapters, sections, and page numbers in this textbook that correspond to the PLT tests and InTASC standards.



PRAXIS II® Topics



A -5



Woolfolk Text Connections



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



Chapters 2, 7–12 (entire chapters)



1(d) The teacher understands how learning occurs— how learners construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop disciplined thinking processes—and knows how to use instructional strategies that promote student learning.



I. Students as Learners A. Student Development and the -Learning Process 1. Theoretical foundations about how learning occurs: how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind j



j



Examples of important theorists: •



Jean Piaget



Chapter 2/Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development



•



Lev Vygotsky



Chapter 2/Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective



•



Howard Gardner



Chapter 4/Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences



•



Robert Sternberg



Chapter 4/Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence



•



Albert Bandura



Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Theory



•



Urie Bronfenbrenner



Chapter 3/Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development



Important terms that relate to learning theory: •



Adaptation



Chapter 2/Basic Tendencies in Thinking



•



Conservation



Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development



•



Constructivism



Chapter 2/The Role of Learning and Development; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 10/Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments



•



Equilibration



Chapter 2/Basic Tendencies in Thinking



•



Co-constructed process



Chapter 2/The Social Sources of Individual Thinking



•



Private speech



Chapter 2/The Role of Language and Private Speech



•



Scaffolding



Chapter 2/Private Speech and the Zone; Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?; Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Chapter 10/Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching



•



Zone of proximal development



Chapter 2/The Zone of Proximal Development; Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”



•



Learning



Chapter 2/Cognitive Development Chapter 7/Understanding Learning Chapter 10/Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching



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PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



• Knowledge



Chapter 2/The Social Sources of Individual Thinking; Activity and Constructing Knowledge Chapter 8/The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition; Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications Chapter 10/How Is Knowledge Constructed?; Knowledge: Situated or General?



• Memory



Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Memory; LongTerm Memory



• Schemas



Chapter 8/Schemas



• Transfer



Chapter 9/Teaching for Transfer



2. Human development in the physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive domains



j



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



1(e) The teacher understands that each learner’s cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development influence learning and knows how to make instructional decisions that build on learners’ strengths and needs



Contributions of important theorists: • Jean Piaget



Chapter 2/Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development



• Lev Vygotsky



Chapter 2/Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective



• Erik Erikson



Chapter 3/Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development



• Lawrence Kohlberg



Chapter 3/Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development



• Carol Gilligan



Chapter 3/Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory



• Jonathan Haidt



Chapter 3/Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology



j



Major progressions in each developmental domain and the ranges of individual variation within each domain



Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Chapter 3/Physical and Motor Development; Understanding Others and Moral Development Chapter 5/The Development of Language



j



Impact of students’ physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive development on their learning and ways to address these factors when making decisions



Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships; Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child; Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking; Assisted Learning; The Zone of Proximal Development Chapter 3/Physical Development; Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development; Identity and Self-Concept; Understanding Others and Moral Development; Persona/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers Chapter 5/The Development of Language Chapter 13/Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning



PRAXIS II® Topics j



How development in one domain, such as physical, may affect performance in another domain, such as social



Woolfolk Text Connections



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InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



Chapter 2/General Principles of Development; The Brain and Cognitive Development; Influences on Development Chapter 3/Physical Development



B. Students as Diverse Learners 1. Differences in the ways students learn and perform



Chapter 4/Learner Differences and Learning Needs Chapter 6/Culture and Diversity



•



Learning styles and preferences



Chapter 4/Learning Styles/Preferences Chapter 6/Diversity in Learning



•



Multiple intelligences



Chapter 4/Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences



•



Performance modes + Concrete operational thinking + Visual and aural learners



Chapter 2/Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage; Guidelines: Teaching the ConcreteOperational Child Chapter 4/Learning Styles; Students with Learning Challenges



•



Gender differences



Chapter 3/Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence Chapter 4/Gender Differences in Intelligence Chapter 6/Gender in Teaching and Learning; Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching



•



Cultural expectations and styles



Chapter 5/Teaching Immigrant Students Chapter 6/Today’s Diverse Classrooms; Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning; Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations



•



English Language Learners



Chapter 5/Diversity in Language Development; Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners; Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts



2. Areas of exceptionality in students’ learning



Chapter 4/Learner Differences and Learning Needs



•



Special physical or sensory challenges



Chapter 4/Students with Communication Disorders; Students with Health and Sensory Impairments



•



Learning disabilities



Chapter 4/Students with Learning Disabilities; Individualized Education Program; Section 504 Protections Chapter 5/Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts



•



Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)



Chapter 4/Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders



•



Intellectual disabilities



Chapter 4/Students with Intellectual Disabilities; Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities



•



Autism spectrum disorder



Chapter 4/Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome



•



Gifts and talents



Chapter 4/Students Who Are Gifted and Talented



2(g) The teacher understands and identifies differences in approaches to learning and performance and knows how to design instruction that uses each learner’s strengths to promote growth.



2(h) The teacher understands students with exceptional needs, including those associated with disabilities and giftedness, and knows how to use strategies and resources to address these needs.



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PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



3. Legislation and institutional responsibilities relating to exceptional students



Chapter 4/Individual Differences and the Law



9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confidentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).



• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); Section 504 Protections for Students



Chapter 4/IDEA; Section 504 Protections



• Inclusion, mainstreaming, and least restrictive environment



Chapter 4/Individual Differences and the Law; Least Restrictive Environment Chapter 14/Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms



4. Approaches for accommodating various learning styles and intelligences



Chapter 4/Learner Differences and Learning Needs—Focus on: Creativity in the Classroom; Learning Styles/Preferences; Individual Differences and the Law; Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents



• Differentiated instruction



Chapter 14/Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching; Technology and Differentiation



• Alternative assessment



Chapter 15/Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments



• Testing modifications



Chapter 15/Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for HighStakes Tests



5. Process of second language acquisition and strategies to support the learning of students



2(g) The teacher understands and identifies differences in approaches to learning and performance and knows how to design instruction that uses each learner’s strengths to promote growth.



Chapter 5/Contextualized and Academic Language; Dialect Differences in the Classroom; Teaching Students Who Are English Language Learners; Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners



2(i) The teacher knows about secondlanguage acquisition processes and knows how to incorporate instructional strategies and resources to support language acquisition.



Chapter 5/Teaching Immigrant Students Chapter 6/American Cultural Diversity; Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement



2(j) The teacher understands that learners bring assets for learning based on their individual experiences, abilities, talents, prior learning, and peer and social group interactions, as well as language, culture, family and community values.



6. Understanding of influences of individual experiences, talents, and prior learning, as well as language, culture, family, and community values on students’ learning • Multicultural backgrounds



2(k) The teacher knows how to access information about the values of diverse cultures and communities and how to incorporate learners’ experiences, cultures, and community resources into instruction. • Age-appropriate knowledge and behaviors



Chapter 2/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 3/The Self, Social, and Moral Development—Focus on: The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative; The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority; Adolescence: The Search for Identity; Understanding Others and Moral Development



PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



•



The student culture at the school



Chapter 3/Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development; Peers Chapter 12/Learned Helplessness



•



Family backgrounds



Chapter 3/Families Chapter 6/Poverty and School Achievement Family and Community Partnership Guidelines



•



Linguistic patterns and differences



Chapter 4/Students with Communication Disorders Chapter 5/The Development of Language; Dialects; What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?



•



Cognitive patterns and differences



Chapter 4/Learning Styles/Preferences Chapter 8/Individual Differences in Working Memory; Long-Term Memory



•



Social and emotional issues



Chapter 3/Understanding Others and Moral Development Chapter 4/Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties



A -9



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



1(g) The teacher understands the role of language and culture in learning and knows how to modify instruction to make language comprehensible and instruction relevant, accessible, and challenging.



C. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment 1. Theoretical foundations about human motivation and behavior



•



Important terms that relate to motivation and behavior



Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching



3(i) The teacher understands the relationship between motivation and engagement and knows how to design learning experiences using strategies that build learner self-direction and ownership of learning.



Chapter 7/Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses; Reinforcement Schedules Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations



2. How knowledge of human emotion and behavior should influence strategies for organizing and supporting individual and group work in the classroom



Chapter 12/Emotions and Anxiety; Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety; Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations



3(j) The teacher knows how to help learners work productively and cooperatively with each other to achieve learning goals.



3. Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish students’ motivation to learning, and how to help students to become self-motivated



Chapter 12/Needs: Lessons for Teachers; Goals: Lessons for Teachers; Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers; Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment



3(i) The teacher understands the relationship between motivation and engagement and knows how to design learning experiences using strategies that build learner self-direction and ownership of learning.



4. Principles of effective management and strategies to promote positive relationships, cooperation, and purposeful learning



Chapter 7/Methods for Encouraging Behaviors; Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors; Handling Undesirable Behavior; Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems; Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management



3(k) The teacher knows how to collaborate with learners to establish and monitor elements of a safe and productive learning environment including norms, expectations, routines, and organizational structures.



•



Establishing daily procedures and routines



Chapter 13/Routines and Rules Required; Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines



•



Establishing classroom rules, punishments, and rewards



Chapter 13/Prevention Is the Best Medicine; Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations



•



Giving timely feedback



Chapter 7/Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately Chapter 13/The Need for Communication Chapter 14/Responding to Student Answers Chapter 15/Effects of Grading on Students



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PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



• Maintaining accurate records



Chapter 15/Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions; Guidelines: Creating Portfolios; Evaluating Portfolios and Performances



• Communicating with parents and caregivers



Chapters 2–15/Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships (one in each chapter)



• Using objective behavior descriptions



Chapter 7/Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis



• Responding to student misbehavior



Chapter 7/Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences; Handling Undesirable Behavior; Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment Chapter 13/Dealing with Discipline Problems; Special Problems with High School Students; Guidelines: Imposing Penalties; Assertive Discipline; Confrontations and Negotiations; Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations



• Arranging classroom space



Chapter 13/Planning Spaces for Learning; Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces



• Pacing and the structure of the lesson



Chapter 13/Encouraging Engagement; Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged; Withitness; Overlapping and Group Focus; Movement Management Chapter 14/Clarity and Organization; Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



II. Instruction and Assessment A. Instructional Strategies 1. Major cognitive processes associated with student learning • Critical thinking • Creative thinking



Chapter 9/Critical Thinking and Argumentation Chapter 4/Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters



• Inductive and deductive thinking



Chapter 2/High School and College: Formal Operations



• Problem structuring and problem solving



Chapter 9/Problem Solving; Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving



• Invention



Chapter 4/Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters



• Memorization and recall



Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Memory



2. Major categories, advantages, and appropriate uses of instructional strategies



8(j) The teacher understands the cognitive processes associated with various kinds of learning (e.g., critical and creative thinking, problem framing and problem solving, invention, memorization and recall) and how these processes can be stimulated.



8(k) The teacher knows how to apply a range of developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instructional strategies to achieve learning goals.



• Cooperative learning



Chapter 10/Collaboration and Cooperation; Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning



• Direct instruction (often referred to as teacher-centered instruction)



Chapter 14/Direct Instruction



• Discovery learning



Chapter 10/Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning



• Whole-group discussion



Chapter 14/Group Discussion; Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions



PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



•



Independent study



Chapter 9/Learning Strategies; Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy; SelfRegulated Learning: Skill and Will



•



Interdisciplinary instruction (sometimes referred to as thematic instruction)



Chapter 10/Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Chapter 14/Planning from a Constructivist Perspective



•



Questioning



Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback



3. Principles, techniques, and methods associated with major instructional strategies



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



5(j) The teacher understands how current interdisciplinary themes (e.g., civic literacy, health literacy, global awareness) connect to the core subjects and knows how to weave those themes into meaningful learning experiences.



8(k) The teacher knows how to apply a range of developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instructional strategies to achieve learning goals.



•



Direct instruction (often referred to as teacher-centered instruction)



Chapter 14/Direct Instruction; Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback; Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions



•



Student-centered models



Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism



4. Methods for enhancing student learning through the use of a variety of resources and materials



A -1 1



Chapter 10/Learning Environments in a Digital World Chapter 14/Technology and Differentiation



8(n) The teacher knows how to use a wide variety of resources, including human and technological, to engage students in learning.



B. Planning Instruction 1. Techniques for planning instruction to meet curriculum goals, including the incorporation of learning theory, subject matter, curriculum development, and student development • • • • • • •



7(i) The teacher understands learning theory, human development, cultural diversity, and individual differences and how these impact ongoing planning.



National and state learning standards State and local curriculum frameworks State and local curriculum guides



Chapter 14/An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core Chapter 15/Accountability and High-Stakes Testing



Scope and sequence in specific disciplines Units and lessons



Chapter 14/The First Step: Planning; Planning from a Constructivist Perspective



Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor Learner objectives and outcomes



Chapter 14/Learning Targets; Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies; Guidelines: Using Learning Targets



2. Techniques for creating effective bridges between curriculum goals and students’ experiences • Modeling



Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational learning



•



Guided practice



Chapter 2/Assisted Learning Chapter 10/Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching Chapter 14/Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions



•



Independent practice, including homework



Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy; SelfRegulated Learning: Skill and Will Chapter 14/Seatwork and Homework



•



Transitions



Chapter 13/Overlapping and Group Focus; Movement Management; Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged



7(g) The teacher understands content and content standards and how these are organized in the curriculum.



7(j) The teacher understands the strengths and needs of individual learners and how to plan instruction that is responsive to these strengths and needs.



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Woolfolk Text Connections



• Activating students’ prior knowledge



Chapter 8/The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition; Long-Term Memory Chapter 9/Defining Goals and Representing the Problem



• Anticipating preconceptions



Chapter 9/Factors That Hinder Problem Solving



• Encouraging exploration and problem solving



Chapter 2/Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 9/Problem Solving Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy



• Building new skills on those previously acquired



Chapter 2/Basic Tendencies in Thinking Chapter 4/Students with Intellectual Disabilities; Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities Chapter 8/Long-Term Memory; Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections; Development of Procedural Knowledge Chapter 11/Observational Learning in Teaching



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



C. Assessment Strategies 1. Types of assessments



Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading; Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments; Classroom Assessment: Testing



6(j) The teacher understands the differences between formative and summative applications of assessment and knows how and when to use each.



2. Characteristics of assessments



Chapter 15/Basics of Assessment; Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity; Writing Multiple-Choice Questions; Constructing Essay Tests; Reliability, Validity, Generalizability; Guidelines: Developing a Rubric



6(k) The teacher understands the range of types and multiple purposes of assessment and how to design, adapt, or select appropriate assessments to address specific learning goals and individual differences, and to minimize sources of bias.



3. Scoring assessments



Chapter 15/Using Multiple-Choice Tests; Evaluating Essays; Evaluating Portfolios and Performances; Guidelines: Developing a Rubric



4. Uses of assessments



Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading; Accountability and High-Stakes Testing; Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessment; Classroom Assessment: Testing



5. Understanding of measurement theory and assessment-related issues



Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading



6(1) The teacher knows how to analyze assessment data to understand patterns and gaps in learning, to guide planning and instruction, and to provide meaningful feedback to all learners.



III. Communication Techniques A. Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal -communication techniques



Chapter 13/The Need for Communication; Prevention Is the Best Medicine



8(m) The teacher understands how multiple forms of communication (oral, written, nonverbal, digital, visual) convey ideas, foster self expression, and build relationships.



B. Effect of cultural and gender differences on communications in the classroom



Chapter 5/Dialect Differences in the Classroom Chapter 6/Sociolinguistics; Gender in Teaching and Learning; Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms



3(1) The teacher understands how learner diversity can affect communication and knows how to communicate effectively in differing environments.



A -1 3



PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



C. Types of questions that can stimulate discussion in different ways for different purposes



Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback



1. Probing for learner understanding



Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback



2. Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes



Chapter 9/Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving Chapter 14/Group Discussion; Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions



5(n) The teacher understands communication modes and skills as vehicles for learning (e.g., information gathering and processing) across disciplines as well as vehicles for expressing learning.



3. Promoting risk taking and problem solving



Chapter 9/Problem Solving



8(j) The teacher understands the cognitive processes associated with various kinds of learning (e.g., critical and creative thinking, problem framing and problem solving, invention, memorization and recall) and how these processes can be stimulated.



4. Facilitating factual recall



Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback



5. Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking



Chapter 4/Assessing Creativity Chapter 14/Kinds of Questions



6. Stimulating curiosity



Chapter 12/Tapping Interests; Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity; Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity



7. Helping students to question



Chapter 14/Fitting the Questions to the Students



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



IV. Profession and Community A. The Reflective Practitioner 1. Types of resources available for professional development and learning • Professional literature • Colleagues



Chapters 2–15/Teachers’ Casebook (opening and closing sections of each chapter)



2. Ability to read and understand articles about current views, ideas, and debates regarding best teaching practices



Chapter 1/Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning Chapters 2–15/Point/Counterpoint (one in each chapter)



3. Why personal reflection on teaching practices is critical, and approaches that can be used to achieve this



Chapters 2–15/Point/Counterpoint (one in each chapter)



9(g) The teacher understands and knows how to use a variety of self-assessment and problem-solving strategies to analyze and reflect on his/her practice and to plan for adaptations/adjustments.



1. Role of the school as a resource to the larger community



Chapter 6/Culture and Diversity Chapter 13/Caring Relationships: Connections with School



10(1) The teacher understands schools as organizations within a historical, cultural, political, and social context and knows how to work with others across the system to support learners.



2. Factors in the students’ environment outside of school (family circumstances, community environments, health, and economic conditions) that may influence students’ life and learning



Chapter 3/Families; Peers Chapter 4/Students with Learning Challenges



10(m) The teacher understands that alignment of family, school, and community spheres of influence enhances student learning and that discontinuity in these spheres of influence interferes with learning.



3. Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians and leaders in the community in the educational process



Chapter 6/Culture and Diversity Chapters 2–14/Family and Community Partnerships (one in each chapter)



10(n) The teacher knows how to work with other adults and has developed skills in collaborative interaction appropriate for both face-to-face and virtual contexts.



B. The Larger Community



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PRAXIS II® Topics



Woolfolk Text Connections



InTASC Essential Knowledge Indicators



4. Major laws related to students’ rights and teacher responsibilities • Equal education • Appropriate education for handicapped children • Confidentiality and privacy • Appropriate treatment of students Reporting situations related to possible child abuse



Chapter 4/Individual Differences and the Law; The Rights of Students and Families Chapter 13/The Need for Communication Chapter 3/Teachers and Child Abuse



9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confidentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).



Note: The InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium) standards were developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers and member states. Copies may be downloaded from the council’s Web site at http://www.ccsso.org. Source: Council of Chief State School Officers. (2013, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards and Learning Progressions for Teachers 1.0: A Resource for Ongoing Teacher Development. Washington, DC: Author.



GLOSSARY Absence seizure A seizure involving only a small part of the brain that causes a child to lose contact briefly with ongoing events—short lapses of consciousness. Academic language The entire range of language used in elementary, secondary, and university-level schools including words, concepts, strategies, and processes from academic subjects. Academic learning time Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task. Academic tasks The work the student must accomplish, including the product expected, resources available, and the mental operations required. Accommodation Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information. Accountable Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with highstakes tests. Achievement tests Standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given content area. Acronym Technique for remembering by using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word. Action research Systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students. Action zone Area of a classroom where the greatest amount of interaction takes place. Active teaching Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students. Adaptation Adjustment to the environment. Adaptive teaching Provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes these supports as students become able to handle more on their own. Adolescent egocentrism Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns. Advance organizer Statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material that follows. Affective domain Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings. Affinity groups Online communities for video game users where they can share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games they are playing. Algorithm Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) Federal legislation prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access, local government, and telecommunications.



Amotivation A complete lack of any intent to act—no engagement at all. Analogical thinking Heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand. Anorexia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake. Antecedents Events that precede an action. Anxiety General uneasiness, a feeling of tension. Applied behavior analysis The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior. Appropriating Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools. Argumentation The process of debating a claim with someone else. Articulation disorders Any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as the substitution, distortion, or omission of sounds. Assertive discipline Clear, firm, nonhostile response style. Assessment Procedures used to obtain information about student performance. Assessment bias Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so on. Assimilation Fitting new information into existing schemes. Assisted learning Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing as students gain independence. Assistive technology Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities. Attachment Forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or family member. Attention Focus on a stimulus. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Current term for disruptive behavior disorders marked by overactivity, excessive difficulty sustaining attention, or impulsiveness. Attribution theories Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior. Authentic assessments Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Authentic task Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom. Autism/Autism spectrum disorders Developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication



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and social interaction, generally evident before age 3 and ranging from mild to major. Automated basic skills Skills that are applied without conscious thought. Automaticity The ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort. The result of learning to perform a behavior or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort. Autonomy Independence. Availability heuristic Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, assuming those easily remembered events are common. Aversive Irritating or unpleasant. Balanced bilingualism Adding a second language capability without losing your heritage language. Basic skills Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step by step. Behavior modification Systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior. Behavioral learning theories Explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors. Behavioral objectives Instructional objectives stated in terms of observable behaviors. Being needs Maslow’s three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs. Belief perseverance The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Bias A prejudicial preference or action. Bilingual Speaking two languages and dealing appropriately with the two different cultures. Binge eating Uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food, such as a whole cake or entire jar of peanut butter. Bioecological model Bronfenbrenner’s theory describing the nested social and cultural contexts that shape development. Every person develops within a microsystem, inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are a part of the macrosystem of the culture. All development occurs in and is influenced by the time period—the chronosystem. Blended families Parents, children, and stepchildren merged into families through remarriages. Bottom-up processing Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern. Brainstorming Generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them. Bulimia Eating disorder characterized by overeating, then getting rid of the food by self-induced vomiting or laxatives. CAPS A strategy that can be used in reading literature: Characters, Aim of story, Problem, Solution. Case study Intensive study of one person or one situation. Central executive The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources. Central tendency Typical score for a group of scores.



Cerebral palsy Condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage. Chain mnemonics Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element. Chunking Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units. Classical conditioning Association of automatic responses with new stimuli. Classification Grouping objects into categories. Classroom assessments Classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, and so on. Classroom management Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems. Cloud computing Allows computer users to access applications, such as Google documents or Microsoft Web Mail, as well as computing assets such as network-accessible data storage and processing to use online applications. Cmaps Tools for concept mapping developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other resources on the Internet. Coactions Joint actions of individual biology and the environment—each shapes and influences the other. Co-constructed process A social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants. Code switching Moving between two speech forms. Cognitive apprenticeship A relationship in which a less-experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. Cognitive behavior modification Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction. Cognitive development Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Cognitive domain In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives. Cognitive evaluation theory Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual’s perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information. Cognitive load The volume of resources necessary to complete a task. Cognitive objectives Instructional objectives stated in terms of higher-level thinking operations. Cognitive science The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation, and the brain. Cognitive view of learning A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. Collaboration A philosophy about how to relate to others— how to learn and work. Collective monologue Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate.



G LOSSA RY Commitment In Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, individuals’ choices concerning political and religious beliefs, for example, usually as a consequence of exploring the options. Community of practice Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true. Compensation The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another. Complex learning environments Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life. Computational thinking The thought processes involved in formulating problems so you can represent their solution steps and algorithms for computing. Computerized axial tomography (CAT) A technique that uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the part of the body scanned. Concept A category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people. Concept map A drawing that charts the relationships among ideas. Concrete operations Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations. Conditioned response (CR) Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (CS) Stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning. Confidence interval Range of scores within which an individual’s true score is likely to fall. Confirmation bias Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence. Consequences Events that follow an action. Conservation Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance. Constructionism How public knowledge in disciplines such as science, math, economics, or history is constructed. Constructive/Structured controversy Students work in pairs within their four-person cooperative groups to research a particular controversy. Constructivism/constructivist approach View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Constructivist approach See constructivism. Context Internal and external circumstances and situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions to shape development and learning. The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event. Contiguity Association of two events because of repeated pairing. Contingency contract A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege. Continuous reinforcement schedule Presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response. Convergent questions Questions with only one right answer—usually factual questions or rote knowledge questions. Convergent thinking Narrowing possibilities to a single answer.



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Cooperation Way of working with others to attain a shared goal. Cooperative learning Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals. Co-regulation A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Correlations Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related. Creativity Imaginative, original thinking or problem solving. Criterion-referenced grading Assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives. Criterion-referenced testing Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard. Critical periods If learning doesn’t happen during these periods, it never will. Critical thinking Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution. Crystallized intelligence Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. Cueing Providing a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior. Cultural deficit model A model that explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming that their culture is inadequate and does not prepare them to succeed in school. Cultural tools The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge. Culturally relevant pedagogy Excellent teaching for students of color that includes academic success, developing/ maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. Culturally responsive management Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students. Culture The knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment. Culture-fair/culture-free test A test without cultural bias. Cyber aggression Using email, Twitter, Facebook, or other social media to spread rumors, make threats, or otherwise terrorize peers. Decay The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time. Decentering Focusing on more than one aspect at a time. Declarative knowledge Verbal information; facts; “knowing that” something is the case. Deficiency needs Maslow’s four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first before higher-level needs can be addressed. Defining attribute Qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept.



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Deliberate practice Comparing your performance to a high standard, monitoring how well you are doing, seeking and using feedback, and focusing on areas that need improvement. Descriptive studies Studies that collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods. Design-based research Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice, then researchers gather and analyze the data to address those problems. Desirable difficulty The more effort that is required to remember something, the better you will learn and the stronger the memory will be—as long as the efforts are successful. Development Orderly, adaptive changes we go through between conception and death; these developmental changes remain for a reasonably long period of time. Developmental crisis A specific conflict whose resolution prepares the way for the next stage. Deviation IQ Score based on a statistical comparison of an individual’s performance with the average performance of others in that age group. Dialect Any variety of a language spoken by a particular group. Differentiated instruction A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. Direct instruction/explicit teaching Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information. Direct reinforcement Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task. Disability The inability to do something specific such as walk or hear. Discrimination Treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people. Disequilibrium In Piaget’s theory, the “out-of-balance” state that occurs when a person realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. Distractors Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item. Distributed practice Practice in brief periods with rest intervals. Distributive justice Beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence. Divergent questions Questions that have no single correct answer. Divergent thinking Coming up with many possible solutions. Domain-specific knowledge Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic.



Domain-specific strategies Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem. Dual coding theory Suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both. Educational psychology The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well. Effective instruction delivery (EID) Instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions. Egocentric Assuming that others experience the world the way you do. Elaboration Adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge. Elaborative rehearsal Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know. Electroencephalograph (EEG) A technique that measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. Embodied cognition Theory stating that cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal-directed interactions between humans and their environment. Emergent literacy The skills and knowledge, usually developed in the preschool years, that are the foundation for the development of reading and writing. Emotional and behavioral disorders Behaviors or emotions that deviate so much from the norm that they interfere with the child’s own growth and development and/ or the lives of others—inappropriate behaviors, unhappiness or depression, fears and anxieties, and trouble with relationships. Emotions Three interrelated factors–physiological responses, behaviors, and feelings—that produce an affective response to a situation. Empathetic listening Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. Empirical Based on systematically collected data. Enactive learning Learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions. Engaged time Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as time on task. English as a second language (ESL) The classes devoted to teaching English to students who are English language learners. English language learners (ELLs) Students who are learning English and whose primary or heritage language is not English. Entity view of ability Belief that ability is a fixed characteristic that cannot be changed. Epilepsy Disorder marked by seizures and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain. Episodic buffer The process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under the supervision of the central executive.



G LOSSA RY Episodic memory Long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person’s life. Epistemological beliefs Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned. Equilibration Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment. Ethnicity A cultural heritage shared by a group of people. Ethnography A descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Event-related potential (ERP) Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp. Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) The 2015 replacement for the No Child Left Behind Act. ESSA drops the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date has been dropped and returns most control to the states to set standards and develop interventions. Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP) Practices that integrate the best available research with the insights of expert practitioners and knowledge of the characteristics, culture, and preferences of the client. Executive control processes Processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory. Executive functioning All those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions, including focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information. Exemplar An actual memory of a specific object. Exhibition A performance test or demonstration of learning that is public and usually takes an extended time to prepare. Expectancy 3 value theories Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal. Experimentation Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded. Expert teachers Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of teaching process and content is extensive and well organized. Explicit memory Long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall. Exploration In Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give them the most satisfaction. Expressive vocabulary All the different words a person uses in speaking or writing. Extended families Different family members— grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and so on—living in the same household or at least in daily contact with the children in the family. Extinction The disappearance of a learned response.



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Extraneous cognitive load The resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task. Extrinsic motivation Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. Failure-accepting students Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it. Failure-avoiding students Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance. First-wave constructivism A focus on the individual and psychological sources of knowing, as in Piaget’s theory. Fixed mindset A personally held belief that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits. Flashbulb memories Clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life. Flexible grouping Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs. Flow A mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement. Fluid intelligence Mental efficiency, nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development. Flynn effect Because of better health, smaller families, increased complexity in the environment, and more and better schooling, IQ test scores are steadily rising. Focal seizure A seizure originating in just one area of the brain lasting only a minute or two. The person may experience a sudden feeling of joy, sadness, anger, or nausea, or sensations such as taste, smell, or movement in one part of the body. Formal operations Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables. Formative assessment Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis. Free, appropriate public education (FAPE) Public funding to support appropriate educational programs for all students, no matter what their needs. Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) Procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior. Functional fixedness Inability to use objects or tools in a new way. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses the MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity. Funds of knowledge Knowledge that families and community members have acquired in many areas of work, home, and religious life that can become the basis for teaching. Gender biases Different views of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other. Gender identity The sense of self as male or female as well as the beliefs one has about gender roles and attributes.



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Gender roles The behaviors and characteristics that the culture stereotypically associates with bring male or female. Gender schemas Organized cognitive structures that include gender-related information that influences how children think and behave. Genderlects Different ways of talking for males and females. General intelligence ( g) A general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests. General knowledge Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations. Generalized seizure A seizure involving a large portion of the brain. Generation 1.5 Students whose characteristics, educational experiences, and language fluencies are somewhere in between those of students born in the United States and students who are recent immigrants. Generativity Sense of concern for future generations. Germane cognitive load Deep processing of information related to the task, including the application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem. Gestalt German for pattern or whole. Gestalt theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes. Gifted and talented Students who demonstrate outstanding aptitudes and competences in one or more of many domains. Glial cells The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers. Goal What an individual strives to accomplish. Goal orientations Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school. Goal structure The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal. Goal-directed actions Deliberate actions toward a goal. Good behavior game Arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior. Grade-equivalent score Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Grading on the curve Norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level. Grit —A a personality trait characterized by determination and persistence. Group consequences Rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct. Group discussion Conversation in which the teacher does not have the dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions. Group focus The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Growth mindset A personally held belief that abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable.



Handicap A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability. Heritage language The language spoken in the student’s home or by members of the family. Heuristic General strategy used in attempting to solve problems. Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization. High-stakes testing Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions. Hostile aggression Bold, direct action that is intended to hurt someone else; unprovoked attack. Human agency The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals. Humanistic interpretation Approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth. Hypothesis/hypotheses A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning A formal-operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions. “I” message Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you. Identity Principle that a person or object remains the same over time. (Piaget) The complex answer to the question: “Who am I?” (Erikson). Identity achievement Strong sense of commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives. Identity diffusion Uncenteredness; confusion about who one is and what one wants. Identify-first reference Using terms such as “autistic” or “deaf” to describe a person—some people prefer this reference because they “claim” the disability as their own and value it as a part of who they are. It is a source of pride to be part of that culture. Identity foreclosure Acceptance of parental life choices without consideration of options. Images Representations based on the physical attributes— the appearance—of information. Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE) A simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum. Immigrants People who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place. Implicit memory Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling but that influences our behavior or thought without our awareness. Importance/attainment value The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs. Incentive An object or event that encourages or discourages behavior.



G LOSSA RY Inclusion The integration of all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classes. Incremental view of ability Belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed. Industry Eagerness to engage in productive work. Informal assessments Ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions. Information processing The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information. Initiative Willingness to begin new activities and explore new directions. Inquiry learning Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions. Inside-out skills The emergent literacy skills of knowledge of graphemes, phonological awareness, syntactic awareness, phoneme–grapheme correspondence, and emergent writing. Insight In problem solving, the sudden realization of a solution. In the triarchic theory of intelligence, the ability to deal effectively with novel situations. Instructional objectives Clear statement of what students are intended to learn through instruction. Instrumental aggression Strong actions aimed at claiming an object, place, or privilege—not intended to harm, but may lead to harm. Integration Fitting the child with special needs into existing class structures. Integrity Sense of self-acceptance and fulfillment. Intellectual disabilities/mental retardation Significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive social behavior, evident before age 18. Intelligence Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world. Intelligence quotient (IQ) Score comparing mental and chronological ages. Interest or intrinsic value The enjoyment a person gets from a task. Interference The process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information. Interim (growth) assessments Assessments that occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Interleaved practice Mixing up practice by, for example, tossing from 2 and 4 feet before being tested at 3 feet, solving different types of problems, or practicing different vocabulary words. Intermittent reinforcement schedule Presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses. Internalize Process whereby children adopt external standards as their own. Intersectionality Our overlapping, intersecting social identities (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, age, etc.) that shape each and every one of us in unique ways.



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Intersubjective attitude A commitment to build shared meaning with others by finding common ground and exchanging interpretations. Interval schedule Length of time between reinforcers. Intimacy Forming close, enduring relationships with others. Intrinsic cognitive load The resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli. Intrinsic motivation Motivation associated with activities that are their own reward. Jigsaw classroom A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. Keyword method System of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images. KWL A strategy to guide reading and inquiry: Before—What do I already know? What do I want to know? After—What have I learned? Lateralization The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides) of the brain cortex. Learned helplessness The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead to failure. Learning Process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior. Learning disability Problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or math. Learning management system (LMS) Systems that deliver e-learning, provide tools and learning materials, keep records, administer assessments, and manage learning. Learning preferences Preferred ways of studying and learning, such as using pictures instead of text, working with other people versus alone, learning in structured or in unstructured situations, and so on. Learning sciences An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning. Learning strategies A special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to approach learning tasks. Learning styles Characteristic approaches to learning and studying. Least restrictive environment (LRE) Educating each child with peers in the general education classroom to the greatest extent possible. Legally blind Seeing at 20 feet what a person with normal vision would see at 200 feet and/or having severely restricted peripheral vision. Legitimate peripheral participation Genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small. Lesson study As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version. Levels of processing theory Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed.



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LGBTQ Individuals whose sexual orientation is lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered, or who are currently questioning their sexual orientation. Limited English proficient (LEP) A term also used for students who are learning English when their primary or heritage language is not English—not the preferred term (English language learner; ELL) because of the negative connotations. Loci method Technique of associating items with specific places. Locus of causality The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior. Long-term memory Permanent store of knowledge. Low vision Vision limited to close objects. Mainstreaming Teaching children with disabilities in regular classes for part or all of their school day. Maintenance rehearsal Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself. Massed practice Practice for a single extended period. Massive multi-player online games (MMOG) Interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds where the learner assumes a character role, or avatar. Mastery experiences Our own direct experiences—the most powerful source of efficacy information. Mastery goal A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. Mastery-oriented students Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable. Maturation Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time. Mean Arithmetical average. Means-ends analysis Heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals. Measurement An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms. Median Middle score in a group of scores. Melting pot A metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream of society so that ethnic differences vanish. Menarche The first menstrual period in girls. Mental age In intelligence testing, a performance that represents average abilities for that age group. Metacognition Knowledge about our own thinking processes. Metalinguistic awareness Understanding about one’s own use of language. Microgenetic studies Detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over a several-day or several-week period of time. Minority group A group of people who have been socially disadvantaged—not always a minority in actual numbers. Mirror systems Areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action by someone else and when performing the action. Mnemonics Techniques for remembering; the art of memory.



Mode Most frequently occurring score. Modeling Changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person—a model. Monolingual Speaking only one language. Moral dilemma Situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right. Moral realism Stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute. Moral reasoning The thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong. Morality of cooperation Stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can change them. Moratorium Identity crisis; suspension of choices because of struggle. Motivation An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. Motivation to learn The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them. Movement management Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. Multicultural education Education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students. Multiple representations of content Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Myelination The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient. Natural/logical consequences Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions. Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) A technique that uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood that reveal brain activity. Need for autonomy The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions. Need for competence The individual’s need to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand. Need for relatedness The desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Negative correlation A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling. Negative reinforcement Strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs. Neo-Piagetian theories More recent theories that integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of knowledge. Neurogenesis The production of new neurons.



G LOSSA RY Neurons Nerve cells that store and transfer information. Neutral stimulus Stimulus not connected to a response. Nigrescence The process of developing a Black identity. Norm group Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests. Norm-referenced grading Assessment of students’ achievement in relation to one another. Norm-referenced testing Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others. Normal distribution The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean. Object permanence The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence. Objective testing Multiple-choice, matching, true/false, short-answer, and fill-in tests; scoring answers does not require interpretation. Observational learning Learning by observation and imitation of others—vicarious learning. Operant conditioning Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents. Operants Voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal. Operations Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions. Organization Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations. Outside–in skills The emergent literacy skills of language, narrative, conventions of print, and emergent reading. Overlapping Supervising several activities at once. Overlearning Practicing a skill past the point of mastery. Overregularize To apply a rule of syntax or grammar in situations where the rule does not apply, for example, “the bike was broked.” Overt aggression A form of hostile aggression that involves physical attack. Paraphrase rule Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond. Parenting styles The ways of interacting with and disciplining children. Part learning Breaking a list of items into shorter lists. Participant observation A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group. Participants/subjects People or animals studied. Participation structures The formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity. Pedagogical content knowledge Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences. Peer cultures Groups of children or adolescents with their own rules and norms, particularly about such things as dress, appearance, music, language, social values, and behavior.



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Percentile rank Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below an individual’s score. Perception Interpretation of sensory information. Performance assessments Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning. Performance goal A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others. Personal development Changes in personality that take place as one grows. Personal learning environment (PLE) Provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations. Personal learning network (PLN) Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. Perspective-taking ability Understanding that others have different feelings and experiences. Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) A term favored by the medical community to describe autism spectrum disorders. Phonological loop Part of working memory. A speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds. Physical development Changes in body structure and function over time. Physiological or emotional arousal Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense. Plasticity The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. Portfolio A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement. Positive behavior supports (PBS) Interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student. Positive correlation A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain. Positive practice Practicing correct responses immediately after errors. Positive reinforcement Strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior. Positron emission tomography (PET) A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-assisted motion pictures of the brain. Pragmatics The rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture. Precorrection A tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student’s misbehavior, clearly specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers. Prejudice Prejudgment or irrational generalization about an entire category of people. Premack principle Principle stating that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.



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Preoperational The stage before a child masters logical mental operations. Presentation punishment Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior; also called Type I punishment. Pretest Formative test for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities. Priming Activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another. Principle Established relationship between factors. Private speech Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. Problem Any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so. Problem solving Creating new solutions for problems. Problem-based learning Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process. Procedural knowledge Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; “knowing how.” Procedural memory Long-term memory for how to do things. Procedures/routines Prescribed steps for an activity. Production deficiency Students learn problem-solving strategies, but do not apply them when they could or should. Productions The contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions. Units of knowledge that combine conditions with actions in “if this happens, do that” relationships that often are automatic. Prompt A reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person reacts to the cue. Propositional network Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held. Prototype A best example or best representative of a category. Psychomotor domain Physical ability and coordination objectives. Psychosocial Describing the relation of the individual’s emotional needs to the social environment. Puberty The physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce. Punishment Process that weakens or suppresses behavior. Pygmalion effect Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for mythological king, Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life. Qualitative research Exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation, and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth. Quantitative research Research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observations.



Quasi-experimental studies Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. Race A socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry. Racial and ethnic pride A positive self-concept about one’s racial or ethnic heritage. Radical constructivism Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong. Random Without any definite pattern; following no rule. Range Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group. Ratio schedule Reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers. READS A five-step reading strategy: Review headings; Examine boldface words; Ask, “What do I expect to learn?”; Do it—Read; Summarize in your own words. Receptive vocabulary The words a person can understand in spoken or written words. Reciprocal questioning Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material. Reciprocal teaching Learning to apply the strategies of questioning, summarizing, predicting, and clarifying; designed to help students understand and think deeply about what they read. Reconstruction Recreating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge. Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students. Refugees A special group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily, but who are fleeing their home country because it is not safe. Reinforcement Use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Reinforcer Any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again. Relational aggression A form of hostile aggression that involves verbal attacks and other actions meant to harm social relationships. Reliability Consistency of test results. Removal punishment Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior; also called Type II punishment. Representativeness heuristic Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes— what you think is representative of the category. Reprimands Criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes. Resilience The ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to development. Resistance culture Group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture. Respondents Responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli. Response Observable reaction to a stimulus.



G LOS SA RY Response cost Punishment by loss of reinforcers. Response set Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way. Response to intervention (RTI) A process to make sure students get appropriate research-based instruction and support as soon as possible and that teachers are systematic in documenting the interventions they have tried with these students so they can use this information in planning instruction. Restructuring Conceiving of a problem in a new or different way. Retrieval Process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory. Retrieval practice/testing effect Practicing by retrieving information from memory instead of rereading or restudying—more effective because retrieval seems to help memories consolidate in the brain and strengthens the neural pathways so the knowledge is easier to find later. Reversibility A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations—the ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point; also called reversible thinking. Reversible thinking Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning. Reward An attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a behavior. Ripple effect “Contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation. Rote memorization Remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information. Rules Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts. Scaffolding Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more. Schema-driven problem solving Recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one already has a solution. Schemas (singular, schema) In cognitive theory, basic structures for organizing information; concepts. Schemes In Piagetian theory, mental systems or categories of perception and experience. Scoring rubrics Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance. Script Schema, or expected plan, for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza. Scripted cooperation Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and criticizing the summaries. Seatwork Independent classroom work. Second-wave constructivism A focus on the social and cultural sources of knowing, as in Vygotsky’s theory.



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Section 504 A part of civil rights law that prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal funds, such as public schools. Selected-response testing A form of testing in which students choose the correct response from a set of possible responses provided by the teacher or the test developer instead of creating their own response. Multiple choice and true-false tests are common examples of selected response testing. Self-actualization Fulfilling one’s potential. Self-concept Individuals’ knowledge and beliefs about themselves—their ideas, feelings, attitudes, and expectations. Self-efficacy A person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation. Self-esteem The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Self-fulfilling prophecy A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. Self-handicapping Students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability. Self-instruction Talking oneself through the steps of a task. Self-management Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions. Also the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior. Self-regulated learning A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out. Self-regulation Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals. Self-regulatory knowledge Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge. Self-reinforcement Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers. Semantic memory Memory for meaning. Semilingual A lack of proficiency in any language; speaking one or more languages inadequately. Semiotic function The ability to use symbols—language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Sensitive periods Times when a person is especially ready to learn certain things or responsive to certain experiences. Sensorimotor Involving the senses and motor activity. Sensory memory System that holds sensory information very briefly. Serial-position effect The tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list. Seriation Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume. Service learning A teaching strategy that invites students to identify, research, and address real community challenges, using knowledge and skills learned in the classroom. Sexual identity A complex combination of beliefs about gender roles and sexual orientation.



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Sexual orientation The gender to whom a person is sexually or emotionally attracted. Shaping Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior. Shared regulation Students working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance. Sheltered instruction Approach to teaching that improves English language skills while teaching content to students who are English language learners by putting the words and concepts of the content into context to make the content more understandable. Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP®) An observational system to check that each element of sheltered instruction is present for a teacher. Short-term memory Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds. Single-subject experimental studies Systematic interventions to study effects with one person, often by applying and then withdrawing a treatment. Situated learning The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings. Social cognitive theory Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory. Social conventions Agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation. Social development Changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Social goals A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group. Social isolation Removal of a disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes. Social learning theory Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. Social negotiation Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for different perspectives. Social persuasion A “pep talk” or specific performance feedback—one source of self-efficacy. Sociocultural theory Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions. Sociocultural views of motivation Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice. Socioeconomic status (SES) Relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige. Sociolinguistics The study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how long to speak in conversations within cultural groups. Spasticity Overly tight or tense muscles, characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy. Speech disorder Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking.



Spermarche The first sperm ejaculation for boys. Spiral curriculum Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time. Spreading activation Retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information. Standard deviation Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean. Standard error of measurement Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated. Standard scores Scores based on the standard deviation. Standardized tests Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures. Stanine scores Whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores. Statistically significant Not likely to be a chance occurrence. Stem The question part of a multiple-choice item. Stereotype Schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category. Stereotype threat The extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you. Stimulus Event that activates behavior. Stimulus control Capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors. Story grammar Typical structure or organization for a category of stories. Structured English immersion (SEI) An environment that teaches English rapidly by maximizing instruction in English and using English at a level appropriate to the abilities of the students in the class who are English language learners. Successive approximations Reinforcing small steps to reach a goal; the small component steps that make up a complex behavior. Summative assessment Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement. Sustaining expectation effect Student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements. Synapses The tiny space between neurons—chemical messages are sent across these gaps. Synaptic plasticity See plasticity. Syntax The order of words in phrases or sentences. T score Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. Task analysis System for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills. Taxonomy Classification system. Teachers’ sense of efficacy A teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.



G LOS SA RY Theory Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. Theory of mind An understanding that other people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. Theory of multiple intelligences (MI) In Gardner’s theory of intelligence, a person’s eight separate abilities: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodilykinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Theory-based An explanation for concept formation that suggests our classifications are based on ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things. Time on task Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as engaged time. Time out Technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student from the rest of the class for a brief time. Token reinforcement system System in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward. Top-down Making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the situation; sometimes called conceptually driven perception. Transfer Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations. Transition programming Gradual preparation of students with special needs to move from high school into further education or training, employment, or community involvement. Triadic reciprocal causality An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other. Triarchic theory of successful intelligence A three-part description of the mental abilities (thinking processes, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context) that lead to more or less intelligent behavior. True score The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error free. Unconditioned response (UR) Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response. Unconditioned stimulus (US) Stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response. Understanding by Design (UbD) A system of lesson and unit planning that starts with key objectives for understandings and then moves backwards to design assessments and learning activities. Universal design Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or Web sites. Utility value The contribution of a task to meeting one’s goals. Validity Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.



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Value An individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important. Value-added measures Measures that use statistical analyses to indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their student characteristics such as prior level of achievement. Variability Degree of difference or deviation from mean. Verbalization Putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words. Vicarious experiences Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else. Vicarious reinforcement Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior. Virtual learning environments (VLE) A broad term that describes many ways of learning in virtual or online systems. Visuospatial sketchpad Part of working memory. A holding system for visual and spatial information. Voicing problems intonation.



Inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or



Volition Will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning. Warm demanders Teachers who are especially effective with African American students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students. Within-class ability grouping System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences. Withitness According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom. Work-avoidant learners Students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work. Working memory The brain system that provides temporary holding and processing of information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning; the information that you are focusing on at a given moment. Working-backward strategy Heuristic in which you start with the goal and move backward to solve the problem. z score Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean that a particular score falls. Zero reject A basic principle of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act specifying that no student with a disability, no matter what kind or how severe, can be denied a free public education. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) In Vygotsky’s theory, the phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support.



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NAME INDEX Aamodt, S., 43 Aaronson, J., 238 Abdelfattah, F., 105 Abduljabbar, A. S., 105 Aber, J. L., 90, 534, 555 Aboud, F. E., 233 Abrami, P. C., 364, 365, 367, 410 Abrams, L. M., 624 Abrous, D. N., 35 Abry, T., 525 Abuhamdeh, S., 486 Abu-Hilal, M. A., 105 Accavitti, M., 235 Acker, R. V., 89 Adesope, O. O., 347, 484 Agarwal, P. K., 330 Agne, R. M., 562 Ahn, H. S., 436 Airasian, P. W., 598, 602 Alarcon, G. M., 132 Albanese, M. A., 396 Alber, S. R., 273 Albert, K., 391 Alberto, P. A., 262, 267, 268, 270, 272, 278, 281, 282, 285 Albro, E. R., 181, 184 Alderman, M. K., 497 Aldrich, C., 412 Aldrich, N. J., 396, 397 Aleven, V., 349 Alexander, J. F., 573 Alexander, P. A., 14, 324, 344, 364, 440, 465, 487 Alferink, L. A., 39, 43 Alfieri, L., 396, 397 Alfredsson, J., 150, 151 Alibali, M. W., 55, 56 Alidoost, M., 347 Ali, S. R., 222 Allen, J., 92, 554 Allen, J. P., 467, 554 Allen-Meares, P., 533 Allensworth, E., 443 Allington, R. L., 227 Allison, 245 Alloway, T. P., 315 Alloy, L. B., 480 Almasi, J. F., 344 Aloe, A. M., 507, 554 Alter, A. L., 238 Altszuler, A. R., 150 Alvarez, A. N., 190 Alves de Lima, D., 197 Alvidrez, J., 582



Alzate, G., 96 Amabile, T. M., 133, 135 Amanti, C., 66, 199, 200, 569 Amato, P. R., 84, 86 Ambady, N., 237 Ambridge, B., 315 Ambrose, D., 135 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 158, 159 American Educational Research Association, 628 American Psychiatric Association, 79, 150, 163 American Psychological Association, 86, 301 American Psychological Association, Presidential Task Force on Educational Disparities, 233 American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 532 Ames, C., 491 Amo, L. C., 507 Anastasiow, N. J., 350, 407 Ana, V., 102 Anderman, E. M., 14, 92, 113, 114, 301, 434, 462, 463, 464, 470, 471, 474, 475, 476, 479, 481, 493, 495 Anderman, L. H., 434, 440, 462, 463, 464, 470, 471, 474, 475, 476, 479, 481, 493, 495 Anderson, A. R., 527 Anderson, C. A., 91 Anderson, C. W., 401 Anderson, E., 493 Anderson, G. E., 614 Anderson, I., 226 Anderson, J. R., 35, 38, 39, 178, 304, 306, 312, 317, 322, 323, 331, 352, 359, 362, 370, 385 Anderson, L. M., 554 Anderson, L. W., 339, 559, 560 Anderson, M. D., 243, 300 Anderson, R. C., 58, 572 Andrews, E. E., 124 Andrews, J. A., 76 Andrews-Weckerly, S., 470 Ann E. Casey Foundation, 4



Ansary, N. S., 535 Anyon, J., 194, 229, 230 Anzures, G., 233, 234 Appel, M., 236 Applebee, A. N., 572 Araya, P., 79 Arbuthnott, K. D., 139 Arcelus, J., 79 Archer, C., 244 Archer, S. L., 99 Archodidou, A., 58 Arena, D., 412, 413 Arends, R. I., 395, 564, 573, 577 Arens, A. K., 103–104 Arkes, J., 86 Armbruster, B. B., 347 Armento, B. J., 254, 544 Arndt, D., 166, 170 Arneson, J. J., 224 Arnett, J. J., 99, 114, 156 Arnold, M. L., 113 Aronson, E., 398, 402, 406 Aronson, J., 236, 238 Arseniev, A., 79 Artfelt, C., 340 Ashcraft, M. H., 300, 302, 303, 304, 309, 311, 313, 317, 318, 319, 322, 327, 357 Ashton, M. C., 126 Assor, A., 493 Assouline, S. G., 15 Asterhan, C. S. C., 366, 368, 401 Atkinson, R. C., 302 Atkinson, R. K., 356 Attanucci, J., 109 Aud, S., 196 August, D., 6, 202, 203 Austin, S., 5 Austin, S. B., 221 Austin, T. Y., 200 Au, T. K., 188 Avramidis, E., 142, 154 Aydin, Y. C, 5 Ayres, L. R., 453 Azano, A. P., 166, 170 Azevedo, R., 447 Baay, P., 441 Babad, E. Y., 583 Babichenko, M., 366 Bachman, J. G., 157 Bachrach, J. E., 482, 483 Baddeley, A. D., 146, 309, 310, 311, 326, 327



Bagley, E., 412 Bailey, J. M., 606, 611, 613, 615 Bailey, U. L., 151 Bain, P. M., 19, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 570, 602 Baker, C. M., 92 Baker, D. S., 553 Baker, J., 614 Baker, K., 203 Baker, S. K., 202 Balass, M., 42 Baldwin, B. T., 167 Baldwin, J. M., 33 Ball, D. L., 553 Balota, D. A., 341 Bandura, A., 90, 106, 288, 289, 384, 425, 426, 427, 429, 430, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 445, 453, 473 Banerjee, R., 93 Banks, C. A. M., 218 Banks, J. A., 196, 218, 248, 254 Banks, S. R., 603 Banner, G. E., 315 Barbaranelli, C., 438 Barbatsis, G., 410 Barden, L. M., 571 Bargh, J. A., 234 Barkley, R. A., 146, 152 Barling, J., 435 Barlow, D. H., 20 Barmer, A., 230 Barmore, J., 628 Barnard-Brak, L., 614 Barnes, M., 315 Barnett, M. S., 369 Barnhill, G. P., 284 Barom, K. E., 474 Baron, R. A., 540 Baroody, A. E., 525 Baroody, A. J., 397, 410 Barron, K. E., 475, 477, 482 Barros, E., 77 Barry, C. M., 88 Barry, M. J., 60 Barth, A. E., 164 Bartholomew, B., 526 Bartkiewicz, M. J., 246 Bartlett, F. C., 323 Bartlett, S. M., 275, 283 Barton-Arwood, S. M., 627 Barzilai, S., 340, 341 Barzillai, M., 42



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Basow, S. A., 169 Bassett, P., 408 Batalove, J., 190 Bates, J. E., 90 Battiato, A. C., 568 Battistich, V. A., 399 Bauer, A. M., 281, 282 Bauer, P. J., 315 Bauer, W. I., 553 Baumeister, R. F., 96, 107, 234, 468 Baumert, J., 103, 105, 106, 107, 133, 553, 568 Baumrind, D., 82 Baye, A., 132 Bayliss, D. M., 146 Bayliss, P., 142, 154 Bay-Williams, J. M., 354 Bazán, A. R., 185 Beal, S. A., 443 Beane, J. A., 107 Bean, F. D., 229 Beard, K. S., 486, 562 Bear, G. G., 513 Beatty-Hazelbaker, R., 252, 253 Beauchamp, C., 43 Beauchamp, M. H., 43 Bechara, A., 39 Beck, A. N., 614 Becker, B. J., 554 Becker, E. S., 553 Becker, M., 133, 576 Becker, W. C., 17 Beebe-Frankenberger, M., 613 Beech, S. E., 283 Beechum, N. O., 443 Beghetto, R. A., 133, 135, 344 Begley, S., 43 Behne, T., 77 Beilock, S. L., 243 Beishuizen, J., 390 Belfiore, P. J., 287 Belland, B. R., 352, 362, 364, 387, 390, 394, 395, 492 Bellipanni, K. D., 272 Bell, M. A., 56 Belsito, L., 329, 344 Belsky, J., 554 Benbow, C. P., 15, 132, 170 Benita, M., 471 Benner, A. D., 235 Bennett, C. I., 227, 252 Benton, S. L., 44 Beohm, A. E., 56 Bereiter, C., 369, 386 Berenbaum, S. A., 239 Berg, C. A., 564 Berger, K. S., 65, 77, 83, 84, 108, 188 Bergin, D., 497, 498 Berk, L. E., 37, 38, 55, 56, 60, 61, 74, 76, 178, 179, 184 Berko, J., 180 Berkowitz, L., 91



Berliner, D., 225 Berliner, D. C., 14, 20, 22, 224, 567, 571 Bernard, R. M., 410 Bernecker, K., 441 Bernstein, D. A., 270 Berry, A., 553 Berryman, M., 8, 92 Berry, R. Q., III., 230 Berthelot, J., 343 Berthold, K., 312, 327 Best, J. R., 56 Betts, S. M., 438 Bewick, C. J., 413, 414, 415 Bialystok, E., 188, 191 Bianco, K., 196 Biddle, B., 554 Bierman, K. L., 315 Biezuner, S., 406 Biglan, A., 286 Bigler, R. S., 241, 244, 245 Binning, K. R., 238 Biocca, F. A., 410 Bishaw, A., 224 Bishop, D. V. M., 178 Bishop, R., 8, 92 Bjork, E. L., 346 Bjorklund, D. E., 55 Bjorklund, D. F., 301 Bjork, R. A., 139, 327 Blachman, B. A., 184 Blair, C., 125, 315, 445, 614 Blanc, M. H. A., 188 Blast, J., 290, 291 Blatchford, P., 390, 408 Blazar, D., 628 Blewitt, P., 37, 38 Bloom, B. S., 18, 167, 339, 559 Bloom, P., 179, 189 Blow, A. J., 79 Blumenfeld, P. C., 397, 491, 512 Blum, W., 553 Blunt, J. R., 349 Boada, R., 147 Bobek, D. L., 81 Bobis, J., 357 Bocian, K. A., 438, 473 Bocian, K. L., 613 Bode, P., 248 Bodrova, E., 62, 65 Boesen, M. J., 246 Bohanon-Edmonson, H. M., 283 Bohn, C. M., 77 Bohn-Gettler, C. M., 486 Boiarskaia, E., 77 Bois, 583 Boivin, M., 89, 90 Bokosmaty, S., 352, 356 Bonell, C., 158 Bong, M., 436 Boodoo, G., 132 Borich, G. D., 562, 573



Borjas, S., 390, 391 Borko, H., 13 Borman, G. D., 226 Bornstein, M. H., 131 Borokhovski, E., 410 Borrero, N. E., 190 Borst, G., 56 Borzekowski, D., 79 Bosacki, S. L., 110 Bosanquent, P., 390 Bos, C. S., 254, 565 Boseck, J. J., 450 Bosker, R. J., 581, 582 Bottge, B., 19, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 570, 602 Bottia, M. C., 232, 233 Bouchard, A., 132 Bowers, J., 384 Bowker, J. C., 89 Boykin, W., 132 Boyle, J. R., 347 Boyle, M., 399, 401, 402, 403 Boyle, O. F., 189, 192, 202, 204, 205, 206 Boyle, R. A., 462 Brackett, M. A., 553 Bradshaw, C. P., 279, 286, 534 Brainerd, C. J., 55, 62 Brame, B., 90 Brand-Gruwel, S., 15 Brank, E. M., 449 Brannon, L., 239, 240, 241, 242 Bransford, J. D., 41, 67, 301, 369 Brantlinger, E., 223 Branum-Martin, L., 202 Bray, M. A., 279, 283 Bray, M. L., 169 Bredekamp, S., 63 Brehm, K., 251 Brendgen, M., 89 Bressoux, P., 436, 438, 583 Brice, A. E., 193 Brice, R. G., 193 Bridgest, S. T., 543 Briesch, A. M., 287 Briggs, D. C., 392, 395 Britner, S. L., 435 Broadbent, J., 434, 438 Brobst, K., 347 Broderick, P. C., 37, 38 Brody, N., 132 Broidy, L. M., 90 Bronfenbrenner, U., 81, 225 Bronson, E., 167 Brookhart, S. M., 559 Brookmeyer, K. A., 87 Brooks-Gunn, J., 75, 76, 227 Brooks, P. J., 396, 397 Brophy-Herb, H. E., 440 Brophy, J. E., 14, 273, 464, 472, 474, 488, 491, 495, 498, 499, 554, 566, 577, 582



Brown, A. L., 41, 301, 341, 346, 398, 402 Brown, B. B., 87 Brown, C., 347 Brown, C. S., 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 245 Brown, E. R., 237 Brown, J., 236 Brown, J. L., 90, 534, 555 Brown, J. S., 331 Brown, N., 393 Brown, P. C., 44, 140, 300, 313, 325, 327, 344, 452 Brown, R., 346 Bruce, B. C., 568, 572 Bruer, J. T., 42 Bruner, J. S., 64, 318, 339, 340, 387, 390 Bruning, R. H., 302, 308, 313, 324, 326, 341, 352, 362, 383, 384 Brünken, R., 484 Brunner, M., 104, 125, 553 Brusca-Vega, R., 124 Bryant, M. J., 438, 473 Bryant, P., 17 Buckley, L., 92, 526 Buckner, J. C., 224 Buehler, R., 361 Buhs, E. S., 89 Bui, D. C., 347 Bullard, J., 413, 414, 415 Bullock Mann, F., 230 Bunford, N., 154 Bunuan, R. L., 279 Burbules, N. C., 568, 572 Burchinal, M., 92, 93, 554 Burch, M., 447 Burden, P. R., 537 Burden, R., 142, 154 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 132 Burgen, S., 189 Burgess-Brigham, R., 196 Burgos, G., 410 Buriel, R., 105 Burk-Braxton, C., 103 Burke-Spero, R., 5, 544 Burman, J. T., 439 Bursuck, W. D., 142, 143, 145, 148, 160, 161, 164, 167, 286, 350, 579, 580 Bush, J. R., 105 Bush, J. W., 283 Bushman, B. J., 91 Buskirk, A. A., 86, 87 Bustamante, M. R., 96 Butcher, K. R., 318, 325 Butera, F., 467, 472 Butisingh, S., 255 Butler, D. L., 287 Butz, A. R., 436, 443 Byle, K. A., 131 Byrd, P., 198



N A ME I NDEX Byrne, B. M., 105 Byrne, D., 471, 540 Byrnes, D. A., 614 Byrnes, J. P., 38, 39, 75, 96, 99, 125, 346 Cain, K., 181, 182, 185 Cain, T., 581 Cairns, B. D., 33 Cairns, R. B., 33 Çakiroglu, J., 5 Calderhead, J., 556 Caldwell, K. A., 88 Calfee, R., 558 Calhoun, B. M., 140 Callaghan, T., 77 Callahan, C. M., 166, 170 Camarota, S. A., 195 Cameron, J., 290, 291 Campbell, J. D., 107 Cangelosi, J. S., 561 Cano-Garcia, F. J., 451 Canter, L., 540 Canter, M., 540 Cantrell, S. C., 344 Canudas-Romo, V., 84 Capa, Y., 5 Caprara, G., 434 Caprara, G. V., 438 Carbonell, O. A., 96 Carbonneau, K. J., 63, 64, 387 Cardullo, R. A., 438, 473 Carey, B., 301 Cariglia-Bull, T., 315 Carlo, M. S., 203 Carlson, S. M., 108 Carlstrom, A., 345 Carlton, M. P., 60 Carney, R. N., 329 Carpenter, S. K., 330, 369, 371, 602 Carrasco-Ortiz, M. A., 451 Carroll, A., 151 Carroll, J. B., 125 Carroll, M. D., 78 Carter, E. W., 627 Carter, J. S., 344 Carter, M., 142 Caruso, K., 156 Case, R., 56, 63 Casey, B. J., 39 Casilli, A. A., 79 Caskie, G., 352, 355 Cassady, J. C., 438, 450, 472, 473, 477, 488, 489 Cassotti, M., 56 Castejon, J. L., 126 Castel, A. D., 341 Castellano, J. A., 210, 211 Castle, S., 576 Castro-Villarreal, F., 164, 165 Catalyst, 196 Cattell, R. B., 125



Cauffman, E., 114 Caughy, M. O., 103 Cazden, C., 511 Ceci, S. J., 132, 225, 369 Center for Promise, 228 Center for Public Education, 142 Centers for Disease Control, 4, 78, 162, 306 Cepeda, N. J., 330, 448 Chabrol, H., 79 Chafouleas, S. M., 287, 526 Chamberlain, R. W., 330 Chance, P., 290, 291 Chan, C-K, 224, 225 Chan, C. K., 477, 478 Chandler, P., 354, 357 Changas, P., 352 Chang, C., 399, 447 Chang, M.-L., 451 Chao, R., 83 Chapman, R. I., 92, 526 Chappell, B., 229 Chappuis, J., 556, 559, 561, 593, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 604, 605, 610 Charles, C. M., 22, 523, 524, 540 Charles, E. P., 92 Charmaraman, L., 101 Charness, N., 362 Charnigo, R., 151 Chase, J., 237 Chase, W. G., 362 Chauncey, A., 447 Chen, J. A., 439, 479 Chen, J-K., 187 Chen, K., 41 Chen, L. H., 481 Chen, X., 86, 87, 89, 526 Chen, Z., 359, 371, 395 Cheryan, S., 242 Chesnut, S. R., 383, 388 Chetty, R., 628 Cheung, A. C. K., 203 Cheyne, J. A., 60 Chhabidas, N. A., 147 Children’s Defense Fund, 4, 93, 224 Child Trends, 4 Child Trends Databank, 81 Chi, M. T. H., 289, 354, 362, 369, 371, 383 Chinn, C. A., 394, 397 Chiu, C.-Y., 136 Chiu, M. M., 5, 81, 88 Choi, H-H., 312 Chomsky, N., 179 Chongde, L., 56 Chorzempa, B. F., 576 Chow, A., 482 Chow, B. W-Y., 81, 88 Chowne, A., 408 Cho, Y., 473



Christakis, D. A., 306 Christensen, A., 498, 525 Christopher, J. C., 252, 253 Christou, C., 314 Chronis-Tuscano, A., 150, 151 Chu, H., 238 Ciani, K. D., 472 Cirino, P. T., 352 Clark, A. G., 99 Clark, C. M., 13 Clark, D. A., 349 Clark, D. B., 157, 413 Clarke, J. H., 562 Clarke-Stewart, K. A., 92, 93, 554 Clark, I., 593, 604 Clark, J. M., 318, 326 Clark, K., 203 Clark, M. H., 236 Clark, R. E., 396, 564 Clary, M., 553 Clay-Chambers, J., 397 Clayton, K., 472, 473 Clifford, M. M., 498 Clough, M., 564 Coats, L. T., 500 Cobas, J. A., 105 Cobb, P., 384, 471 Cobley, S., 614 Coccia, M. A., 452 Cocking, R. R., 41, 301 Codell, E. R., 13, 526, 542 Coffield, F. J., 139, 140, 141 Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 394 Cohen, A. B., 218 Cohen, E. G., 401, 402 Cohen-Eliyan, N., 401 Cohen, G. L., 238 Cohen, K. M., 239, 244 Cohn, D., 196 Coker, T. R., 221 Cokley, K. O., 238 Colangelo, N., 15 Colby, S. L., 4 Cole, G. A., 275 Cole, M., 384 Coleman, D., 346 Coleman, J. S., 7 Coleman, M., 565 Coleman, M. R., 350, 407 Coles, E. K., 150, 151 Coll, C. G., 103 Colledge, E., 178 Collie, R. J., 451, 513 Collier, V. P., 203 Collins, A. M., 331, 385, 396 Collins, K. M., 393 Collins, P., 202 Collins, W. A., 87, 88 Colliver, J. A., 396 Comadena, M. E., 552 Comer, J. P., 251



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Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 454, 473, 498 Common Sense Media, 5, 90, 91, 94, 95, 410 Confrey, J., 63 Conner, T., 252, 253 Connor, C. M., 181, 184, 440 Connor, J. P., 533 Connor-Zachocki, J., 410 Conradi, K., 475 Conway, P. F., 13 Cooke, B. L., 13 Cook, G., 38, 87, 103 Cook, J. L., 38, 87, 103 Cook, M., 124 Cooper, C. E., 227 Cooper, C. R., 166 Cooper, H. M., 435, 581, 567 Cooper, S. R., 224 Coplan, R., 86, 87 Coplan, R. J., 89 Copple, C., 63 Copur-Gencturk, Y., 243 Cordes, S. A., 55 Cornelius, J. R., 157 Cornelius-White, J., 526 Corno, L., 441, 442, 567, 576, 577, 578 Corpus, J. H., 463 Cortes, K., 399, 400 Cortes, K. I., 400, 535 Cortina, K., 230 Costello, M. B., 234, 239 Cothran, D. J., 93 Covington, M. V., 464, 471, 480, 488 Cowan, N., 309, 316 Cox, K. E., 493 Coyne, P., 579 Crago, R. V., 533 Craik, F. I. M., 188, 313, 324 Cramond, B., 134 Crapo, R. H., 178 Craven, J. A., III., 553 Craven, R. G., 103–104, 105 Crawford, A., 342, 343 Crawford, J., 203 Credé, M., 443 Creese, A., 187, 189 Cremin, Larry, 408 Creswell, J. W., 19 Crocker, J., 107 Croker, S., 56 Cronjaeger, H., 105 Cropley, M., 451 Crosnoe, R., 92, 93, 227, 554 Cross, D., 526 Crosson, A., 516 Cross, T. B., 102 Cross, W. E., Jr., 102, 229 Croudace, T., 241



N-4



N A ME I ND E X



Crowley, E., 343 Cruickshank, D. R., 552 Crul, M., 196 Csapó, B., 352 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 486 Cucina, J. M., 131 Culatta, A., 161, 170 Cullen, M., 451 Cummings, J., 513, 527 Cunningham, E., 284 Cupp, P. K., 92, 114 Curby, T. W., 525, 526 Curno, C., 17 Curran, M., 544 Curwin, R., 532 Cusack, A., 494 Cusick, P. A., 7 Cutter, J., 393 Cutuli, J. J., 224, 225 Dale, P. S., 443 Daley, T. C., 130 Dalton, A., 86 D’Amico, A., 146 Damon, W., 110 Daniels, L. M., 487, 488 Danielson, C., 10, 11, 12, 554 Daniels, P., 244 Darley, J. M., 238 Darnon, C., 467, 472 Dasco, H., 237 DaSilva Iddings, A. C., 200 Das, J. P., 64 Daunic, A. P., 449 Davidoff, J., 178 Davidson, E., 6 Davidson, J., 352 Davidson, J. W., 167 Davidson, M. L., 500 Davies, I. R. L., 178 Davies, K., 242 Davis, D., 345 Davis, G., 84 Davis, G. A., 170 Davis, H., 5, 438 Davis, H. A., 93 Davis, H. L., 345 Dawson-Tunik, T., 55 Day, S. B., 356, 369 Day, S. L., 440 Deakin, J., 226 Dean, D., 367 Dearing, E., 184, 198 De Boer, H., 581, 582 de Brey C., 230 De Bruin, C. L., 163 Debus, R. L., 105 DeCaro, M. S., 397 De Castella, K., 471 deCharms, R., 467 Deci, E. L., 290, 453, 463, 464, 466, 467, 468, 471, 473, 493 DeCourcey, W., 474



Decristan, J., 602 Dedrick, R. F., 328 De George, G., 209 de Glopper, K., 203 de Groot, A. D., 362 De Groot, E. V., 440 DeJong, J. M., 568 de Jong, T., 347, 348 Dekhinet, R., 187 de Kock, A., 388 de Koning, B. B., 357 Delafield-Butt, J. T., 162, 163 deLara, E., 90, 534 Del Bove, G., 438 Deleveaux, G., 410 De Lisi, R., 613 Della-Chiesa, B., 37, 41, 43, 44 Delpit, L., 54, 186, 194, 249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255 Demana, F., 59 Demanet, J., 614 Demaray, M. K., 553 DeMarie, D., 301 Demerath, P., 227 Demetriou, A., 125, 129, 146, 309, 314 Demuth, K., 181 Denessen, E., 233, 572 Denissen, J. J. A., 613 Deniz, C. B., 576 Dent, A. L., 166, 440 Denton, C. A., 164 Deppeler, J. M., 163 DeRose, L. M., 75 Derous, E., 394, 395 Derry, S. J., 383 Desautel, D., 342 Desjardins, C. D., 224, 225 Dettmers, S., 568 DeWalt, P. S., 102 Dewey, J., 484 Diamond, A., 443 Diamond, N. T., 163 Diaz, E. I., 210, 211 Diaz-Rico, L. T., 187 DiBella, J., 250 DiCintio, M., 493 Di Cintio, M. J., 315 Dierendinck, C., 104 Diermyer, C., 306 Diffley, R. III, 131, 169 Diliberti M., 230 Dillihunt, M. L., 252, 253 Dindia, K., 242 Dingfelder, S. F., 252 Ding, Y., 356 Dinnel, D., 391 Dionne, G., 89, 90 Dirk, J., 315 DiVesta, F. J., 315 Dixon, L. Q., 196 Dixson, D. D., 593, 603 D’Mello, S., 406 Dodge, K. A., 81, 90, 108



Dodson, J. D., 488 Doggett, A. M., 151 Doggett, R. A., 284 Dohn, N. B., 383, 384, 385 Doidge, N., 35 Dole, J. A., 366 Dolezal, S. E., 483, 495, 497 Dolgin, K. G., 156 Doll, B., 251 Domitrovich, C. E., 449 Dompnier, B., 472 Donnerstein, E., 91 Dore, R. A., 77 Douglas, K. M., 181, 184 Dow, G. T., 133, 135 Dowler, J., 453 Downs, K. J., 79 Dowson, M., 488, 489 Doyle, W., 508, 510 Drake, L., 196 Drake, M., 290 Drayer, A. M., 617 Drew, C. J., 123, 149, 153, 160, 167 Driscoll, A., 564, 573 Driscoll, M., 623 Driscoll, M. P., 44, 57, 60, 370, 386, 564 Drummond, L., 446, 454 Dubarry, M., 197 Dubinsky, J. M., 35, 41, 43, 44 DuBois, D. L., 103, 435 Du Bois, W. E. B., 100 Duckworth, A. L., 131, 442, 443 Dudley, B., 542 Duell, O. K., 571 Duffy, M. C., 447, 478 Dufrene, B. A., 284 Dumont, H., 569 Duncan, A., 78 Duncan, G. J., 227 Duncan, R. M., 60 Duncker, K., 360 Dunlap, G., 163 Dunlop Velez, E., 230 Dunlosky, J., 349, 596 Dunn, D. S., 124 Dunn, K., 139 Dunn, R., 139, 140 Dunston, K., 222 DuPaul, G. J., 149, 152, 273 Dupuis, D., 76 Du, Q., 151 Durik, A. M., 483 Durksen, T. L., 439 Durlak, J. A., 80, 449 Dusenbury, L., 158 Dux, P. E., 307 Dweck, C. S., 273, 441, 470, 478, 479 Dwyer, C., 301 Dymnicki, A. B., 80



Easter, M. A., 472 Easton, B. P., 92 Ebbinghaus, H., 323, 330 Ebersbach, M., 55 Ecalle, J., 410 Eccles, J. S., 39, 75, 96, 99, 105, 106, 441, 474, 475, 498 Ecclestone, K., 139, 140, 141 Echevarría, J., 191, 192, 196, 198, 199, 208, 209 Echevarria, M., 392 Edele, A., 185 Edmin, C., 249 Edwards, J. M., 132 Edwards, S. A., 416, 418 Ee, J., 232 Efklides, A., 440, 441 Egan, M. W., 123, 149, 153, 160, 167 Ehrenfeld, T., 300 Eidell, T. L., 508 Eikoff, J., 306 Eiland, M. D., 397, 410 Eisenberg, N., 113 Eisenberg, R., 290, 291 Eisner, E. W., 604 Eissenberg, T. E., 623 Eitel, A., 318 Ekono, M., 224 Elder, L., 364, 365 Eley, T., 178 Elias, M. J., 450, 517, 518, 524, 525, 529, 535 Elias, S. M., 438 Eliot, L., 245 Elkind, D., 53, 100 Ellington, A. J., 59 Elliot, A. J., 473, 487, 494 Elliott, V., 571 Else-Quest, N. M., 132 Elzinga, N., 553 Emdin, C., 253, 254 Emerson, M. J., 60 Emmer, E. T., 508, 511, 513, 514, 515, 516, 519, 521, 522, 523, 528, 553, 554 Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., 341 Engelhart, M. D., 339, 559 Engle, R. W., 315 Ennis, C. D., 93 Eppe, S., 183 Epstein, J. L., 491 Erdelyi, M. H., 323 Eresh, J. T., 609 Erickson M. J., 283 Erickson, W., 161 Ericsson, A., 331, 362 Ericsson, K. A., 362 Erikson, E. H., 96, 107 Eron, L. D., 91 ESC, 416 Eskreis-Winkler, L., 443 Espelage, D. L., 243, 246, 535



N A ME I NDEX Espinosa, L. M., 190 Espinosa, M. P., 130 Ettekal, I., 89, 399, 400 Evans, G. W., 226, 228 Evans, L., 242 Evans, S. W., 154 Evensen, D. H., 397 Evertson, C. M., 511, 513, 514, 516, 519, 521, 522, 528, 553, 554 Eylon, B. S., 383, 396 Eysenck, M. W., 306, 309, 318, 319 Fabes, R. A., 113, 240, 245 Fabiano, G. A., 150, 151 Facione, P. A., 367 Falco, M., 158 Falk, K., 283 Fantuzzo, J., 84 Farivar, S. H., 404 Farkas, G., 124, 185 Farmer-Dougan, V., 39, 43 Farmer, J., 526 Farmer, T. W., 89 Farrington, C., 443 Farrington, D. P., 533 Farver, J. M., 183, 203 Fast, L. A., 438, 473 Felde, M., 33, 35, 39, 43, 44, 487 Feldman, J., 319 Feldman, R. S., 74 Feldman, S. S., 114 Felicia, P., 413 Fenesi, B., 309, 315, 316 Feng, S., 41 Fenton, D. F., 354, 362 Ferguson, C. J., 92 Ferguson, P., 614 Ferguson, R. F., 12 Fernandez, S. C., 187 Fernet, C., 5 Ferrer, E., 125 Ferreri, S. J., 17 Ferrero, J., 75, 76 Ferretti, R. P., 470 Ferring, D., 202, 203 Fida, R., 438 Fierros, E., 128 Fingeret, L., 603 Finkel, D., 125 Finn, A. S., 443 Fischbach, A., 104 Fischer, A., 352 Fischer, H. E., 553 Fischer, K. W., 20, 41, 42, 43, 47, 54, 55, 57 Fischer, M. A., 413 Fisher, D., 42 Fishman, B., 397 Fiske, S. T., 582 Fitts, P. M., 331 Fitzgerald, H. E., 410



Fives, H. R., 5 Fivush, R., 322 Flammer, A., 437 Flanagan, C. A., 532 Flannery, B., 558 Flavell, E. R., 341 Flavell, J. H., 47, 49, 180, 181, 341 Flegal, K. M., 78 Fleischer, C., 356 Fleith, D., 137 Fletcher, A., 158 Fletcher, J. M., 164, 184 Floden, R. E., 552 Flores, L. Y., 438 Florit, E., 181, 182, 185 Flower, A., 279 Flowerday, T., 77, 484 Floyd-Tenery, M., 200 Flum, H., 485 Flunger, B., 567, 568 Flynn, J. R., 130–131 Foehr, U. G., 410 Foerde, K., 307 Fogarty, M., 184 Folger, T., 130 Foorman, B. R., 202 Forbes, C., 236 Ford, D., 393 Ford, D. Y., 169 Forster, K. I., 307 Foster, H., 75 Foundation for Child Development, 190 Fox, M., 196 Fox, N. A., 38, 125 Fox, P. W., 401 Francis, D. J., 164, 185, 202, 203 Franco, G. M., 478 Frankenberg, E., 232 Frank, J. L., 451, 452 Franklin, J., 162 Franklin, S., 53, 368 Fraser, J. W., 544 Fredricks, J. A., 441, 512 Freeman, S., 43 Freiberg, H. J., 407, 564, 573 Freiberg, J., 286, 526 Frenzel, A. C., 105, 488 Frey, N., 42 Frick, T. W., 522 Fridlund, A. J., 136 Fried, C. B., 238 Friedman, J. N., 628 Friedman, S. L., 92, 93, 554 Friedman-Weieneth, J. L., 150 Friedrich, A. A., 526 Friend, M., 122, 124, 142, 143, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 153, 156, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 169, 179, 286, 350, 579, 580



Frohlich, L., 196 Fromberg, D. P., 623 Fronius, T., 532, 542, 543 Frost, E. J., 339, 559 Frost, J. L., 413, 415 Fuchs, D., 447 Fuchs, L. S., 352, 354, 447 Fuligni, A., 526 Fuligni, A. J., 102 Fuller, F. G., 13 Fuller-Thomson, E., 86 Fulmer, S. M., 498, 525 Funke, J., 352 Furrer, C., 468 Furst, N., 552 Furtak, E. M., 392, 395 Fyfe, E. R., 390, 391, 397 Gabrieli, C. F. O., 443 Gabrieli, J. D. E., 443 Gadsden, V., 239 Gadson, N., 252, 253 Gage, N. A., 526 Gage, N. L., 16 Gagné, E. D., 323, 331 Galinsky, A. D., 136 Gallagher, J. D., 250 Gallagher, J. J., 350, 407 Gallimore, R., 58, 196 Gallini, J. K., 326 Galton, M., 399 Galvan, A., 39, 341 Gamoran, A., 572 Ganis, G., 300 Ganley, C. M., 243 Garbarino, J., 90, 534 Garcia, E. E., 190, 203, 252 Garcia, J., 238 Garcia, S. B., 196, 208 Gardner, H., 126, 127, 128, 166, 220 Gardner, R., 346 Gargurevich, R., 471 Garlick, D., 129, 133 Garner, J., 347 Garner, P. W., 83 Garner, R., 493 Garnets, L., 245 Garrett, J., 539 Garrison, J., 383 Garvin, R. A., 61 Gaskill, P., 21 Gates, G. J., 82 Gathercole, S. E., 315, 341 Gatz, M., 125 Gay, G., 252, 254, 543, 544 Geary. D. C., 132, 384 Gee, J. P., 410, 412 Geerling, D., 441 Gehlbach, H., 108 Geier, C., 39 Geier, R., 397 Geiser, C., 125 Gelman, R., 55



N-5



Gendler, T. S., 442, 443 Gengaro, F. P., 255 Gentner, D., 356, 357, 359 George, P. S., 576 Gerbino, M., 438 Gerig, T. M., 582 Gernsbacher, M. A., 132 Gershenson, S., 235, 567 Gersten, R., 192, 202, 203, 352 Gerwels, M. C., 513, 515, 522 Gess-Newsome, J., 13, 553 Getz, S., 39 Gezer, M. U., 196 Ghazarian, S. R., 582 Gianola, Healey, G., 166, 170 Gibson, D., 412 Gilar, R., 126 Gil, L., 341 Gillen-O’Neel, C., 526 Gillespie, C. S., 413 Gillet, J. W., 342, 343 Gilliam, W. S., 235 Gillieron, O., 472 Gillies, R., 399, 400, 401, 402, 403 Gilligan, C., 109 Giluk, T. L., 114 Gindis, V. Ageyev, 57, 58, 62 Ginott, H. G., 274 Ginsburg, K. R., 77 Ginsburg, M., 84 Gipe, J. P., 63 Girard, A., 89 Gitomer, D. H., 609 Glass, C. R., 406 Glasser, W., 529 Glass, G. V., 567 Gleitman, H., 136 Glenberg, A., 327 Glenham, M., 100 Glennie, E., 614 Glenn, J., 397 Glogger-Fey, I., 356 Glover, J. A., 391 Gluck, M. A., 38, 265, 300, 486 Gnagy, E. M., 150, 151 Godden, D. R., 327 Godes, O., 499 Godleski, S. A., 89, 90 Goe, L., 13 Goetz, T., 105, 487, 488, 553 Goh, W., 367 Goldenberg, C., 185, 196, 203 Golden, N. H., 79 Golding, J., 241 Goldin-Meadow, S., 357, 478, 479 Goldman, S. R., 579, 610 Goldsmith, M., 323 Goldstein, L. H., 150 Goldstein, L. S., 109 Goldstone, R. L., 356, 369 Goleman, D., 450 Gollwitzer, P. M., 441



N-6



N A ME I ND E X



Golombok, S., 241 Gonzales, N., 200 Gonzales, R., 200 Gonzalez, A. L., 197 Gonzalez-Barrera, A., 102 González, J. M., 185 Gonzalez, N., 66, 199, 569 Gonzalez, V., 124, 188 Good, C., 236, 238 Goodman, D. M., 252, 253 Goodrich, H., 608 Goodrich, J. M., 203 Good, T. L., 401, 452, 454, 513, 552, 554, 563, 566, 571, 577, 582, 583 Goodyear, J., 131, 169 Gordon, K. A., 438 Gordon, R., 8 Gorman, J. L., 255 Gorski, P. C., 223, 226, 227, 228, 238, 443 Gosseries, O., 314 Goswami, U., 146 Gottlieb, G., 33 Gottwald, S., 42 Graesser, A., 19, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 406, 410, 412, 447, 570, 602 Graham, M., 347 Graham, S., 15, 90, 104, 235, 344, 437–438, 448, 462, 477, 533, 534, 535, 576 Grant, B. O., 102 Graves, A., 196, 198, 199 Gray, D. L., 472, 473, 486 Gray, P., 310, 311, 317 Gray, R. D., 33 Graziano, W. G., 614 Gredler, M. E., 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 341 Greenberg, M. T., 452 Green, C. D., 439 Greene, J. A., 440, 445 Greene, M. B., 535 Greene, M. J., 441 Green, F. L., 341 Green, M., 45, 96 Greeno, J. G., 385 Green, S., 535 Greenwald, A. G., 233 Gregory, A., 92, 467, 554 Gregory, M., 572 Greiff, S., 352 Gresham, F. M., 613 Greytak, E. A., 246 Griffin, D., 361 Griffins, P. E., 33 Griffith, J., 451 Griggs, P., 283 Grigorenko, E. L., 131, 169 Grimaldi, P. J., 330 Grimm, K. J., 526 Gripshover, S. J., 478, 479 Grob, A., 582



Grolnick, W. S., 474 Gronlund, N. E., 559, 599, 600, 604 Gröschner, A., 552 Gross, J. J., 442, 443, 478 Gross-Loh, C., 480 Grossman, J. M., 101 Gross, M. U. M., 15 Grouws, D., 554 Grover, S., 416 Grundon, G. S., 283 Grüny, L., 356 Guarnera, M., 146 Guay, F., 5 Guckenburg, S., 532, 542, 543 Guernsey, L., 416 Guerra, N. G., 533 Guglielmi, R. S., 196, 203 Gullotta, T. P., 449 Gumus, B., 471 Gunderson, E. A., 243, 478, 479 Gunn, D., 146 Gunn, K. C. M., 162, 163 Guo, J.-P., 356 Gupta, V., 239, 247 Gurian, M., 243, 244 Gurland, S. T., 474 Gur, R. C., 132 Guryan, J., 227 Guskey, T. R., 606, 611, 612, 613, 615 Gustin, W. C., 18 Guthrie, J. T., 493 Gut, J., 582 Hacker, D. J., 366, 398 Hadwin, A. F., 445 Haertel, E. H., 609 Hafen, C. A., 467, 554 Hagborg, W. J., 106 Hagemans, M. G., 347, 348 Hahn, C-S, 131 Haidt, J., 108, 112 Hailey, E. P., 166, 170 Hakuta, K., 6, 203 Haladyna, T. H., 594, 611, 625, 627 Hale, N. M., 99 Hale, S., 347 Haley, M. H., 200 Halim, M. L., 240, 241 Hallahan, D. P., 9, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 158–159, 161, 162, 341, 579 Hall, E., 139, 140, 141 Hall, L. J., 283 Hall, N., 105 Hall, N. C., 487, 488 Halpern, D. F., 132, 245 Hamann, D. L., 553 Hamers, J. F., 188 Hamilton, J., 307



Hamlett, C. L., 352, 447 Hamman, D., 5, 343 Hamm, D., 493 Hammer, C. S., 185, 186 Hammond, K. A., 438, 473 Hampson, S. E., 76 Hamre, B., 92, 467, 554 Hamre, B. K., 7, 92, 554, 563 Hanish, L. D., 240, 245 Hannafin, M. J., 387, 394, 395, 492 Hannah-Jones, N., 232 Hansen, M., 628 Hanson-Peterson, J., 450, 451 Hanushek, E. A., 8 Hapgood, S., 393 Happe, F., 178 Harackiewicz, J. M., 241, 471, 483, 499 Harber, K., 582 Harber, K. D., 255 Hardesty, J. L., 103 Hardin, C. J., 282 Hardman, M. L., 123, 149, 153, 160, 167 Hardy, I., 188 Hargreaves, J., 158 Hargreaves, L., 399 Harklau, L., 198 Harms, M. B., 108 Harms, P. D., 443 Harpalani, V., 238 Harp, S. F., 484 Harrington, H. J., 402 Harris, A. H., 394 Harris, J. R., 87 Harris, K., 493 Harris, K. A., 341, 343–344 Harris, K. R., 104, 344, 448 Harrison, J., 283, 451 Harrison, J. R., 154 Harrison, S., 79, 307 Harris, R. J., 198 Harrower, J. K., 163 Harter, S., 76, 95, 103, 104, 435 Hartley, B. L., 236, 237, 243 Hartman, K., 92 Hartocollis, A., 79 Hart, S. A., 488 Hartson, K. A., 238 Harvey, C. E., 309 Harvey, E. A., 150 Hasselhorn, M., 103–104 Hass, R. W., 479 Hatch, T., 127 Hatfield, D., 412 Hattie, J., 151, 571–572 Haugen, C., 205 Haugh, G. P., 360 Hayenga, A. O., 463 Hayes, A. R., 244 Hayes, S. C., 287 Hayman, M. L., 522 Haynes, N. M., 251



Haywood, 59, 60, 65 Headden, S., 478, 479 Hearn, S., 100 Heath, S. B., 181 Hecht, S. A., 302 Heistad, D., 224, 225 Heller, K. A., 477 Helms, J. E., 103 Helwig, C. C., 110 Hendricks, B. L., 499 Henik, A., 147 Henington, C., 284 Hennessey, B. A., 291 Hennessey, M. N., 383, 388, 573 Henrich, C. C., 87 Henrickson, M. L., 283 Henriksen, D., 133, 134, 135 Henry, B., 242 Hensley, L., 553 Henson, R. A., 484 Herald, S. L., 89 Herbers, J. E., 224, 225 Herbert, E. A., 518 Herman, J., 609 Herman, K. C., 534 Herman, M., 101, 102 Herrenkohl, L. R., 404 Herrera, D., 471 Herron, A., 243 Herschkowitz, N., 81 Hess, D., 572 Hetherington, E. M., 85 Heverly-Fitt, S., 89 Heward, W. L., 273 Hickey, D. T., 383, 389 Hidi, S., 441, 483, 484, 485 Hiebert, E. H., 558 Higley, K., 383, 388 Hilgard, E. R., 14 Hill, E. L., 74 Hillemeir, M. M., 124 Hill, H. C., 553 Hill, W. H., 339, 559 Hinckley, D., 90 Hindi, E. R., 63 Hines, C. V., 552 Hines, M., 240, 241 Hinnant, J. B., 582 Hinton, C., 37, 41, 43, 44 Hinz, E., 224, 225 Hiroto, D. S., 480 Hirsch, E. D., Jr., 367 Hirvikoski, T., 150, 151 Hmelo-Silver, C. E., 394, 397 Hochbein, C., 613 Hoeffler, T. N., 140 Hofferth, S. L., 567 Hoffman, H. G., 233 Hoffman, M. L., 113 Hofkens, T., 482 Hogan, T., 553 Hoge, R. D., 135, 137 Holahan, C., 167



N A ME I NDEX Holdaway, J., 196 Holland, J. D., 401 Holland, R. W., 233, 572 Holliday, G., 169 Holmström, A., 150, 151 Holt, S., 235 Holt, S. B., 567 Holzberger, D., 438 Hong, G., 613, 614 Hong, J. S., 533, 534 Hong, J. Y., 508 Honicke, T., 434, 438 Honomichl, R., 359 Hoogerheide, V., 371 Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., 568 Hopkins, E. J., 77 Hopkins, M., 6 Hopps, J., 222 Horn, J. L., 125 Hornstra, L., 233, 572 Horovitz, B., 265 Horst, E. A., 100 Hosp, M., 447 Houdé, O., 56 Houts, R., 554 Howard, M. R., 186 Howe, K. R., 6, 7 Howell, K. L., 478 Howe, M. J. A., 167 Hoy, W. K., 5, 23, 438, 508 Hsieh, P. P., 476 Huang, C., 471 Huber, C. R., 364, 366, 367 Hubscher, R., 64 Hudley, C., 226 Huesmann, L. R., 91 Hu, F-T, Ginns, P., 357 Hughes, C., 627 Hughes, D., 526 Hughes, J. N., 614 Huguet, P., 236, 237 Hulit, L., 186 Hulit, L. M., 186 Hulleman, C. S., 241, 462, 471, 474, 475, 477, 482, 491, 499 Hulme, C., 146 Hulstijn, J., 203 Humphreys, K. L., 341 Hung, D. W. L., 396 Hunt, E., 125 Hunter, M., 524 Hunt, J. McV., 63, 65 Hunt, N., 161, 162 Hunt, S. K., 552 Hurley, N., 532, 542, 543 Hurry, J., 17 Husbye, N. E., 410 Hushman, C., 64 Hussain, M., 532 Hussar, W., 196, 230 Hutchinson, J. M., 287 Hutchinson, N. L., 151 Hwang, G.-J., 412



Hyde, J. S., 109, 132, 241, 245 Hyder, N., 532 Hymel, S., 533, 535 Ialongo, N. S., 279 Idol, L., 142 Igielnik, R., 195 Iglesias, A., 187 Inbar, J., 583 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 154, 285 Ingram, J., 571 Inhelder, B., 53 Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, 349 Inzlicht, M., 238 Iordanou, K., 367 Irvine, J. J., 254, 544 Ishler, M., 564 Iverson, H., 392, 395 Jabbar, A. I. A., 413 Jackson, D., 441 Jackson, H. G., 283 Jackson, J., 237 Jackson, L. A., 410 Jacob, K. F., 474 Jacobs, A., 96 Jacobs, C. E., 247 Jacobs, J. E., 105 Jacobson, L., 581 Jaffee, S., 109 Jain, S., 488, 489 James, W., 14, 106, 243, 432, 442, 443 Jancek, D., 447 Jang, B. G., 475 Jang, H., 463, 467, 493 Jarrett, R., 83 Jarrold, C., 146, 309 Järvelä, S., 445 Jarvin, L., 131, 169 Jaswal, V. K., 179 Jeffries, R., 367 Jelenchick, L., 306 Jennings, P. A., 451, 452 Jensen, E., 226, 228, 229 Jensen, J. L., 609 Jensen, L. A., 114 Jenson, W. R., 279, 283 Jerman, O., 146 Jerome, E. M., 554 Jerusalem, M., 489 Jewell, J. A., 241 Jha, A., 451 Jiang, Y., 224 Jia, Y., 526 Jimenez, R., 497 Jimerson, S. R., 149, 614 Jirout, J., 485 Jitendra, A. K., 352, 355 Ji, Y., 41 Job, V., 441 Joët, G., 436, 438



Johns, M., 236 Johnson, A., 150, 151, 447 Johnson, D. W., 399, 400, 406, 407, 443, 494, 495, 542, 606, 607, 608 Johnson, F. P., 542 Johnson, J. D., 91 Johnson, J. F., 230 Johnson, R. C., 232 Johnson, R. E., 489 Johnson, R. T., 399, 400, 406, 407, 494, 495, 542, 606, 607, 608 Johnson, S., 271 Johnson, S. M., 627 John-Steiner, V., 57, 59 Johnston, L. D., 157 Jolly, J. L., 167 Jonassen, D. H., 343, 354 Jones, B. D., 107 Jones, D. C., 75 Jones, K. P., 568 Jones, L., 513, 523, 524, 525, 527, 528, 538, 539, 540, 541 Jones, M. G., 582 Jones, S. H., 395 Jones, S. M., 90, 242, 534, 555 Jones, V., 513, 523, 524, 525, 527, 528, 538, 539, 540, 541 Jordan, A., 553 Jordan, N. C., 352 Joyner, E. T., 251 Judd, T., 307 Jung, L. A., 612 Jun, S., 188 Jurbergs, N., 278 Jurden, F. H., 315 Jussim, L., 581, 582, 583 Justice, L. M., 181 Juvonen, J., 613 Kackar-Cam, H. Z., 498, 525 Kaendler, C., 401 Kagan, J., 81 Kagan, S., 402, 403, 406 Kahneman, D., 219, 235 Kain, J. F., 8 Kain, J. J., 8 Kaiser, J., 168 Kalenkoski, C. M., 567 Kalinowski, A. G., 18 Kalyuga, S., 312, 352, 354, 356, 396 Kanazawa, S., 125 Kane, T. J., 8 Kang, H., 476 Kang, S. H. K., 330 Kapinus, B. A., 558 Kaplan, A., 440, 471, 473, 485 Kaplan, J. S., 281 Kaplan, S. N., 166



N-7



Kappich, J., 356 Kardash, C. M., 478 Karpicke, J. D., 349, 602 Karpicke, J. J., 330 Karp, K. S., 354 Karpov, Y. V., 59, 60, 65, 67 Karson, A., 526 Katz-Buonincontro, J., 479 Katz, I., 493 Katzir, T., 43 Katz, S. R., 93 Kauffman, J. M., 9, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 158–159, 161, 162, 267, 272, 273, 281, 291, 341, 579 Kazdin, A. E., 267, 272, 273, 274, 278, 281, 282 Keating, D., 92, 93, 554 Keavney, M., 290 Keefe, J. W., 139 Kee, Y. H., 481 Kehle, T. J., 169, 279, 283 Kellam, S. G., 279 Keller, M., 553 Keller, U., 104, 125 Kelly, D. J., 233, 234 Kelly, D. R., 442, 443 Kelly, M. L., 278 Kemp, C., 142 Kempert, S., 188 Kemp, J., 196 Kena, G., 230 Kennedy, J. J., 552 Kenney-Benson, G. A., 438 Keough, K., 236 Kerr, M, 75 Keyes, T. S., 443 Keyser, V., 435 Khanem, F., 74 Kher, N., 498 Kicken, W., 15 Kiewra, K. A., 347, 391, 443 Kilcher, A., 395 Killingsworth, S. S., 413 Kim, A., 467 Kim, C-M., 387, 394, 395, 492 Kim, E. J., 467 Kim, J., 467 Kim, J. A., 309, 315, 316 Kim, J. S., 227, 228 Kim, M., 467 Kim, P., 226 Kim, S-Y., 58 Kim, Y., 604 Kindsay, J. J., 567 Kindsvatter, R., 564 King, A., 402, 404, 405, 406, 408 King, E. M., 413 King, R. B., 472 Kingsley, J. M., 169 Kingsley, T. L., 447 Kirk, S. A., 350, 407



N-8



N A ME I ND E X



Kirschner, P. A., 15, 396, 410, 564 Kirsh, S. J., 90 Kit, B. K., 78 Kitil, M. J., 450, 451 Kizzie, K. T., 230 Klahr, D., 395, 396, 485 Klassen, R. M., 5, 434, 438, 439 Kleickmann, T., 483 Klein, D., 187 Kleinfeld, J., 243 Klein, S., 244 Klein, S. B., 262, 263, 267, 269, 270 Klein, S. S., 394 Klinger, J., 163 Klusmann, U., 553 Knapp, M. S., 229 Knightly, L. M., 188 Knowlton, B. J., 307 Kobayashi, K., 347 Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., 399, 400, 535 Koedinger, K., 19, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 570, 602 Koehl, M., 35 Koenig, M. A., 108 Koenig, O., 318 Koenka, A. C., 440 Koeppen-Schomerus, G., 178 Koestner, R., 290 Koff, R., 306 Kohlberg, L., 108 Kohn, A., 282, 290, 291, 443, 611 Kokko, K., 90 Kolata, G., 20 Köller, O., 103, 105, 106, 107, 133 Koomen, H. M. Y., 8, 438, 526 Koopman, R., 100 Korf, R., 359 Koriat, A., 323 Körndle, H., 384 Kornell, N., 346 Kornhaber, M., 128 Korn, Z., 287 Korte, G., 6 Kosciw, J. G., 246 Koser, L., 17 Kosslyn, S. M., 300, 318, 319 Kounin, J. S., 432, 522 Koury, A. S., 195, 197 Kovas, Y., 443, 488 Kovelman, I., 188, 189 Kozol, J., 224 Kozulin, A., 57, 58, 62, 67 Kraft, M. A., 443 Krajcik, J., 397 Krapp, A., 485 Kratchovil, C. J., 151 Krathwohl, D. R., 339, 559, 560 Kratzig, G. P., 139



Krauss, S., 553 Kreider, H., 184, 198 Kreider, R. M., 85 Kretschmann, J., 15 Kreuzberger, C., 92 Kroger, J., 99 Krogstad, J. M., 195 Kronberger, N., 236 Kronholz, J., 166, 167, 168, 170 Krueger, J. L., 107 Krueger, T. K., 283 Kruger, A. C., 64 Krumboltz, J. D., 611 Kuhn, D., 53, 367, 368, 397, 399, 401, 408, 565 Kuklinski, M. R., 581, 583 Kulikowich, J. M., 324 Kummer, T. A., 609 Kuncel, N. R., 224, 364, 366, 367 Kunter, M., 438, 553, 568 Kurlakowsky, K. D., 99 Kuyper, H., 105 Lachter, J., 307 Ladd, Ga. W., 89 Ladd, G. W., 89, 399, 400 Ladson-Billings, G., 230, 232, 233, 249, 254 Ladwig, J., 8, 92 Lagattuta, K. H., 110 Lahat, A., 110 Lake, V. E., 109 Lambert, R., 232, 233 Lambert, S. F., 99 Lamb, M. E., 83 Lam, R., 289 Landrum, T. J., 267, 272, 273, 281, 291 Lane, D., 92, 114 Lane, K., 283 Langan-Fox, J., 391 Langer, J. A., 572 Lange-Schubert, K., 483 Langley, R., 345 Lanza, S., 105 LaParo, K. M., 554, 563 LaRocque, J., 314 Larsen, R. A. A., 525 LaRusso, M. D., 555 Larzelere, R. E., 82 Lashley, T. J. II, 392 Latham, G. P., 277, 287, 470, 473 Lather, P., 20 Lau, S., 543 Lauver, K., 345 Lave, J., 370, 385, 396 Lawless, K., 579 Lawrence, F. R., 185, 186 Lawson, H. A., 468, 473 Lawson, M. A., 468, 473 Lazowski, R. A., 462, 491 Leaf, P. J., 286



Leaper, C., 194, 241, 242 Learning Disabilities Association of America, 180 Leary, M. R., 468 Lee, C., 161, 222 Lee, C. D., 300, 321, 610 Lee, J., 3, 23, 222, 229, 244, 484 Lee, J. Y. K., 237 Lee, K., 233, 234, 352 Lee, R. M., 229 Lee, S. J., 190, 222 Lee, S. S., 341 Lee, W., 491 LeFevre, J. A., 59, 184 Lefton, L., 97 Leh J. M., 352, 355 Lehman, B., 406 Lehman, D. R., 54 Leigh, E., 146 Leinhardt, G., 564 LeMahieu, P., 609 Lemelson, R., 220 Lemery-Chalfant, K., 440, 450 Lemmer, G., 481 Lenhart, A., 5, 95, 410, 412 Lens, W., 464, 468, 473 Leong, D. J., 62, 65 Lepper, M. R., 290 Leppink, J., 311, 312 Lerner, M. D., 77 Lerner, R. M., 81 Lesaux, N., 202, 203 Leung, A. K.-Y., 136 Leung, M. C., 89 Leutner, D., 140 Levine, F., 239 Levine, S. C., 243, 478, 479 Levin, J. R., 328, 329, 528, 529, 536 Levitin, D. J., 307 Levy, S., 565 Lewedeg, V., 187 Lewinsohn, P. M., 156 Lewis, C., 83 Lewis, J. L., 438, 473 Lewis, J. M., 85 Lewis, R., 543 Lewis, W. E., 470 Lhamon, C. E., 239 Liben, L. S., 241, 244, 245 Lickliter, R., 33 Li, C. R., 443 Lidz, J. L., 179 Liebtag, E., 205 Liem, A. D., 196 Li, H., 124 Lillard, A. S., 77 Lillemyr, O. F., 77 Linan-Thompson, S., 202 Lin, C.-H., 399, 447 Lindberg, S. M., 132 Lindsay, P. H., 304



Ling, D. S., 443 Ling, G., 526 Lin, M.-S., 481 Linnenbrink, E. A., 471 Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., 166, 464, 470, 471, 472, 475, 482, 487 Linn, M. C., 132, 383, 396 Linn, R. L., 592 Linquanti, R., 6 Lin, T-Z., 390 Linz, D., 91 Lisette, W., 394, 395 Lissitz, R. W., 611 Liszkowski, U., 77 Litke, E., 628 Liu, H., 147 Liu, W. M., 222 Llamon, C. E., 247 Lochman, J. E., 449 Locke, E. A., 277, 287, 427, 470, 473 Lockhart, R. S., 313 Lock, J., 79 Lockl, K., 341 Loewenstein, J., 356, 357, 359 Logan, J. A. R., 488 Long, J., 352 Long, J. D., 224, 225 Long, J. F., 488 Lonigan, C. J., 164, 182, 183, 203 López, G., 102 Lorch, E. P., 151, 346 Lorch, R. F., 346 Loschky, L. C., 198 Losel, F., 533 Losen, D., 532 Losey, K. M., 198 Loveless, T., 132, 576 Loyens, S. M. M., 371, 394, 395 Lubienski, S. T., 243 Lubinski, D., 15 Lucariello, L. M., 301 Luckner, A. E., 554 Lüdtke, O., 15, 103, 105, 106, 107, 133, 488, 567, 568 Luke, N., 93 Luk, G., 188 Luna, B., 39 Lun, J., 92, 554 Lunsford, L. B., 627 Lustina, M. J., 236 Lyon, G. R., 147 Mabry, L., 606 MacDonald, S., 438 Mace, F. C., 287 Machado, A., 48 Macionis, J. J., 222, 223, 229, 232, 234 Mack, T. R., 352, 355 MacMillan, D. L., 613 Maczuga, S., 124, 185



N A ME I NDEX Madaus, G. F., 624 Madden, A., 344 Maddux, W. W., 136 Madison, S. M., 583 Madsen, C. H., 17 Madsen, K., 553 Maeda, Y., 371 Maehr, M. L., 440, 472, 473 Magnan, A., 410 Magnuson, D., 542 Magnusson, S. J., 393 Mahn, H., 57, 59 Maier, M. A., 487 Major, B., 238 Malby, R. W., 416, 418 Malecki, C. K., 553 Malin, J. L., 166 Mañá, A, 341 Manning, B. H., 287, 448, 449 Marano, N., 393 Marchland, G., 476 Marcia, J. E., 99, 100 Marder, K., 77 Marecek, J., 252, 253 Marinova-Todd, S., 187 Markman, E. M., 179 Marks, A. K., 103 Marley, S. C., 63, 64, 387 Marois, R., 307 Marshall, D., 187 Marshall, H. H., 383, 386 Marshall, K., 161, 162 Marshall, M., 527, 529, 530, 531, 581 Marsh, E. J., 349 Marsh, H. W., 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 434, 438, 614 Marso, R. N., 13 Martin, A. J., 103, 104, 105, 106, 150, 196, 434, 438 Martin, C. L., 239, 240, 245 Martin, C. S., 157 Martinez, S., 513, 527 Martin, J., 383, 384 Martin, R., 104, 125, 202, 203 Martin, R. E., 443 Martinussen, M., 99 Marvin, K. L., 275 Marx, R. W., 397, 462 Marzano, J. S., 508 Marzano, R. J., 508 Mascolo, M. F., 47, 54 Maslow, A. H., 465, 485 Mason, D. A., 577 Mason, L., 384, 385 Massa, L. J., 140 Masten, A. S., 224, 225 Master, A., 242, 478 Mastergeorge, A. M., 404 Mastropieri, M, A., 122, 142, 163, 165 Matczynski, T. J., 392 Matos, L., 471 Matson, J. L., 163



Matson, M. L., 163 Matsumura, L. C., 516 Matthews, G., 450, 452, 489 Matthews, J. S., 230, 445 Matthews, M. D., 442, 443 Mattison, R., 124 Maupin, A. N., 235 Mayer, R. E., 140, 262, 300, 312, 326, 352, 357, 365, 383, 390, 395, 447, 452, 484 May, H., 184 Mayo Clinic, 161 Mazzoni, S., 493 McAllister, P. A., 553 McAnarney, E. R., 39 McArdle, J. J., 125 McBride-Chang, C., 147 McCabe, D. P., 341 McCafferty, S. G., 60 McCandliss, B. D., 41 McCarthy, M. R., 286 McCaslin, M., 383, 389, 401, 452, 454, 513 McClelland, D., 480 McClelland, P., 225 McClintic-Gilbert, M. S., 463 McCoach, D. B., 169 McCormick, M. P., 92 McCown, K., 79 McCray, A. D., 543 McDaniel, M. A., 19, 44, 139, 140, 300, 313, 319, 325, 327, 330, 344, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 452, 570, 602, 609 McDevitt, 40 McDonald, K. L., 89 McDougall, P., 89 McFarland, J., 230 McGill-Frazen, A., 227 McGoey, K. E., 273 McGovern, L., 346 McHugh, J. R., 20 McInerney, D. M., 472 McIntosh, P., 252, 254 McKay, S., 478, 479 McKenna, J. W., 279, 614 McKenna, M. C., 475 McKenzie, T. L., 288 McKinley, J. C., 41 McKinsey, P., 244 McKown, C., 233 McLeod, S. A., 139 McLeskey, J., 150, 153, 161, 170 McLoughlin, G., 488 McLoyd, V. C., 226 McMillan, J. H., 598, 609 McNamara, D. S., 412 McNeil, N. M., 390, 391 McNurlen, B., 58 McTighe, J., 551, 558, 573, 574 McTigue, E. M., 327



Meade, J., 629 Meadows, S., 341 Meece, J. L., 106, 277, 287, 427, 429, 430, 436, 470– 471, 472, 477, 484, 488 Meens, D. E., 6, 7 Mehta, P. D., 202 Meichenbaum, D., 448 Meijer, A. M., 488 Meister, C., 65, 398, 402 Meister, D. G., 13 Mejia-Arauz, R., 185 Melby-Lervåg, M., 146 Melnick, S. A., 13 Melrose, S., 390 Meltzoff, A. N., 48, 242 Mendle, J., 75, 76 Menke, D. J., 346 Mercado, E., 38, 265, 300, 486 Mercer, L. K., 342, 452, 454 Mercer, N., 58, 60 Meredith, M. D., 77 Mereish, E. H., 246 Mergendoller, J. R., 491 Merrill, B. M., 150 Mertler, C. A., 22, 609 Merton, R. K., 581 Mesmer, H. A. E., 558 Messina, J. P., 108, 109, 113 Mestre, J. P., 352 Metcalfe, J., 19, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 441, 570, 602 MET Project, 12, 13 Metzler, C. W., 286 Meyer, D., 492 Meyering, E. E., 314 Meyers, A. B., 37, 38, 55, 56, 74, 76, 178, 179, 184 Miccio, A. W., 185, 186 Michael, R. S., 543 Michalowski, J., 526 Michou, A., 471 Mickelson, R. A., 232, 233 Middleton, M. J., 440, 471, 472 Midgley, C., 114, 440, 471 Midgley, L., 17 Miech, R. A., 157 Migliacci, N., 191 Mikami, A., 92, 554 Mikami, A. Y., 467, 554 Mikkers, J., 395 Milan, M. A., 275 Milich, R., 151 Miller, A., 92, 472 Miller, B., 572 Miller, G. A., 308, 309 Miller, L., 42 Miller, M., 445 Miller, M. D., 592 Miller, N., 402 Miller, P. H., 33, 45, 47, 49, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 64, 81, 96, 99, 100, 180, 181, 383



N-9



Miller, R. B., 275 Miller, S. A., 47, 49, 108, 180, 181 Miller, S. L., 43 Miller, S. M., 57, 58, 62 Miller, S. P., 391 Milner, H. R., IV, 93, 103, 226, 229, 230, 238, 249, 544 Minch, D., 526 Miranda, T. Z., 191, 203 Mischel, W., 442, 445 Mishra, P., 133, 134, 135 Mislevy, R. J., 412 Mitchell, A. J., 79 Mitchell, M., 483 Mitchell, S. A., 396 Miyake, A., 60 Miyamoto, K., 37, 41, 43, 44 Moen, P., 225 Mohammed, S. S., 230 Mohan, L., 603 Moise-Titus, J., 91 Mok, K., 187 Mok, M. M. C., 196 Mo, L., 359, 371 Moller, A. C., 467 Möller, J., 105, 168 Möller, K., 483 Moll, H., 77 Moll, L. C., 57, 66, 199, 200, 497, 569 Molnár, G., 352 Monk, J. S., 139 Monroe, C. R., 543, 544 Monsaas, J. A., 18 Monseur, C., 132 Montgomery, C., 451 Montgomery, R. W., 275 Montrul, S., 188 Moon, T. R., 166, 170 Moore, D. W., 163 Moore, M. K., 48 Morehead, J., 478 Morelli, G., 56 Moreno, M., 79 Moreno, M. A., 306 Moreno, R., 355 Morgan, Pl. L., 124 Morger, V., 553 Morin, A. J., 105 Morin, A. J. S., 105 Morine-Dershimer, G., 556 Morin, V. A., 391 Morris, D. B., 439 Morrison, F., 92, 93, 554 Morrison, F. J., 445, 554 Morris, P. A., 81 Morris, R., 42 Morrow, A. S., 150 Morrow, L. M., 519 Moscovitz, K. K., 283 Moseley, D. V., 139, 140, 141 Moshman, D., 384 Moskowitz, G., 522



N-10



NA M E I ND EX



Mouratidis, A., 464, 473, 474 Mouyi, A., 309 Mraz, M., 342, 344 Mueller, C. M., 273 Mueller, K. J., 464, 480 Mueller, P. A., 448 Muenks, K., 443 Muething, C. S., 279 Muis, K. R., 440, 445, 478 Muldner, K., 289 Muller, C., 122 Munger, K. A., 184 Munt, E. D., 287 Murayama, K., 473, 484, 494 Murdock, S. G., 284 Murdock, T. A., 92, 113, 114 Murdock, T. B., 92, 99 Murphy, P. K., 44, 344, 367, 465, 487, 573 Murray, M. S., 184 Muschkin, C. G., 614 Musu-Gillette, L., 230 Myers, C. E., 38, 265, 300, 486 Myers, D. G., 229, 233, 234, 321, 360 Myerson, J., 347 Nadler, J. T., 236 Nagaoka, J., 443 Nagengast, B., 105, 567, 568, 569 Nagin, D. S., 90 Naglieri, J. A., 60 Nagy, G., 569 Nakamoto, J., 183 Namkung, J., 352 Narciss, S., 384 Nardo, A. C., 543 Nash, P., 412 Nash, P. W., 270 Nasir, N. S., 84, 93, 95–96, 238 Nastasi, B. K., 301 Nathan, M. J., 349 National Alliance of Black School Educators, 124 National Assessment of Educational Progress, 132, 231 National Association for Gifted Children, 166 National Center for Child Poverty, 4 National Center for Education Statistics, 230 National Center for Homeless Education, 224 National Center on Family Homelessness, 224 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 4 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child



Care Research Network, 182 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 160 National Science Foundation, 235 Navarro, R. L., 438 Neal, L. V. I., 543 Needham, A., 55, 62 Neff, D., 66, 199, 569 Neisser, U., 132 Nelson, C. A., 37 Nelson, J. R., 42 Nelson, K., 322 Nelson, K. E., 315 Nelson, T. O., 341 Nesbit, J. C., 347 Neubrand, M., 553 Neuman, M., 567 Neumann, C., 130 Neumann, K., 553 Neuman, S. B., 562 Neuman, Y., 406 Neumeister, K. L. S., 134 Neville, H., 37 Newman, S. E., 331 Newsom, J. S., 242 The New Teacher Project, 624 Ng, E. L., 352 Ng, S. F., 352 Nguyen, H.-H. D., 237 Nguyen-Jahiel, K., 58, 572 Nicholls, J., 290, 471 Nicholls, J. G., 472 Nickerson, K., 103 Nielsen, S., 79 Nieto, S., 248 Nie, Y., 543 Nigam, M., 396 Niggli, A., 567, 568 Nisbett, R. E., 54, 219 Nix, G., 493 Nix, R. L., 315 No Child Left Behind Act, 244 Noddings, N., 109, 135 Noguera, P., 92 Nokes, J. D., 366 Nokes-Malach, T. J., 352, 364, 372, 373, 374 Nolan, J. F., 528, 529, 536 Noll, E., 238 Norbert, F., 188 Norby, M. M., 302, 308, 313, 324, 326, 341, 352, 362, 383, 384 Nordby, C. J., 452, 454 Nordström, A. L., 150, 151 Norman, D. A., 304 Northwest Education Association, 593 Norton, E., 42 Novack, M., 357 Novak, A., 226



Novodvorsky, I., 511, 512, 514, 529, 535, 536, 537, 571 Nucci, L. P., 83, 110, 111, 112 Nulty, A., 412 Nunes, T., 17 Nussbaum, A. D., 238 Nussbaum, E. M., 367 Nye, B., 567 Nylund, D., 152 Nystrand, M., 572 Oakes, M. A., 228, 233 Oberle, E., 451 Obidah, J. E., 543, 544 O’Brennan, L. M., 534 O’Brien, M., 582 O’Campo, P. J., 103 O’Connor, B. C., 150, 151 O’Connor, C., 227 O’Connor, E. E., 92 Oczuks, L., 398 Oden, M. H., 167 O’Donnell, A. M., 399, 400, 402, 404, 406, 408, 411 Oettingen, G., 441 Ogbu, J. U., 227 Ogden, C. L., 78 Ogline, J. S., 147 Ohio Department of Education, 190 Oh, J. S., 188 Oh, S., 166, 170 Okagaki, L., 227, 236, 237, 251 O’Keefe, P. A., 472 O’Kelly, J., 399, 404 Olafson, L., 478 O’Leary, K. D., 273 O’Leary, S. G., 273, 281 Olivarez, A., 5 Oller, D. K., 187 Olmi, D. J., 272 Olson, D. R., 20 Olson, K., 498 Olson, R. K., 147 O’Malley, P. M., 157 O’Mara, A. J., 105 O’Neal, C. R., 443 O’Neill, R. E., 284 Oort, F. J., 8 Oosterhof, A., 594 Oppenheimer, D. M., 448 Orange, C., 235, 529 Orfield, G., 232 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 39, 42, 43, 132, 244 Orlando, L., 48 Ormerod, T. C., 136 Ormiston, H., 513, 527 Ormrod, J. E., 38, 39, 40, 300, 346 Orobio de Castro, B., 613



Orosco, M. J., 163 Orr, A., 243, 247 Ortman, J. M., 4 Osborn, A. F., 137 Osborne, J. W., 107 Osgood, D. W., 105 Osterman, K. F., 468, 526 Ostrov, J. M., 89, 90 Otto, B., 179 Ouellette, J. A., 329, 330 Ouellette, R., 255 Ovando, C. J., 203 Overman, L. T., 226 Overton, W. F., 33 Owen, R., 447 Owens, E. B., 82 Owens, J. S., 154 Owens, R. E., 153, 179, 193, 194 Owens, R. J. Q., 347, 348 Ownston, R. D., 413 Ozogul, G., 355 Paas, F. G. W. C., 311, 312, 328, 356 Pabilonia, S. W., 567 Padilla-Munoz, E. M., 451 Padmanabhan, A., 39 Paduchova, Z., 151 Pahlke, Hyde, J. S., 245 Pai, H-H, Sears, D. A., 371 Paik, E. S., 140 Pailler, F., 79 Paivio, A., 318, 325, 326 Pajares, F., 14, 103, 107, 217, 289, 427, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 479 Palardy, G., 226–227, 255 Palcic, J., 278 Palincsar, A. S., 57, 346, 383, 384, 393, 398, 401, 402, 404, 494 Palmer, N. A., 246 Palmquist, C. M., 77 Pang, K. C., 13 Pang, M. F., 356 Panitz, T., 399 Pansky, A., 323 Papageorge, N., 235 Papert, S., 416 Pape, S., 92, 227 Paré-Blagoev, J., 43 Paris, A. H., 512 Paris, D., 252 Paris, S. G., 453 Park, B., 484 Parke, R. D., 105 Parker, M., 17 Parker, P. D., 105 Parker, W. C., 572 Park, G., 15 Park, L. E., 107 Park, Lubinski, 170 Pascalis, O., 233, 234



N AM E I N DEX Pashler, H., 19, 139, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390, 391, 392, 570, 602 Pastorelli, C., 434, 438 Patall, E. A., 464, 467, 470, 471, 475, 482, 567 Patashnick, M., 471 Patrick, H., 438, 471, 492 Patton, D. U., 533 Patton, F., 103 Pauk, W., 347, 348 Paulos, L., 307 Paul, R., 364, 365 Paulsen, D. J., 39 Paunesku, D., 478 Payne, B. D., 287, 448, 449 Pea, R., 416 Pearl, R., 89 Pearson, B. Z., 187 Peck, S. C., 84, 93, 95–96 Pedersen, N. L., 125 Peebles, R., 79 Pekrun, R., 406, 487, 488, 494 Pelham, W. E., 150, 151 Pellegrini, A. D., 76, 77 Pellegrino, J. R., 624, 625 Pellegrino, J. W., 579 Pellegrino, L., 159 Pellis, S., 76 Pell, T., 399 Penfield, R. D., 449 Peng, P. Namkung, J., 315 Pennington, B. F., 147 Peregoy, S. F., 189, 192, 202, 204, 205, 206 Perencevich, K. C., 493 Perez, A. M., 126 Perez, C., 189 Perez, W., 238 Perfetti, C. A., 42 Perkins, D. N., 369, 371, 391 Perner, J., 341 Perry, N., 63 Perry, N. E., 51, 74, 77, 79, 81, 88, 92, 95, 108, 113, 167, 168, 182, 183, 241, 287, 341, 342, 439, 446, 451, 452, 453, 454, 513 Perry, R. P., 487, 488 Persson, H., 532, 542, 543 Peruche, B. M., 233 Perusse, D., 89 Peterson, C., 442, 443 Peterson, G. W., 105 Peterson, J. L., 132 Peterson, M., 76 Peterson, R., 543 Petitclerc, A., 90 Petitto, L. A., 187, 188, 189, 202 Petrill, S. A., 132 Petrosino, A., 532, 542, 543 Petscher, Y., 181 Pettit, G. S., 108



Peverly, S. T., 56, 347 Pew Research Center, 5, 101, 102, 223 Peyton, S. T., 131 Pfiffner, L., 152 Pfiffner, L. J., 273 Philipp, A., 438 Phillips, B. M., 164, 440 Phillips, D., 383, 384 Phillips, L., 453 Phillips, M. M., 371, 492 Phye, G. D., 371 Piaget, J., 18, 45–46, 53, 54, 61, 63, 111, 383, 400 Pianta, R. C., 7, 92, 93, 467, 554, 563 Piasta, S. B., 181 Pickering, S. J., 315 Pickett, T., Jr., 222 Piel, J. A., 45, 96 Pierce, W. D., 290, 291 Pieschl, S., 440, 445 Pigge, F. L., 13 Pihlgren, C., 150, 151 Pineau, A., 56 Pinker, S., 43, 314 Pintrich, P. R., 106, 277, 287, 427, 429, 430, 436, 438, 440, 462, 465, 468, 470– 471, 472, 477, 483, 484, 485, 486, 488 Pious, C., 283 Piquette, N., 410 Pisha, B., 579 Pituch, K. A., 227 Plager, E., 17 Plank, D. R., 627 Plant, E. A., 233 Plants, R., 579 Planty, M., 196 Plass, J. L., 494 Platsidou, M., 314 Plavnick, J. B., 17 Plomin, R., 178, 443 Plucker, J. A., 133, 135 Plucker, J. J., 166, 170 Plummer, D. L., 614 Podolski, C. P., 91 Pohlmann, B., 105 Poirel, N., 56 Poldrack, R. A., 307 Polikoff, M. S., 558 Polio, M., 613 Polson, P. G., 367 Pomerantz, E. M., 438 Ponitz, C. C., 445, 526 Poorthius, A. M. G., 613 Pope, C., 283 Popham, W. J., 556, 559, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 604, 606, 607, 608, 622, 625 Porter, L., 329, 344 Posada, G., 96 Posner, M. I., 331, 354



Postle, B. R., 314 Postlethwaite, B. E., 114 Poteat, V. P., 246 Potocki, A., 410 Prat-Sala, M., 438 Prawat, R. S., 384, 387 Preckel, F., 125 Preckel, T., 105 Premack, D., 273 Prensky, M., 412 Prentice, K., 447 Presseisen, B. Z., 67 Pressley, M., 183–184, 250, 315, 341, 343–344, 351, 448, 483, 495, 497, 568, 603 Pretzlik, U., 17 Price, G. E., 139 Price, L. F., 39 Price, T. S., 178 Price, W. F., 178 Proctor, C. P., 203 Pugh, K. J., 371, 492 Pulfrey, C., 467 Pulkkinen, L., 90, 445 Pullen, P. C., 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 158–159, 161, 162, 341, 579 Puncochar, J., 401 Puntambekar, S., 64 Purdie, N., 151 Purdie-Vaughns, V., 238 Puro, P., 491 Purpura, D. J., 397, 410 Putman, M., 438 Putnam, R., 13 Putney, L., 57, 62, 64, 67 Puustinen, M., 445 Pyke, A. A., 59 Quiceno, J., 96 Quinn, D. M., 227, 228 Quinn, P. C., 233, 234 Quinn, P. D., 131, 443 Quintana, S. M., 229 Rabinowitz, M., 553 Rach, L., 493 Rachlin, H., 263, 431 Radford, J., 390 Radvansky, G. A., 300, 302, 303, 304, 309, 311, 313, 317, 318, 319, 322, 327, 357 Raffini, J. P., 469, 485, 494 Rahim, A., 439, 452, 453 Raikes, H. A., 84 Rai, M. K., 198 Raj, V., 56 Rakoczy, H., 77 Ramani, G., 367 Ramaswamy, V., 347 Ramey, D. R., 203



N-11



Ramirez, G., 243 Ramirez, J. D., 203 Randolph, S. M., 103 Raphael, D., 402 Raphael, L., 250 Raphael, L. M., 603 Rapp, D. N., 486 Rapp, J. T., 275, 283 Rathbun, A., 230 Ratner, H. H., 64 Raudenbush, S. W., 230, 232, 582, 613, 614 Raudsepp, E., 360 Rau, M. A., 349 Raver, C. C., 445 Ravit, G. D., 394, 397 Rawson, K. A., 349, 596 Reardon, S. F., 225, 230, 614 Reback, R., 6 Reber, R., 484 Reddy, S., 39, 150, 307 Reder, L. M., 331, 341, 385 Redford, P., 438 Reed, R. P., 568 Reese, L., 185 Reeve, J., 287, 463, 466, 467, 468, 491, 493 Regalia, C., 434 Régner, I., 236, 237 Reichert, M., 104 Reid, E. E., 397, 410 Reid, J. M., 198 Reifel, S., 415 Reifel, S. C., 413 Reimann, G., 582 Reimann, P., 354 Reinke, W. M., 534 Reisberg, D., 136 Reisman, A., 572, 573 Reisslein, M., 355 Reis, S. M., 166, 169, 170 Reiss, S., 463, 485 Reiter-Palmon, R., 479 Reljic, G., 202, 203 Rendon, P., 200 Renkl, A., 312, 327, 356 Renninger, K. A., 441, 482, 483, 484, 485 Renzulli, J. S., 166, 169, 170 Rescorla, R. A., 265 Resnick, L. B., 385 Rettig, M., 438, 473 Reyes, C. R., 235 Reyes, E. I., 254 Reyes, M. R., 553 Reynolds, C. A., 125 Reynolds, C. R., 163 Reynolds, R. E., 440 Reznitskaya, A., 58, 572 Rice, D., 122 Rice, F. P., 156 Richell, R., 226 Richey, J. E., 364, 372, 373, 374



N-12



NA M E I ND EX



Richmond, M., 96 Rideout, V., 410 Riedesel, C. A., 355 Rigby, K., 532, 534 Riggall, A. C., 314 Riggle, E. D. B., 247 Rikers, R., 312, 356 Rimfeld, K., 443 Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., 525, 526 Rimm, S. B., 170 Rintamaa, M., 344 Ritchey, K., 102, 346 Rittle-Johnson, B., 355, 356, 397 Rivas-Drake, D., 229 Rivera, A., 200 Rivers, J. C., 8 Rivers, S. E., 553 Rivet, T. T., 163 Rivkin, S. G., 8 Robbins, S. B., 345 Robbins, S. J., 269 Roberge, M. M., 198 Roberson, D., 178 Roberts, D. F., 410 Roberts, D. S., 272 Roberts, G., 230 Roberts, R. D., 450, 452 Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., 243 Robinson, D. H., 391 Robinson, J. C., 567 Robinson, J. P., 243, 246 Robustelli, S., 581 Rockoff, J., 6, 628 Roderick, M., 443 Rodgers, K. A., 101 Rodgers, R. F., 79 Rodkin, P. C., 89 Rodriguez, C., 238 Roediger, H. L., 602 Roedinger, H. L. III, 44, 140, 300, 313, 325, 327, 344, 452 Roehrig, G., 35, 41, 43, 44 Roeser, R. W., 84, 93, 95–96, 451 Rogers, B. P., 307 Rogoff, B., 56, 57, 64, 396 Rogow, F., 416, 417 Rogowsky, B. A., 140 Rohde, P., 156 Rohrer, D., 139, 328, 330 Roid, G. H., 130 Rojas, J. P., 443 Rojas, N. R., 275 Rojas, R., 187 Rolland, R. G., 471 Romano, M. E., 9, 514, 515, 517, 518, 519, 523, 529, 565, 566, 568, 571 Romero, A. B., 283 Romero, C., 478, 479 Roorda, D. L., 8 Rosch, E. H., 318 Roschelle, J., 398, 413



Roscoe, R. D., 412 Rosenberg, M., 106 Rosenberg, M. S., 150, 153, 161, 170 Rosenfarb, I., 287 Rosenfeld, M., 141 Rosenfeld, S., 141 Rose, N. S., 314 Rosenshine, B., 65, 398, 402, 552, 554, 563, 571 Rosenthal, L., 221 Rosenthal, R., 581, 583 Roser, R., 440 Roseth, C. J., 406 Roskos, K., 562 Ross, D., 90 Ross, J. A., 402 Ross, M., 361 Ross, S., 64, 390 Ross, S. A., 90 Rostosky, S. S., 247 Rotherham-Borus, M. J., 103 Roth, G., 471 Rothkopf, A., 483 Rowan, B., 553 Rowe, E. W., 169 Rowe, M. B., 571 Rowe, M. L., 367 Rowley, J. B., 392 Rowley, S. J., 230, 238 Rozek, C. S., 241 Rubie-Davies, C. M., 408, 581 Rubin, K. H., 86, 87, 89 Rubin, L. R., 169 Rubinsten, O., 147 Ruble, D., 240, 241 Ruble, D. N., 238, 239 Ruck, M. D., 232, 582 Rudd, T., 543 Rudner, L. M., 623 Rudolph, K. D., 99 Rueda, R., 497 Rummel, N., 328, 349, 401 Rummer, R., 316 Rundle, S., 140 Rupp, A. A., 451 Rusby, J. C., 286 Rushall, B. S., 288 Russell, M. K., 598, 602 Russell, S. T., 239, 245 Rust, J., 241 Ruthruff, K. I., 307 Ryan, A., 88, 472 Ryan, A. M., 237, 438 Ryan, K. E., 237 Ryan, R. M., 290, 453, 463, 466, 467 Saalbach, H., 188 Sachs, J., 477, 478 Sackett, P. R., 224 Sadek, S., 533 Sadker, D., 539, 569, 571 Sadker, M., 539, 569, 571



Safter, H. T., 134 Saia, J., 343 Sailor, W., 283 Sakamoto, A., 91 Sakiz, G., 92 Salchegger, S., 105 Saleem, M., 91 Salem, A., 243, 247 Salisbury-Glennon, J. D., 397 Salmela-Aro, K., 482 Salomon, G., 369, 371, 391 Salovey, P., 553 Saltarelli, A. J., 406 Sample Stanford Student Report in Score Report Sampler: Guide-Teaching and Learning Toward High Academic Standards for the Stanford Achievement Test Series, 621 Sana, F., 309, 315, 316, 448 Sandberg, J. F., 567 Sanders, C. E., 371 Sanders, S., 346 Sanders, W. L., 8 Sanghera-Sidhu, S., 410 Sansone, C., 237 Sarrazin, 583 Sattler, J. M., 126, 130, 135, 137 Saulnier, G., 100 Savage, R., 410 Savin-Williams, R. C., 239, 243, 244 Sawyer, K., 133, 135, 137 Sawyer, R. K., 301, 341, 388, 389 Saxe, G. B., 56 Scabini, E., 434 Scalise, K., 33, 35, 39, 43, 44, 487 Scanlan, M., 20 Scarcella, R., 202 Schafer, W. D., 611 Schalke, D., 125 Schallert, D. L., 440, 467 Schatschneider, C., 184 Scheer, J. R., 246 Scheibe, C., 416, 417 Scheiter, K., 318 Schellinger, K. B., 80 Schiefele, U., 106, 499 Schmader, T., 236, 238 Schmid, R. F., 410 Schmidt, H. G., 394, 395, 397 Schmiedek, F., 315 Schneider, W., 301, 340, 341 Schnellert, L., 287 Schnyder, I., 567, 568 Schoenfeld, A. H., 359, 362 Schoen, R., 84 Schommer, M., 478 Schonert-Reichl, K. A., 450, 451



Schoonen, R., 203 Schoor, C., 384 Schrage, J., 441 Schraw, G. J., 140, 301, 302, 308, 313, 317, 322, 324, 326, 341, 352, 358, 362, 383, 384, 478 Schulenberg, J. E., 157 Schulze, S. K., 324 Schumacher, R. F., 352 Schumm, J, S., 201 Schunk, D. H., 34, 35, 38, 62, 64, 103, 106, 107, 262, 277, 287, 289, 302, 304, 305, 306, 320, 324, 341, 342, 350, 351, 352, 363, 383, 384, 386, 427, 429, 430, 431, 436, 437, 438, 441, 443, 445, 470–471, 472, 477, 484, 485, 488 Schuster, M. A., 221 Schwab, J. J., 14, 22 Schwab, Y., 450, 517, 518, 524, 525, 529 Schwan, S., 328 Schwartz, B., 269 Schwartz, D., 369 Schwartz, D. L., 41 Schwartz, H. L., 6 Schwartz, J. E., 355 Schwartz, S. J., 229 Schwarz, B. B., 366, 368, 401, 406 Schwarzer, R., 489 Schweppe, J., 316 Schwinger, M., 481 Schworm, S., 356 Scott, J. G., 533 Scruggs, T. E., 122, 142, 163, 165 Sears, R., 167 Seaton, E., 229 Seaton, M., 105 Sechler, C., 399, 400 Sechler, C. M., 400 Seeley, J. R., 156 Seidel, T., 392, 395, 552 Selig, J. P., 63, 387 Seligman, M. E. P., 149, 437, 443, 480 Senécal, C., 5 Sénéchal, M., 184 Senko, C., 471 Sensale Yazdian, L., 604 Serpell, R., 384 Setrill, S. A., 488 Shaenfield, D., 367 Shaffer, D. W., 369, 412 Shahar, G., 87 Shanahan, E. J., 131, 169 Shanahan, M. E., 507 Shanahan, T., 202 Shanker, S., 439 Shapiro, L. R., 178



N AM E I N DEX Shapka, J. D., 451 Shavelson, R. S., 552 Shaw, H., 80 Shaw, R., 347 Shayer, M., 54 Shaywitz, B. A., 147 Shaywitz, S. E., 147, 163 Shea, T. M., 281, 282 Shechtman, Z., 92, 113 Sheehan, M., 92, 526 Sheets, R. H., 205, 219, 221, 252 Sheldon, K. M., 468 Shen, H., 235 Shen, J., 41 Shepard, L. A., 614 Sherman, D. K., 238 Shibuya, Al, Ihori, N., 91 Shic, F., 235 Shiffrin, R. M., 302 Shih, S. S., 467 Shim, S. S., 472, 473 Shin, J-Y, Wu, S., 196 Shin, L, 4 Shirky, C., 448 Shiyko, M. P., 75 Shochet, I., 92, 526 Shonkoff, J. P., 226 Shore, D. I., 309, 315, 316 Short, D. J., 191, 192, 199, 208, 209 Shrier, L. A., 87 Shrout, P. E., 240, 241 Shuai, L., 151 Shuell, T. J., 563 Shu, H., 147 Shui, S.-H., 481 Shulman, E. P., 443 Shute, V. J., 3, 23, 613 Sibley. M. H., 150 Siddle Walker, V., 249 Siegal, M., 198 Siegel-Hawley, G., 232 Siegle, D., 169, 170 Siegler, R., 352 Siegler, R. S., 55, 56, 62, 315 Siena Research Institute, 558 Sigman, M. D., 130 Silver, J., 77 Silverman, R., 367 Silverman, S. K., 323 Simon, D. A., 330, 345, 350 Simon, D. P., 362 Simonds, C. J., 552 Simon, H. A., 331, 362, 385 Simons, J., 468 Simon, T., 158 Simonton, D. K., 135, 136 Simpkins, S., 184, 198 Singley, K., 370 Sio, U. N., 136 Sirin, S. R., 223, 224 Skiba, R. J., 301, 513, 527, 543 Skibbe, L. E., 440



Skinner, B. F., 266, 267 Skinner, C., 224 Skinner, E. A., 468, 476 Skoog, T., 75 Skowron, S., 79 Slama, R. B., 196 Slater, A. M., 233, 234 Slater, L., 107 Slater, S. C., 516 Slavin, R. E., 20, 203, 402, 406 Sleegers, P., 388 Sleek, S., 300 Sloane, K. D., 18 Sloboda, J. A., 167 Slot, W., 15 Smetana, J. G., 83 Smith, D. C., 143, 151 Smith, D. D., 407, 408 Smith, D. G., 39 Smith, E. D., 77 Smith, E. E., 319 Smith, F., 328 Smith, J. K., 613 Smith, J. L., 237 Smith, L. F., 613 Smith, L. L., 438 Smith, M. L., 614 Smith, P., 315 Smith, P. K., 76 Smith, S., 143, 151 Smith, S. M., 327 Smith, S. W., 449 Smith, T. S., 194 Snowberg, K. E., 452 Snow, C., 187, 196, 203 Snow, R. E., 441, 581 Snyder, K. E., 166 Snyder, T., 196 Soares, D. A., 283 Søbstad, F., 77 Society for Research in Child Development, 186 Soemer, A., 328 Sokolove, S., 539 Soleck, G., 222 Solomon, D., 399 Soloway, E., 397 Son, L. K., 330, 345, 350 Soodak, L. C., 286 Sood, S., 352, 355 Sorhagen, N. S., 582 Sosniak, L. A., 18, 559 Soter, A. O., 573 Sousa, D., 42 Southern Education Foundation, 4 Spada, H., 401 Spanoudis, G., 125, 129, 146, 309, 314 Spearman, C., 125 Spears, F. M., 83 Spencer, K., 42 Spencer, M. B., 238 Spencer, S., 237



Spengler, M., 125 Spera, C., 83 Spilt, J. L., 8, 526 Sprague, J. R., 286 Sprenger, M., 35, 39, 44 Spuhl, S. T., 60 Stage, S. A., 283 Stahl, S. A., 139 Staiger, D. O., 8 Stanat, P., 185 Stang, J., 80 Stanley, S., 84 Stanovich, K. E., 22 Star, J. R., 352, 355, 356 Starko, A. J., 135, 136, 137 Starosta, K., 352, 355 Starrett, M. J., 314 Stattin, H., 75 Stebbins, M. S., 169 Steele, C. M., 236, 238 Steele, J. R., 237 Stefanou, C. R., 493 Steinberg, L., 76, 87, 88, 103, 156 Steinmayr, R., 481 Stein, R. E. K., 77 Stein, Z., 55 Stenske, M. T., 275 Steptoe, A., 451 Sterling-Turner, H. E., 279 Sternberg, K., 302, 304, 306, 317, 319, 321 Sternberg, R. J., 128, 131, 135, 166, 169, 302, 304, 306, 317, 319, 321, 352, 452 Stershic, S., 328 Stevens, K., 243, 244 Stevens, R., 252, 253, 554, 563, 571 Stice, E., 80 Stiggins, R. J., 556, 559, 561, 593, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 604, 605, 610, 611 Stinson, D. W., 196, 227, 243 Stipek, D. J., 462, 479, 494, 498, 499 Stoel, R. D., 203 Stoltzfus, J., 238 Stone, E., 239, 241, 242, 245 Stormont, M., 169 Story, M., 80 Stough, L. M., 508, 511, 515, 523 Stout, M., 532 Stratton, H., 158 Strauss, V., 6, 7 Strayer, D. L., 307 Strayer, J., 100 Strom, B. C., 346 Strom, P. S., 535 Strom, R. D., 535 Stupinisky, R. H., 487, 488 Suba, J., 151 Su, C., 131



N-13



Südkamp, A., 168 Sugai, G., 526 Suizzo, M.-A., 227 Su, J-H, Burgess-Brigham, R., 196 Suldo, S. M., 526 Sullivan, J. R., 164, 165 Sullivan, M. A., 273 Sumowski, J., 347 Sun, C., 315 Sung, H-. Y., 412 Supple, A., 105 Surprenant, C. W., 108, 109, 113 Sutamijariya, N., 79 Sutton, R. E., 488 Sutton, R. M., 236, 237, 243 Svarovsky, G. N., 412 Svinicki, M., 349 Svoboda, J. S., 243 Svoboda, R. C., 241 Swan, G. M., 612 Swanson, G. J., 275 Swanson, H. L., 146, 315, 342, 579 Swanson, J., 440, 450 Swanson, T. C., 154 Swearer, S. M., 533, 535 Sweller, J., 311, 312, 326, 328, 352, 354, 356, 362, 396, 564 Swenson, L. P., 103 Swing, E. L., 91 Sylvester, R., 44 Sylvia, P. J., 484 Synodi, E., 77 Syvertsen, A. K., 532 Tabbers, H. K., 357 Taborsky-Barba, S., 238 Talbot, M., 87 Tallal, P., 43, 140 Tam, H., 309 Tamim, R. M., 410 Tamis-LeMonda, C., 240, 241 Tanaka, A., 484 Tancock, S. M., 447 Tang, Y., 41 Tanner-Smith, E. E., 413 Taylor, A., 438 Taylor, C., 451 Taylor, E., 150 Taylor, R. D., 80 TeachingWorks, 12, 554 Temple, C., 342, 343 Templin, J. L., 484 TenBrink, T. D., 601 Tenenbaum, H. R., 232, 396, 397, 582 Tenent, A., 398 Tennant, J. E., 553 Terman, L. M., 167 Terry, M. N., 553 Tevendale, H. D., 103



N-14



NA M E I ND EX



te Winkel, W. W. R., 397 Tharp, R. G., 58, 251, 252, 253 Theodorakis, N., 533 Theodore, L. A., 279, 283 Theokas, C., 81 Thijs, J. T., 526 Thinus-Blanc, C., 237 Thomaes, S., 613 Thoman, D. B., 237, 441 Thomas, D. R., 17 Thomas, H. J., 533 Thomas, J. R., 74, 75, 78 Thomas, K., 494 Thomas, K. T., 74, 75, 78 Thomas, M. H., 329, 330 Thomas, P. L., 443 Thompson, D. F., 169 Thompson, G., 468 Thompson, L., 356, 357, 359, 488 Thompson, R. A., 84 Thompson, R. K., 6 Thompson, W. L., 300 Thomson, K., 451 Thouvenelle, S., 413, 414, 415 Timperley, H., 571–572 Tingstrom, D. H., 272, 279 Titz, W., 487 Tobias, S., 396 Tobler, N., 158 Tolar, T. D., 164, 185 Tollefson, N., 474 Tomasello, M., 64, 77 Tombu, M. N., 307 Tomlinson, C. A., 63, 166, 613 Tomlinson-Clarke, S., 544 Tompkins, J. R., 161, 170 Tong, F., 307 Tools of the Mind, 66 Toomey, R. B., 239, 245 Topping, K., 187 Toppo, G., 532 Torrance, E. P., 134, 141, 170 Tortora, M., 576 Toth, E., 395 Tough, P., 443 Tourva, A., 125, 129, 146 Trainin, G., 434 Trautwein, U., 103, 105, 106, 107, 133, 567, 568, 569 Trebaticka, J., 151 Tremblay, R. E., 89, 90 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 615 Tricot, A., 312, 352, 357, 362 Tröbst, S., 483 Trouilloud, 583 Troutman, A. C., 262, 267, 268, 270, 272, 278, 281, 282, 285 Trucano, M., 498, 525 Tsai, K. M., 102 Tsai, Y.-M., 553



Tsang, W., 255 Tsantis, L. A., 413, 414, 415 Tschannen-Moran, M., 404, 408, 438, 472 Tseng, V., 83 Tsukayama, E., 131 Ttofi, M. M., 533 Tubaro, P., 79 Tucker-Drob, E. M., 125 Tulving, E., 324 Tunick, R. A., 147 Tuovinen, J., 354 Turkle, S., 95, 100, 410 Turnbull, A. P., 283 Turner, E. O., 4, 195 Turner, J. C., 452, 453, 492, 493, 498, 525 Tyler, B.-J., 196, 208 Tyler, K. M., 252, 253 Tyler, N. C., 143, 151 Tynan, M. C., 443 Tze, V. M. C., 438 Udell, W., 367 Ugen, S., 104 Uline, C. L., 230 Umaña-Taylor, A. J., 229 Umbreit, J., 286 UNICEF., 4 Uqdah, A. L., 252, 253 Urbina, S., 132 Urdan, T., 104, 440, 481 Urdan, T. C., 472 U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 195 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 224 U. S. Department of Education, 124, 154, 208, 210, 230, 235, 557 Usher, E. L., 427, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 441, 443, 445 Vacca, J. A. L., 342, 344 Vacca, R. T., 342, 344 Vagi, K. J., 302 Vaillancourt, T., 535 Valant, J., 628 Valentine, J. C., 435, 567, 581 Valenzuela, A., 93 Valiente, C., 440, 450 Vallancourt, T., 89 van Aken, M. A. G., 613 VandeKamp, K. O., 342, 452, 454 Vandell, D. L., 227 van den Bergh, L., 233, 572 van den Wittenboer, G. L. H., 488 van de Pol, J., 390 Vandergrift, N., 554 Vandermass-Peler, M., 77 van der Meij, H., 347, 348



van der Meij, J., 347 van der Molen, H. T., 397 van der Spek, E. D., 413 Van Der Veer, R., 57 van der Vleuten, C. P. M., 311, 312 van der Werf, M. P. C., 581, 582 Van de Walle, J. A., 354 van Driel, J. H., 553 van Gelderen, A., 203 van Gog, T., 311, 312, 371, 394, 395 Van Houtte, M., 240, 614 van Laar, C., 476 VanLehn, K. A., 369, 371 Van Matre, J. C., 581 van Merriënboer, J. J. C., 311, 312 van Merriënboer, J. J. G., 15, 311, 312, 326, 328, 410 Van Meter, P., 347 Vannest, K. J., 283 van Nimwegen, C., 413 van Oostendrop, H., 413 Vansteenkiste, M., 464, 468, 473, 474 Vantieghem, W., 240 Varma, S., 35, 41, 43, 44 Vasquez, J. A., 252 Vaughn, M. G., 184 Vaughn, S. R., 164, 201, 230, 565 Vecchio, G. M., 438 Vecchione, M., 438 Veenema, S., 128 Veenman, S., 13 Vega Jr., R., 279 Vermeersch, H., 240 Vernon, P. A., 126 Verock, R-E., 416, 418 Verplaetse, L. S., 191 Vidal-Abarca, E., 341 Vincent, M., 483, 495, 497 Violette, H. D., 283 Viraro, F., 89 Visconti, K. J., 399, 400 Visser, B. A., 126 Vitaro, F., 90 Viviés, X. D., 233, 234 Vock, M., 15 Voeten, M., 233, 572 Voeten, M. J. M., 388 Vogt, M. E., 191, 192, 199, 208, 209 Vohs, K. D., 107 Volman, M., 390 von Eye, A., 410 von Schrader, S., 161 Voss, T., 553 Votruba-Drzal, E., 195, 197 Vrangalova, Z., 243 Vygotsky, L. S., 57, 60, 61, 62, 448, 576



Waaler, E., 150, 151 Waasdorp, T. E., 286, 534 Wagner, A. R., 265 Wahlsten, D., 33 Waits, B. K., 59 Walberg, H. J., 290, 291, 573 Wales, J., 79 Walker, J. E., 281, 282 Walker, J. M. T., 568 Walker, T., 567 Walker, V. S., 238 Wallace, J. B., 614 Wallace, L., 451 Walls, M. L., 75 Walqui, A., 191, 211 Walsh, M., 95 Walton, G. M., 441 Wang, A. Y., 329, 330 Wang, C., 166, 472 Wang, M-T., 482 Wang, S., 43 Wang, X., 230 Wang, Z., 484 Wanzek, J., 184 Ward, L. M., 234 Ward, M., 542 Wares, A., 128 Warneken, F., 77 Warren, J. S., 283 Warschauer, M., 399, 447 Wartella, E., 91 Wasserberg, M. J., 238 Wasserman, E. A., 269 Waterhouse, L., 125, 126 Waterman, A. S., 99 Waters, S., 526 Waters, S. D., 224 Watkins, K. E., 187 Watson, J. B., 262 Watson, J. M., 307 Watson, M. S., 399 Watson, T. S., 284 Wattie, N., 614 Waugh, C. K., 599, 600, 604 Waxman, S. R., 179 Waycott, J. L., 391 Way, N., 526 Wayne, A. J., 553 Wearing, H., 315 Webb-Johnson, G., 543 Webb, N. M., 402, 404, 494 Weber, M. J., 99 Webster, R., 390 Wechsler, D., 129, 169 Wehby, J., 283, 627 Weil, E., 243 Weiner, B., 462, 475, 476, 477 Weinstein, C. S., 9, 92, 93, 468, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 517, 518, 519, 523, 525, 529, 535, 536, 537, 544, 565, 566, 568, 571 Weinstein, R. S., 581, 582, 583



N AM E I N DEX Weisberg, R. W., 133 Weishaar, M., 347 Weissberg, R. P., 80, 449 Weiss, H. B., 184, 198 Welk, G. J., 77 Wells, K. C., 449 Welsh, J. A., 315 Welsh, L. M., 483, 495, 497 Wendt, D. C., 252, 253 Wenger, E., 370, 385, 396 Wentzel, K. R., 88, 364, 438, 461, 525 Wertsch, J. V., 59 Werts, M. G., 161, 170 Westberg, K. L., 166 Westling, D. L., 150, 153, 161, 170 Westling, E., 76 West, M. R., 443 Weston, T., 448 West, S. G., 614 Wethington, E., 225 Whaley, S. E., 130 Wheatley, K. F., 439 Whipple, A. D., 614 Whitbeck, L. B., 75 Whitehead, A. N., 394 Whitehurst, G. J., 182 White, M., 553 White, P. H., 237 Whitesell, N. R., 435 White, T., 526 Wickham, D., 283 Wiedmann, M., 401 Wigfield, A., 39, 75, 96, 99, 105, 106, 438, 443, 461, 474, 475, 498 Wiggins, G., 551, 558, 573, 574, 602 Wijnen, W. H. F. W., 397 Wilczynski, S. M., 279 Wilensky, R., 451 Wilen, W., 564



Wilkerson, B., 132 Wilkinson-Flicker, S., 230 Wilkinson, G. R., 451 Wilkinson, I. A. G., 573 Willcutt, E. G., 147 Williams, A. B., 533 Williams, K., 428 Williams, K. R., 533 Williams, T., 428 Willingham, D. T., 126, 349 Willoughby, T., 329, 344 Willower, D. J., 508 Wilson, J., 79 Wilson, K. A., 558 Wilson, K. M., 275 Wilson, M., 357, 434 Wilson, S. M., 105 Windschitl, M., 383, 384, 388, 409 Winett, R. A., 263 Wink, J., 57, 62, 64, 67 Winkler, R. C., 263 Winne, P. H., 14, 351, 440, 441, 445, 453 Winner, E., 136, 166, 167 Winsler, A., 60 Winters, L., 609 Wirkala, C., 397 Wirthwein, L., 481 Wittmaier, B. C., 489 Wittrock, M. C., 7, 299, 352, 365 Wittwer, J., 356 Wojslawowicz, J. C., 86, 87 Wolfe, P., 43, 44 Wolfgang, C. H., 508, 510 Wolf, M., 42 Wolke, D., 131 Woloshyn, V., 351 Wong, A., 7 Wong, H. K., 522 Wong, K. F., 188 Wong, L., 7, 15, 363



Wong, N.-W. A., 190 Wong, R. T., 522 Woodard, S. M., 609 Wood, D., 64, 390 Wood, E., 410 Wood, T., 471 Woodward, A., 55, 62 Woodward, M. M., 328 Woolf, B. P., 416, 418 Woolfolk, A. E., 51, 74, 77, 79, 81, 88, 92, 95, 108, 113, 167, 168, 182, 183, 241, 341 Woolfolk Hoy, A., 5, 23, 92, 93, 227, 344, 404, 408, 438, 451, 468, 472, 488, 525, 544 Woolverton, S., 229 Worrell, F. C., 593, 603 Wortham, S. C., 413, 415 Worthington, R. L., 438 Wout, D., 237 Wouters, P., 413 Wu, C.-H., 481 Wulfert, E., 287 Wu, S., 147 Wüstenberg, S., 352 Wu, W., 614 Wu, X., 572 Wylie, R., 383 Xiao, L., 39 Xiao, Y., 188 Xu, J., 196, 500 Xu, M., 103, 104, 105, 106, 434 Yackel, E., 471 Yaman, M. A., 92, 113 Yang, J. S., 443 Yang, L., 151 Yang, L.-Y., 356 Yap, A. C., 243



N-15



Yarhouse, M. A., 244 Yawkey, T., 124 Yearsley, T., 329, 344 Yeh, C. J., 190, 611 Yekovich, C. W., 331 Yekovich, F. R., 331 Yell, M. L., 155 Yerkes, R. M., 488 Yeung, A. S., 103–104 Yoshikawa, H., 526 Yough, M., 198 Youngs, P., 553 Youngswirth, S. D., 150 Yue, C. L., 346 Yuen, S. D., 203 Zeedyk, S., 187 Zee, M., 438 Zeidner, M., 450, 452, 488, 489 Zeigler, K., 195 Zelazo, P. D., 110 Zeldin, A. L., 435 Zervoulis, K., 241 Zettle, R. D., 287 Zhang, J., 230 Zhang, W., 41 Zhao, J., 196 Zhao, Y., 410 Zheng, B., 399, 447 Zheng, X. H., 146 Zhou, M., 222 Zhou, Z., 56 Zhu, W., 77 Ziegler, A., 477 Zimmerman, B. J., 287, 350, 441, 443, 445 Zmuda, J. H., 279 Zoccolillo, M., 90 Zohar, A., 340, 341 Zong, J., 190 Zucker, S., 251 Zusho, A., 438, 472, 473



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SUBJECT INDEX ABAB experimental designs, 17, 21 Ability, beliefs about, 478–480 Ability goals, 471 Absence seizures, 160 Abstract examples/ representations of concepts, 10 cognitive development, 45 cognitive views of learning, 319, 332 culture and diversity, 250 development, 170 teaching of, 30, 70–71 Abstractions, 30, 57, 71 mindful, 369 Abuse, child, 93–94 Academic caring, 92–93 Academic language, 190–192, 197 Academic learning time, 512–513 Academic self-concept, 103–106 Academic tasks, 491–492 Acceleration of students, 15, 170 Accommodation, 47, 57, 144, 145 Accomplishment, recognizing, 493–494 Accountability and high-stakes testing, 622–625 Achievement anxiety and, 477, 489–490 diverse classrooms, academic achievement for, 250 ethnic and racial differences in, 230 low achieving students, 14–15 motivation to learn and, 466 personal and socialcontextual factors that support student achievement, 23–24 poverty, influence on, 224–229 self-concept and, 103, 105 teacher expectations and, 582–583 Achievement emotions, 487–488 Achievement tests, 620–621, 625



Acquisition phase, learning strategies, 371 Acronyms, 329 Action research, 19–21 Actions, cognitive development and, 57 Active retrieval, 349 Active teaching, 563–565 Activity, Piaget’s theory, 46, 63–64 Activity-centered learning styles, 140–142 Activity-focused teaching, 558 Adaptation, 46, 47 Adaptive teaching, 576–580 Additive bilingualism, 188 Adequate yearly progress (AYP), 6 Adolescent egocentrism, 53 Adolescents. See also High school-aged children brain development, 39–40 communities of care, creating, 526–527 eating disorders, 79–80 egocentrism, 53 formal operational stage (Piaget), 52–54 peers, influence of, 86–92 physical development, 75 psychosocial development (Erikson), 97–99 relationships with teachers, 92–93 self-concept, development of, 104–105 sleep and, 40 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 60–62 special problems with, 536–537 Advance organizers, 390–391 Aesthetic needs, 465–466 Affective considerations, English language learners, 198 Affective domain, 554–555, 560 Affinity groups, 413 African Americans. See also Diversity academic achievement, best practices for, 250 advanced degrees, rates of, 235 bias against, 130



culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 discrimination, legacy of, 232–235 diversity in learning, 251–256 graduation rates, 230 literacy development, 230 poverty rates, 224–226 stereotype threat, 236–239 Agency, 434–439. See also Human agency Aggression. See also Bullying peers, influence of, 89–92 types of, 89–92 Algorithms, 358 Allergies, 160 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 158 American cultural diversity, 218–222 American Psychological Association, 14 American Sign Language (ASL), 162, 180, 189 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 145 Amotivation, 463 Amygdala, 34, 35 Analogical thinking, 352, 374 Analytical intelligence, 134, 135 Analyzing questions, 559–560, 570 Anorexia nervosa, 79 Antecedents, 267, 271–272, 284, 286 Anxiety, 477, 486–490 Applied behavior analysis, 262, 272–283, 455 Applying questions, 559–560, 570 Apprenticeships, cognitive, 396–398 Appropriating, 384 Appropriation, cognitive development and, 58, 59 Argument stratagem, 58 Argumentation, 366–368 Aristotle, 264 Arousal, 435, 436 Articulation disorders, 152–153



Asian Americans. See also Diversity diversity in learning, 251–256 graduation rates, 230 poverty rates, 224–226 stereotype threat, 236–239 Asperger syndrome, 162–165 Assertive discipline, 540 Assessment. See also Classroom assessments accountability and highstakes testing, 622–625 aligning tools with targets, 611 authentic assessments, 604–609 classroom assessment, overview of, 596–602 communication about, 615, 622, 623 complex thinking, 610 of creativity, 140–141 essay testing, 600–602 frequent testing, 250, 325, 327–328, 371, 600. See also Testing effect grading, 610–615 growth assessment, 593, 596, 597, 624 informal assessment, 603–604 interim (growth) assessment, 593, 596, 597, 624 involving students in, 603–604 learning outcomes and assessment method, 611 of learning styles, 139 measurement and, 592–593 overview, 592 portfolios and exhibitions, 604–608 reliability and validity, 593–596 reports, standardized testing, 620–622 retrieval practice/testing effect, 327–328 score types, 615–620 standardized testing, 615–620, 620–622 stereotype threat, effects on test performance, 236–237 testing effect, 327–328, 349 from textbooks, 598 types of, 592–593



S-1



S-2



S UB J E CT I N DEX



Assessment bias, 595–596 Assimilation, 47, 57, 101–103 Assisted learning, 64–65 Assistive technology, 579–580 Asthma, 160 Attachment, 84, 96 Attainment value, 475, 498–499 Attention, 482–489 cognitive learning, 306 complex cognitive processes, 341, 353, 362 executive control process, 340 executive functioning, development of, 56 learning strategies, 344, 345, 350 memory and, 306 motivation and, 482–489 multitasking and, 306–307 note taking, 347 observational learning and, 429, 430, 431–432 self-regulation of, 440 teaching and, 307–308 triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 134–135 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) overview of, 149–153 physical activity and, 77 social rejection, 89 Attention disorders, 145–146, 149–152 Attic Youth Center, 247 Attribution theories, 475–477 Audience, imaginary, 53 Auditory complex, brain, 39, 146 Authentic assessments, 604–609 Authentic instruction, for developing critical thinking skills, 365 Authentic tasks, 492–493 complex learning environments and, 386–387 Authoritarian parents, 83 Autism/autism spectrum disorders, 162–165 Autism spectrum disorders, 162–165, 283, 284 Automated basic skills, 331 Automaticity, 134, 306 Autonomy, 96–97 motivation and, 466–469 need for, 466–467 support of, 493–494 Availability heuristic, 361 Aversive situations and stimulants, 268, 280, 285 Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, 137 Axons, 35–36



Balanced bilingualism, 188–189, 196 Bandura, Albert, 426–427, 439, 443, 455 Basal ganglia, 35 Basic skills, 563–564 automated, 331 Behavior modification, 262. See also Applied behavior analysis Behavioral approaches, motivation, 464–465 Behavioral disorders, 154–158, 283 Behavioral learning theories applied behavior analysis, overview, 272–283 challenges, cautions, and criticisms, 289–291 vs. cognitive view of learning, 300 contiguity and classical conditioning, 264–268, 271 contingency contracts, 276 defined, 262 functional behavioral assessments (FBA), 284–285 group consequences, 279 lessons for teachers, 291–292 operant conditioning, 266–272, 274, 276, 282, 286, 288 positive behavior, encouraging, 268–274, 276 positive behavior supports (PBS), 283, 285–286 self-management, 287–288 summary chart, 455 Teachers’ Casebook, 260, 295–296 token reinforcement systems, 278 undesirable behaviors, response to, 280–283 Behavioral objectives, 554, 556 Being needs, 465–466 Belief perseverance, 361 Beliefs, 427, 434 motivation and, 477–482 Belonging needs, 465–466 Benevolence, 110 Best-works portfolio, 606–607 Betty’s Brain, 411 Bias assessment bias, 595–596 confirmation bias, 361 cultural differences and, 221–222 defined, 233 gender differences and intelligence, 138–139



gender roles and bias, 240–245 performance assessment and, 609 racial prejudice, 233–235 Biculturalism, 101–103, 190 Bilingualism, 185–189, 497. See also English language learners (ELLs) balanced, 188–189, 196 benefits of, 188 definition, 187 gifted and talented students and, 210, 211 heritage language, 188–189 learners with disabilities, 208–210 limited bilingual students, 196 loss of language, 188–189 myths and misconceptions about, 189–190 research on bilingual education, 202–204 two-way immersion, 205 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 11–12 Bill of Rights, classroom, 517–518 Binet, Alfred, 136 Binge eating, 79 Bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner), 80–95 Biology, effect on development, 33 Bisexuals, 238–239, 243 Black racial identity, 102 Blended families, 82 Block scheduling, 495 Bloom, Benjamin, 559–560, 570 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 131–134 Body image, 78–80 Body movement, cerebral cortex, 39 Body sensation, cerebral cortex, 39 Bottom-up processing, 304 Boys. See Males Brain adolescent development of, 39–40 behavioral learning theory, neuroscience of, 269–270 bilingualism and, 187 cerebral cortex, functional areas, 39 cognitive development and, 34–45 cognitive learning and, 300–301 common myths, 42–43



developing brain, 35–41 emotion and, 486–487 forgetting, memory and, 323 imaging techniques, 34–36 instruction affecting development, 41 learning and teaching implications, 39–44 myelination of, 131 neuroscience of learning challenges, 145–146 observational learning, 357 plasticity, 35–37, 41, 43 reading, learning and, 42–43 regions of, 34–35 retrieval practice/testing effect, 349 stress hormones, effect on, 226 Brain stem, 34 Brainstorming, 143, 342, 519, 542 Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 80–81 bioecological model of development, 80–95 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), 232 Bulimia, 79 Bullying, 528, 532–536 cyberbullying. See Cyber aggression (bullying) Teachers’ Casebook, 506, 548–549 types of, 89–92, 533 zero tolerance, 532 Burnout, 438, 451, 452 Bush, George W., 6 CAPS, 350 Career decisions, practical intelligence and, 134 Caring relationships, 524–528 Case studies, 17–18, 21 CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans, 34, 36 Catastrophe theory, 55 Centering, 49 Central executive, 309–310 Central tendency, 615–616 Cerebellum, 34, 35, 146 Cerebral cortex, 39 Cerebral palsy, 159 Cerebrum, 35 Chain mnemonics, 329 Change, discontinuous, 33, 54 Cheating, 113–115 Check & Connect program, 527 Checklists, software appropriate for young children, 414 Child abuse, 93–94



SU B JEC T IN DEX Children. See also Adolescents; Infants brain development, 39–40 peers, influence of, 86–92 preoperational stage of development (Piaget), 49–50 theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 45–57 Chinese learners brain activity research, 41 cognitive ability, emphasis on, 56 Choice, support of, 493 Chunk and chew, 209 Chunking, 313–314 Clarity, 552–553 Class, social, 222–229 Class inclusion, 62 Classical conditioning, 265–266, 322 Classification, 50, 51 Classroom assessments, 592–610 authentic classroom assessments, 604–609 complex thinking, 610 essay testing, 600–602 formative classroom assessments, 602–604 lessons for teachers, 610 from textbooks, 598 selected-response testing, 598–601 Classroom environment authentic tasks and, 386–387 classroom climate, dimensions of, 555 complex learning environments, 386–387 constructivism and designing learning environments, 380–421 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 248–256 digital media and learning, 410–418 encouraging engagement, 522–524 Framework for Teaching, 10–11 goals in social context, 473 learning spaces, planning for, 519–521, 522 motivation, strategies for, 498–499 quick response to problems, 527–530 routines and rules, 514–518 self-determination, support for, 467



student anxiety, reducing, 488–490 triadic reciprocal causality, 427–429 Classroom management, 506–545 bullying. See Bullying caring relationships, 524–528 communication, need for, 538–541 culturally responsive management, 543–544 first weeks of class, 519–522 goals of, 511–513 handling classroom disruptions, 280–282 high school students, special problems with, 536–537 learning spaces, planning for, 519–521, 522 problem prevention, 522–524 research on, 513–514 routines and rules, 514–518 zero tolerance policies, debate about, 532 CLEAR model for teaching gifted students, 170 Clinical interviews, 17–18 Cliques, 87 Cloud computing, 410 Cmaps, 348–349 Co-constructed processes, 58 Co-regulation, 443, 452 Coactions, 33 Code switching, 194 Coding, computers, 414–416 Cognitive apprenticeships, 396–398 Cognitive approaches, motivation, 465, 473 Cognitive behavior modification, 448–449 Cognitive-centered learning styles, 139–141 Cognitive constructivism, 382–387 Cognitive development, 32, 33. See also Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky); Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) brain and, 34–45 cultural tools and, 58–59 culture and, 55–56 developing brain, 34–45 influences on, 46 learning and, 62 Piaget’s theories, 45–57, 62–64 regions of brain, 34–35 stages of, 47–54 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, 57–62, 64–65



Cognitive disabilities. See Intellectual disabilities Cognitive domain, 554–555, 559–560, 570 Cognitive evaluation theory, 467–468 Cognitive function, brain regions, 34–35 Cognitive impairment. See Intellectual disabilities Cognitive learning theory, summary chart, 455 Cognitive load, 311–314, 356 Cognitive monitoring, 346 Cognitive needs, 465–466 Cognitive processes critical thinking and argumentation, 364–368 learning strategies, 343–351 metacognition, 340–343 neuroscience and, 145–146 problem solving, 351–364 transfer of learning, 368–372 Cognitive science, 300 Cognitive view of learning, 300 vs. behavioral view, 300 cognitive load and retaining information, 311–314 constructing declarative knowledge, 324–328 explicit memory, 316–321 implicit memory, 316, 321–322 information processing system, 302–304 knowledge, role of, 301–302 long-term memory, 316–324 procedural knowledge, development of, 331–333 working memory, 309–316 Collaboration, 452, 454 cooperation and, 399–401 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 450 Collaborative learning, 64, 399 Collective monologue, 60 College-aged students, formal operational stage (Piaget), 52–54 Commitment, 99 Common Core Standards, 557–558 Common sense, questions of, 14–15 Communication, by teachers of appropriate expectations, 583 classroom management and, 538–541 of grades and progress, 615 Communication skills, students autism spectrum disorders, 162–163 diversity in learning, 253



S-3



Community of practice, 385 Community partnerships, 545 Comparative organizers, 390–391 Compensation, 50 Competence, need for, 466–467 Complementary methods, research, 19 Complex learning environments, 386 Complex tasks, self-regulation and, 446–447, 452–453 Complex thinking, assessing, 610 Comprehension, 346, 353 Computational thinking, 414–416 Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans, 34, 36 Computers, use in learning, 410–418 Concept, explicit memory and, 318–321 Concept maps, 348–349 Concrete examples/ representations of concepts cognitive development, 44, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54 cognitive views of learning, 332 complex cognitive processes, 346 learning differences and needs, 192 Concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 48, 50–52 Concrete operations, defined, 50 Conditioned response (CR), 265 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 265 Conferences student-led, English language learners and, 200–201 tips for, 144, 615, 622, 623 Confidence interval, 594 Confirmation bias, 361 Conflict resolution, 542–543 Confrontations, 540–541 Connected knowledge, 372 Connections with school, 524–526 Consequences, 267. See also Discipline classroom rules violations, 517–518 communication, need for, 538–541 logical consequences, 517, 529 quick response to problems, 527–530



S-4



S UB J E CT I N DEX



Conservation, 49, 51 Construct-related evidence of validity, 595 Constructive controversies, 406–407 Constructivism, 380–421 cognitive apprenticeships, 396–398 cognitive constructivism, 382–387 collaboration and cooperation, 399–401 cooperative learning, 399–400. See also Groups defined, 382 designing learning environments and, 387–421 digital media, learning and, 410–418 dilemmas of, 408–409 facilitating in classroom, 388–392 inquiry and problem-based learning, 392–396 instructional planning and, 561–562 learning, constructivist views of, 382–386 learning theories, summary chart, 455 reciprocal teaching, 397–398 social constructivism, 382–387 student-centered teaching, 386–387 Constructivist approach. See Constructivism Content-related evidence of validity, 594–595 Context, 81, 327 Contextualized language, 190–192 Contiguity, 264–266 Contingency contracts, 276 Continuous change, 33, 54 Continuous reinforcement schedule, 270 Control, attribution theories and, 476–477 Control, teachers sharing with students, 453 Controlling communication, motivation and, 467–468 Controversial children, 88, 89 Controversies, constructive/ structured, 406–407 Convergent questions, 570 Convergent thinking, 141 Conversational skills, 197, 203, 209 Cooperation, 399 among students and teacher, 510, 512



Cooperative learning, 399–407. See also Groups collaboration and, 399–401 designs for, 404–407 motivation and groups, 494–495 preparing students for, 403–407 students’ role in, 403 tasks for, 402 teacher’s role in, 401 within-class and flexible grouping, 576–577 Coping Power Program, 449 Corpus callosum, 34, 35 Correlation studies, 16, 21 CoRT (Cognitive Research Trust), 367 Costs, values and, 474–475 Coverage-focused teaching, 558 Creating questions, 559–560, 570 Creative intelligence, 135 Creativity, 139–144 Creativity-relevant process, 141 Criterion-referenced grading, 597, 610–613 Criterion-referenced testing, 596–598 Criterion-related evidence of validity, 595 Critical periods in development, 33 second-language learning, 187 Critical thinking, 364–368 Cross-sectional studies, 18 Crowds, peer groups, 87 Crystallized intelligence, 131 Cueing, 272 Cultural context crystallized intelligence, 131 motivation and, 497 pragmatics, 181 Cultural deficit model, 195–196 Cultural tools, 58–59 Culturally relevant pedagogy, 249–251 Culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 Culture. See also Constructivism academic language proficiency, 190–192 American cultural diversity, 218–222 brain plasticity and, 41 caring relationships and school connections, 526 cognitive development and, 55–56



culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 248–256 Deaf community, 162 definition, 218, 219 dialect differences, 193–194 discontinuity, 253 discrimination, legacy of, 232–235 diversity in learning, 251–256 economic and social class differences, 222–229 ethnicity and race, use of terms, 229–230 example student profiles, 220–221 funds of knowledge, 199–200 gender identity and sexual orientation, 238–239 gender roles and bias, 240–245 immigrant students, teaching of, 194–208 interpreting cultural differences, 221–222 language development, 178–211 language diversity and emergent literacy, 185– 186 lessons for teachers, 253–256 moral development theory, 108–110 moral reasoning, differences in, 112–113 multicultural education, overview, 248–256 parenting and, 83 peer cultures, 87 play, differences in, 77 school achievement, ethnic and racial differences, 230 self-concept and, 104, 105 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 57–62 stereotype threat, 236–239 values and learning preferences, 252 Culture-fair (culture-free) tests, 595–596 Curiosity, motivation and, 484–485 Curriculum compacting, 170 Curriculum examples, Tools of the Mind, 65 Cyber aggression (bullying), 90, 532, 535 dealing with, 536 described, 533 Danielson’s Framework for Teaching, 10–11 Data-driven processing, 304



Deaf students, 130, 161–162 Decay, 314 Decentering, 49 Decision making, 450 Declarative knowledge, 302, 324–328, 330–331, 341 Declarative memory, 317–321 Decoding skills, 182, 185 Deductive skills, 53 Deep knowledge, 372 Deep questions cognitive development, 45, 54 development, 45, 54, 80 facilitating through asking and answering, 391–392 teaching every student, 570, 571 Deficiency needs, 465–466 Defining attribute, 318 Delayed gratification, 442 Deliberate practice cognitive development, 41 cognitive views of learning, 331, 332 complex cognitive processes, 362 social cognitive views of learning and motivation, 430, 442 teaching every student, 537 Dendrites, 35–36 Depth of processing theory, 313–314 Descriptions, combining verbal and graphic descriptions, 317 Descriptive studies, 16–18 Design-based research, 20, 21 Design experiments, 552 Designing classrooms, 452 Desirable difficulty, 324, 327 Development, 32. See also Bioecological model of development; Theory of cognitive development appropriate computer activities, 413–417 argumentation skills, 367 constructivist view of learning, 380–421 definition of, 32–34 general principles of, 34 instruction affecting brain development, 41 language developmental milestones, 178–181 metacognition and, 342–343 moral development, 107–115 observational learning and, 429, 430 physical development, 74–80 psychosocial development (Erikson), 95–107



SU B JEC T IN DEX self-concept, 104–105 self-regulation and, 442–443 theories, 32–34 working memory, 314–315 Developmental crisis, 96 Developmental disability. See Intellectual disabilities; Physical disabilities Developmentally appropriate practice, 63 Deviation IQ, 136 Dewey, John, 14, 382–383, 392, 399, 484 Diabetes, 161 Diagnostic testing, 238 Dialects, 193–194 Dialogue for developing critical thinking skills, 365 as teaching method, 568–573, 572 Differential reinforcement, 273 Differentiated instruction, 576–580, 588–589 Differentiation, 486 Digital age, cognitive development and, 59 Digital literacy, 410–418 Direct instruction, 149, 563–566, 573 Direct reinforcement, 431 Disabilities defined, 128–129 intellectual. See Intellectual disabilities learning. See Learning disabilities physical. See Physical disabilities Disability etiquette, 129–130 Discipline assertive discipline, 540 beliefs about, 509 bullying and cyberbullying, 534 communication, need for, 538–541 consequences to rule violations, 517, 529 culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 discipline without stress® teaching model, 531 high school students, special problems with, 536–537 problem prevention, 522–524 quick response to problems, 527–530 zero tolerance policies, 532 Discipline without Stress Punishments or Rewards, 530, 531 Discontinuous change, 54



Discrimination, 232–235 combating, 238–239 gender expression and sexual orientation, 245–247 Discussion, as teaching method, 568–573, 574 Disequilibrium, 47 Disidentification, 237–238 Disordered eating, 79 Disruptive behavior, ignoring of, 271, 273, 292. See also Classroom management Distractors, multiple choice questions, 600 Distributed learning/practice cognitive development, 43, 45 cognitive view of learning, 325, 330 complex cognitive processes, 350 teaching every student, 579 Distributive justice, 110 Divergent questions, 570 Divergent thinking, 141 Diversity American cultural diversity, overview, 218–222 assessment bias, 595–596, 609 caring relationships and school connections, 526 conflicts and compatibilities, cultural, 221–222 creativity and, 142 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 248–256 culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 discrimination, legacy of, 232–235 economic and social class differences, 222–229 emergent literacy and language diversity, 185–186 ethnicity and race, use of terms, 229–230 example student profiles, 220–221 gender identity and sexual orientation, 238–239 gender roles and bias, 240–245 immigrant students, teaching of, 194–208 intelligence, differences in, 138–139 interpreting cultural differences, 221–222 in learning, 251–256 moral reasoning, 112–113



motivation and, 497 multicultural education, overview, 248–256 parenting styles, 83 school achievement, ethnic and racial differences, 230 stereotype threat, 236–239 trends in education, 4–5 Divorce, 84–86 Domain-relevant skills, 141 Domain-specific knowledge cognitive views of learning, 301–302 vs. coherent knowledge, 373 complex cognitive processes, 352, 355, 356, 358, 362 point/counterpoint, 367 Domain-specific strategies, 333 Dopamine receptors, 131 Drug use and abuse, 157–158 Dual coding theory, 318, 326 Dual-language development, 187–189. See also Bilingualism; English language learners (ELLs) DuBois, W. E. B., 100 Dyslexia, 145 E-journals, 209 Ear learners, 197–198 Eating disorders, 79 Economic factors. See Socioeconomic status (SES) Education, current trends in, 4–8 Education Week, 9 Educational debt, achievement gap and, 230 Educational psychology, defined, 14 EEG (electroencephalograph), 34, 36 Effective instruction delivery, 271 Effective practice, 327 Efficacy, sense of, 5 Ego goals, 471 Egocentric, defined, 49 Egocentric speech, 60–61 Egocentrism, adolescent, 53 Elaborated goals, 470 Elaboration, 324–325 as executive control process, 340, 344, 347, 350, 362 Elaborative rehearsal, 312–313 Electroencephalograph (EEG), 34, 36 Elementary aged children classroom rules for, 516 concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 50–52 first weeks of class, 519–521



S-5



physical development, 74 preoperational stage of development (Piaget), 49–50 psychosocial development (Erikson), 96–97 relationships with teachers, 92–93 self-concept, development of, 104–105 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 60–62 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 6 Embodied cognition, 357–358 Emergent literacy, 181–186 Emotional arousal, 436 Emotional disorders, 154–158, 283 Emotional disturbance, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 154 Emotional support, 554–555 Emotions, 486–490. See also Motivation achievement emotions, 487–488 adolescent brain development, 38–39 amygdala, 34, 35 anxiety, 486–490 brain regions for, 38–39 brain research and, 43–44 emotional intelligence, 450 emotional self-regulation, 449–451 English language learners, 198, 211 neuroscience and, 486–487 observational learning and, 432–433 peer popularity and rejection, 88–89 physical development, 75 relatedness, need for, 466–468 self-concept and, 104, 105 social goals, 472–473 teacher burnout, 438, 451, 452 Empathetic listening, 538–539 Empirical, defined, 22 Enactive learning, 289, 427 Encounter stage of nigrescence, 102 Encouraging positive behaviors, 268–274, 276 Enculturation, 385, 412 Engaged time, 512, 522 Engagement, encouragement of, 522–524 Engineering, 432. See also STEM fields



S-6



S UB J E CT I N DEX



English as a second language (ESL), 202, 341. See also English language learners (ELLs) English for speakers of other languages, 202. See also English language learners (ELLs) English language learners (ELLs), 196–211 cooperative learning and, 407 giftedness, recognizing, 210, 211 immigrant students, 194–208 learners with disabilities, 208–210 standardized testing and, 6 structured English immersion (SEI), 202, 203 teaching approaches, 202–211 trends in education, 4–5 Enrichment, 170 Enthusiasm, 553 Environment, classroom. See Classroom environment; Classroom management Environment, influence of. See also Bioecological model of development adaptations to, 46 effect on development, 33 intelligence, 138–139 practical intelligence, 134 social intuitionist model, moral development, 112–113 student achievement, 226 Epilepsy, 160 Episodic buffer, 309–311 Episodic memory, 321 Epistemological beliefs, 477–478 Equilibration, 47 Erikson, Erik, 96–103 ERP (event-related potential), 34, 36 ESL (English as second language), 341 ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act), 6–7, 19 Essay testing, 600–602 Esteem needs, 465–466 Ethic of care, 109 Ethical issues, behavioral learning theory, 263 Ethnicity American cultural diversity, 218–222 assessment bias, 595–596, 609 caring relationships and school connections, 526



culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 248–256 culturally relevant pedagogy, 249–251 culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 discrimination, legacy of, 232–235 diversity in learning, 251–256 ethnic identity, 100–104 immigrant students, teaching of, 194–208 intelligence, differences in, 138–139 labels and, 130 moral reasoning, 112–113 motivation and, 481 parenting styles, 83 poverty rates, 224–226 pride, racial and ethnic, 103 school achievement and, 230 self-concept, ideas of, 104, 105 stereotype threat, 236–239 trends in education, 4–5 use of term, 229–230 Ethnographic methods, 18, 21 Etiquette, disabilities and, 129–130 Evaluating questions, 559–560, 570 Evaluating skills, metacognition and, 340 Evaluation, motivation and, 495. See also Assessment; Grading Event-related potential (ERP), 34, 36 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), 6–7, 19 Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP), 19 Examples. See also Abstract examples/representations of concepts; Concrete examples/representations of concepts; Worked examples problem solving and, 356–357 Executive control processes, 340–343 Executive functioning, 56 Executive processes, triarchic theory of intelligence, 134 Exemplar, 319 Exercise, 77–78, 78–80 Exhibitions, 604–606 Exit tickets, 603 Expectancy x value theories, 474–475



Expectations, 581–584 academic self-concept and, 226 for students, 128, 427–428 triadic reciprocal causality, 427–428 Experience-dependent neural changes, 37 Experience-expectant neural changes, 37, 38 Experimentation, 17, 21 Expert knowledge, 362–363 Expert reversal effect, 355–356 Expert teachers, 553 Explicit memory, 316–321 Explicit teaching, 563–565, 573 Exploration, 99 Expository organizers, 391 Expressive vocabulary, 179–180 Extended families, 82 External comparisons, selfconcept development, 103 Extinction, 271 Extraneous cognitive load, 312–313 Extrinsic motivation, 463–464 Facilitation constructivist classrooms, 388–392 deep questions, asking and answering, 391–392 Failing, value of, 613–614 Failure-accepting students, 480–481 Failure-avoiding students, 480–481 False growth mindset, 480 Families bioecological model of development, 81–86 changing structure of, 81–82 classroom management, communication about, 538–541 conferences with, 144, 615, 622, 623 connecting with families, 84 discrimination, messages about, 235 English language learners, working with, 198–199 preoperational children, caring for, 50 Family and community partnerships, motivation to learn, 500 Feedback, 8, 12 accomplishment, recognizing, 493–494 cognitive development, 45, 64, 66



complex cognitive processes, 350, 356, 371 constructivism, 385, 388, 395, 396, 397, 400, 401, 408, 410, 414, 418 culture and diversity, 242, 246, 250, 251, 255, 279 development and, 101, 106, 107 goals and, 473–474 language development, 186, 190, 192, 206 learning differences and needs, 149 managing learning environments, 523, 524, 528 motivation in learning and teaching, 469, 473–474, 480, 485–486, 493–494, 496, 498, 500 praise-and-ignore approach, 273 reaching every student, 554–555, 563–565, 568, 571–572, 583 responding to student answers, 571–572 self-regulation, building of, 447 social cognitive views, 427, 430, 435, 436, 445, 447, 448, 452, 453, 454 student attributions and, 477 teaching every student, 554–555 triadic reciprocal causality, 427 Females ADHD diagnoses, 150 assessment bias, 595–596 gender and intelligence, 138–139 gender identity and sexual orientation, 238–239 gender roles and bias, 240–245 genderlects, 194 gifted students, identifying, 169 moral development, 109 self-concept, 105–106 stereotype threat, 236–239 Field experiments, 17 Fill-in-the-blank items, 598–599 Fine-motor skills, 74 Finger spelling, 162 Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, 270 Fixed mindset, 477–479 Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule, 270 Flashbulb memories, 321 Flexibility, 141



SU B JEC T IN DEX Flexible grouping, 576–577 Flexible knowledge, 373 Flipped classroom, 418 Flow, 486 Fluency disorder, 152, 153 Fluid intelligence, 131 Flynn effect, 136–137 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 34, 36 Focal seizures, 160 Focus, executive functioning, 56 Focusing, 49 Forgetting, memory and, 314, 323 Formal operational stage of development, 48, 52–54 Formative assessment, 593, 596–597, 602–606, 613, 616, 624 constructivism, 395 diagnostic testing, 238 Formative testing, 202. See also CLEAR model for teaching gifted students Framework for Teaching, 10–11 Free, appropriate public education (FAPE), 141 Frequent testing, 600. See also Testing effect cognitive views of learning, 325 complex cognitive processes, 371 culture and diversity, 250 retrieval practice, 327–328 Freud, Sigmund, 33 Friendships, 87–89 Frontal lobe, brain, 34, 35, 39, 146 Functional behavioral assessments (FBA), 284–285 Functional fixedness, 360 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 34, 36 Funds of knowledge, 199–200 g (general intelligence), 131 g (mental energy), 131 Games, digital media and learning, 412–413 Gardner, Howard, 131–134 Gates Foundation, 11–12 Gay students, 238–239, 243–245, 243–247 Gender ADHD diagnoses, 150 assessment bias, 595–596 drug use and abuse, 157 gender biases, 242–245



gender expression, 239, 245–247 gender identity, 239–240 gender roles, 239, 240–242 gender schemas, 240–241 gifted students, identifying, 169 goal setting and stereotypes, 481 intelligence, differences in, 138–139 moral development, 109 self-concept and, 105–106 stereotype threat, 236–239 Gender expression, 239, 245–247 Gender identity, 239–240 Genderlects, 194 General intelligence (g), 131 General knowledge, 301–302 General learning disability. See Intellectual disabilities; Learning disabilities Generalizability, scoring rubrics, 609 Generalized tonic-clonic seizures, 160 Generation 1.5, 197–198 Generative learning, 326 Generativity, 100 Genetics effect on development, 32, 33, 46 intelligence and, 139 Germane cognitive load, 312 Gestalt, 304–305 Gifted and talented students adaptive teaching, 576–580 cooperative learning, use of, 407–408 English language learners and, 210, 211 identification of, 168–169, 210, 211 overview, 166–170 racial and ethnic discrimination and, 235 research on, 15 teaching of, 170 Girls. See Females Glial cells, 38 Global self-esteem, 103, 106 Goal-directed actions, 48 Goal orientations, 469–474, 487 Goal structure, 494–495 Goals, 441, 469–474 achievement emotions, 487 epistemological beliefs and, 477–478 feedback, goal framing, and goal acceptance, 473–474 goal setting, observational learning, 429, 437, 446



learning targets, 556–559, 561–562, 570 motivation to learn and, 491 self-management and goalsetting, 287–288 student self-worth and, 480–482 Good behavior game, 279 Google Apps, 410–411 Grade-equivalent scores, 619 Grade retention, 613–614 Grading, 610–615 effects on students, 613–614 Guidelines for, 616–617 motivation and, 495, 613 norm-referenced vs. criterionreferenced, 610–613 Grading on a curve, 611–612 Gradual change, 33 Graduation rates, 230 Grammar skills, developmental milestones, 180–181 Grand mal seizures, 160 Graphemes, 182, 183 Gray matter, 35 Grit, 442, 444–445 Gross-motor skills, 74 Group consequences, 279 Group discussion, 572–573, 574 Group focus, 524 Groups assigning roles in cooperative groups, 403 collaboration and cooperation, 399–401 misuses of, 400–401 motivation and, 494–495 preparing students for, 403–404 setting up, 403–404 tasks for cooperative learning, 402 within-class and flexible grouping, 576–577 Growth assessment, 593, 596, 597, 624 Growth mindset, 238, 477–479 Guided participation, 396 Guidelines adolescents, positive body images, 80 aggression, dealing with, 91 anxiety, coping with, 490 attention, gaining and maintaining, 308 becoming expert students, 363 caring relationships, 528 children of divorce, helping, 86 class routines, 515 classical conditioning, application of, 265



S-7



classroom management, 545 computers, use of, 415 concrete-operational stage, teaching tips, 52 conferences, productive, 144 conferences, tips for, 623 connecting with families, 84 cooperative learning, 408 creativity, applying and encouraging, 144 culturally relevant teaching, 255 deep questions, facilitating through asking and answering, 392 direct instruction, 566 disciplining students with emotional problems, 156 emotional self-regulation, 451 English language learners, support for, 199 explosive situations, handling of, 537 family and community partnerships, 201, 545 flexible grouping, 577 formal operational stage of development, 54 gender bias, avoiding, 246 grading systems, 616–617 group discussions, 574 helping students understand and remember, 332 homework, 569 identity formation, supporting, 101 initiative and industry, encouraging, 98 intellectual disabilities, students with, 159 interest and curiosity, building on, 485 IQ scores, interpreting, 137 language and literacy promotion, 186 language learning, promotion of, 192 learning space, designing of, 520 learning targets, 562 media literacy development, 417 motivation to learn, family and community partnerships, 500 observational learning, use of, 433 organizing learning, 325 penalties, imposing of, 530 physical differences in classroom, 76 portfolios, creating, 608



S-8



S UB J E CT I N DEX



Guidelines (continued ) positive behaviors, encouraging, 276 poverty, teaching students who live in, 228 praise, appropriate use of, 274 preoperational children, caring for, 49 preparing for testing, 626–627 problem solving skill development, 361 punishment, use of, 282 rubrics, development of, 609 self-determination and autonomy, supporting, 469 self-efficacy, encouraging, 437 self-management, student, 288 self-worth, encouraging, 482 standardized test results, explaining, 623 student engagement, 523 teacher expectations, 584 transfer of learning, 372 Vygotsky’s theory, applying in teaching, 66 welcoming all families, 201 writing objective test items, 601 Haidt, Jonathan, 112–113 Hall, G. Stanley, 14 Handicap, 128–129 Hawking, Stephen, 128 Headline writing, 209 Health, student achievement and, 226 Hearing impairments, 161–162 Heredity, intelligence and, 139 Heritage language, 188–189 Heuristics, 359 Hierarchy of needs, 465–466 High functioning autism spectrum disorder, 162–165 High-Leverage Teaching Practices, TeachingWorks, 12 High school-aged children. See also Adolescents classroom arrangement, 521 classroom rules for, 516 effective managers of, 521, 522 first weeks of class, 521–522 formal operational stage (Piaget), 52–54 peers, influence of, 86–92 physical development, 75 psychosocial development (Erikson), 97–99



relationships with teachers, 92–93 self-concept, development of, 104–105 special problems with, 536–537 transition to high-school, caring communities, 526–527 High-stakes testing, 622–625 Higher-order thinking, 131 Highlighting, as learning strategy, 346 Highly mobile students, 224 Highly structured, review, and skill-building tasks, 402 Hippocampus, 34, 35 Hispanic students. See Latina/o Americans Home environment. See Environment, influence of Homelessness, 224 Homework, 563–564, 567–569 Homosexual students, 238–239 Homosexuality “fag” as bullying chant, 528 LGBTQ students, 221, 238–239, 243–247 Hostile aggression, 89 Housekeeping, 514, 515 Human agency, 434. See also Self-agency Hyperactivity disorders, 77, 89, 147, 149–152 Hypothalamus, 35 Hypothesis/hypotheses, definition, 22 Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 53 “I” message, 539 Identity, 50 defined, 96 psychosocial development (Erikson), 95–107 racial and ethnic identity, 100–104 technology and, 100 Identity achievement, 99 Identity diffusion, 99 Identity-first reference, 130 Identity foreclosure, 99 IEP (Individualized Education Plan), 142–144, 159 IES Practice Guides, 19, 319, 330, 349, 355, 390–392, 570, 602 Ignoring behaviors, 271, 273, 292 Illusion of understanding, 141 Imagery, meaningful connections, 325–327 Images, 317–318 Imaginary audience, 53



Imaging techniques, brain, 34–36 Imitative learning, 64 Immersion/emersion stage of nigrescence, 102 Immersion strategies structured English immersion (SEI), 202, 203 two-way immersion, 205 Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE), 412–413 Immigrant students, teaching of, 194–208 Implicit memory, 316, 321–322 Importance value, 475 Impulse control adolescents, 40 executive functioning, development of, 56 psychosocial development (Erikson), 96–97 Tools of the Mind, 65 Incentives, 463–464, 474, 499 INCLUDE strategy, 579–580 Inclusion, 142 Inclusive classrooms, differentiated instruction, 578–579 Indicators, 557 Individual interests, 482–484 Individualized Education Plan (IEP), 142–144, 159 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 141–145, 146 assistive technology, 579–580 autism spectrum, 162–165 emotional and behavioral disorders, 154 emotional disturbance, defined, 154 intellectual disabilities, 158, 159 positive behavior supports, 283, 285–286 response to intervention (RTI), 163–165 Inductive reasoning, 53 Industry, 97–99 Infants brain development, 35–40 psychosocial development (Erikson), 96 sensorimotor stage (Piaget), 48–49 theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 48 Inferiority, psychosocial development (Erikson), 97–99 Inferring relationships, 53 Informal assessments, 603–604



Information, motivation and, 467–468 Information processing, 302–324 Information retrieval, memory, 322–323 Initiative, 96–97 Inquiry learning, 392–396 Inside-out skills, 182–183, 184 Insight, 134, 342 Instructed learning, 64 Instruction. See Teaching Instructional objectives, 556 Instructional support, 554–555 Instructional time, 511–512 Instrumental aggression, 89 Integration, 142, 486 ethnic identities and, 100–103 Integrity, 100 Intellectual disabilities. See also Learning disabilities behavioral views of learning, 278, 283, 285–286 development and, 77–78 learner differences and learning needs, 158–159 Intelligence cultural influences and, 219 defining, 130–131 gender differences, 138–139 gifted and talented students, 166–170 measures of, 135–138 neuroscience and, 129 as process, 134–135 student beliefs about, 478–479 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 136–138 Interest areas/learning spaces, classroom planning, 519, 520 Interest value, 475 Interests, motivation and, 482–484 Interference, 314 Interim (growth) assessment, 593, 596, 597, 624 Interleaved practice, 327–328 Intermittent reinforcement schedule, 270 Internal comparisons, selfconcept development, 103 Internalization and internalizationcommitment stages of nigrescence, 102 Internalize, 113 International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, 42 Interpersonal intelligence, 131–134



SU B JEC T IN DEX Intersectionality, 221 Intersubjective attitude, 387 Interval schedule, 270 Interventions, autism spectrum disorders, 163–164 Intimacy, 100 Intrapersonal intelligence, 131–134 Intrinsic cognitive load, 312–313 Intrinsic motivation, 463–464 Intrinsic task motivation, 142 Intrinsic value, 475, 498–499 IRE (initiation, response, evaluation), 568 Irving, John, 139 James, William, 14 Jigsaw classroom, 406, 407–408 Journal of Educational Psychology, 14 Journals, 209, 603 Keyword method, 329 Khan, Salman, 418 Kinesthetic learning styles, 139, 140 Knowledge cognition and, 301–302 construction of, internal and external processes, 384–385 construction of, teaching implications, 63–64 constructivist views of learning, 382–386 epistemological beliefs about, 477–478 executive functioning, development of, 56 expert knowledge and problem solving, 362–363 expert teachers, 553 making meaningful connections, 324–328 metacognition and, 340–341 pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 553 self-regulation and, 440–441 situated and general knowledge, 384–385 Knowledge acquisition components, intelligence, 134–135 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 108–110 KWL (know, want, learn) strategy, 342, 349 Labels for students, 128–130 possible bias in application of, 124 Laboratory School, University of Chicago, 14



Language, defined, 497 Language development. See also Bilingualism; English language learners (ELLs) academic language, 190–192 autism spectrum disorders, 162–163 brain plasticity and, 41 brain regions for, 39 cultural differences, 178–211 developmental milestones, 178–181 diversity in, 185–192. See also Language diversity dual-language development, 187–189 emergent literacy, 181–186 encouraging, 153 gender differences, 138–139 preoperational stage of development, 49–50 second-language learning, 187–188 signed language, 189 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) on, 59–60 theory of multiple intelligences, 131–134 Language disabilities communication disorders, 152–153 language disorders, 153 neuroscience and, 145–146 Language diversity. See also Bilingualism; English language learners (ELLs) dialects, 193–194 emergent literacy and, 185–186 immigrant students, teaching of, 194–208 native-language maintenance instruction, 203 second-language learning, 187–188 semilingual, 202, 203 Language loss, 188–189 Langue des Signes Quebecoise (LSQ), 189 Lateralization, 38–39 Latina/o Americans advanced degrees, rates of, 235 culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 discrimination, legacy of, 232–235 diversity in learning, 251–256 graduation rates, 230 poverty rates, 224–226 stereotype threat, 236–239 Learned helplessness, 148–149, 480



Learner differences. See also Learning disabilities adaptive teaching, 576–580 defining intelligence, 130–131 gender differences and, 138–139 gifted and talented students, 166–170 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 141–145 intelligence as process, 134–135 language and labels, 128–130 learning and thinking styles, 139–141 measuring intelligence, 135–138 referrals, process for, 165 types of learners, 568 Learning. See also Behavioral learning theories; Cognitive view of learning; Learning challenges; Learning disabilities; Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) behavioral views of learning, 262 brain regions and, 34–35 classroom time for, 511–512 cognitive development and, 62 constructivist views of, 382–386 diversity in, 251–256 epistemological beliefs about, 477–478 instructed learning, 64 motivation to learn, 491–500 neuroscience and, 39–44 performance and, 289–292 self-efficacy and, 436–438 social cognitive views, 454, 455 value of, promoting, 498–499 Learning challenges, 145– 165. See also Learning disabilities neuroscience and, 145–146 Learning disabilities, 146–149 adaptive teaching, 576–580 autism spectrum disorders, 162–165 communication disorders, 152–153 cooperative learning, use of, 407–408 emotional and behavioral disorders, 154–158 focusing attention, 341–342



S-9



health and sensory impairments, 159–162 high-stakes tests and, 627 hyperactivity and attention disorders, 149–152 intellectual disabilities, 158–159 labels and language, 128–130 note taking strategies, 347 overview of, 146–149 production deficiencies, 350 referrals, process for, 165 response to intervention (RTI), 163–165 Learning goals, 471 Learning management system (LMS), 411–412 Learning preferences, 139-141, 251–253 Learning sciences cognitive apprenticeships, 396–398 collaboration and cooperation, 399–401 constructivist perspectives, application of, 380–421 constructivist student-centered teaching, 386–387 constructivist views of learning, 382–386 cooperative learning, 399– 407 defined, 388 digital media, learning and, 410–418 inquiry and problem-based learning, 392–396 reciprocal teaching, 397–398 Learning Skills Research Centre, 139 Learning spaces/interest areas, classroom planning, 519, 520 Learning strategies, 343–351 application of, 350 attention, 344, 345, 350 note taking, 346–347 organizing, visual tools for, 347–349 reading strategies, 350 for struggling students, 350 students with learning disabilities, 148, 149 summaries, 345–346 transfer of learning, 368–372 underlining and highlighting, 346 Learning styles, 139–141, 251–253 problems with, 139–140 Learning targets, 556–559, 561–562, 570 Least restrictive environment (LRE), 142



S-10



SU B J E CT I N DEX



Left brain learning, 42 Legal issues Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 145 child abuse, 93–94 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 141–145 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 144–145 Legally blind, 161 Lesbians, 238–239 Lesson study, 556 Letter naming, 182 Levels of processing theory, 313–314 LGBTQ students, 221, 238–239, 243–247 Limited bilingual students, 202. See also English language learners (ELLs) Limited capacity, 313, 326 Limited English proficient (LEP), 202–208 Lingua de Signos Nicaraguense, 189 Linguistic intelligence, 131–134 Lip reading, 162 Listening empathetic listening, 538–539 phonological loop, 309–312 Literacy emergent literacy, 181–186 language diversity and emergent literacy, 185–186 media and digital literacy, 410–418 Literature response groups, teaching English language learners, 204–205 Loci method, 329 Locus of causality, 463, 476, 493 Logical consequences, 517, 529 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 131–134 Long-term memory, 316 capacity and duration of, 316–317 explicit (declarative) memories, 316–321 implicit memories, 316, 321–322 individual differences, 324 information processing system, 303 retrieving information, 322–323 Longitudinal studies, 18 Low expectations, 226 Low vision, defined, 161 Lower class, defined, 223



Magic middle, 65–66 Mainstreaming, 142 Maintenance rehearsal, 312 Males ADHD diagnoses, 150 drug use and abuse, 157 gender and intelligence, 138–139 gender identity and sexual orientation, 238–239 gender roles and bias, 240–245 genderlects, 194 stereotype threat, 236–239 Manipulatives, 63–64 Mapping, Cmaps, 348–349 Maslow, Abraham, 465–466 Massed practice, 330 Massive multi-player online games (MMOGs), 413 Mastery experiences, 435, 436 Mastery goals, 471–472, 487 Mastery-oriented students, 480–481 Matching exercises, 598–599 Mathematics and mathematic skills, 432. See also STEM fields comprehension and problem solving, 354, 355, 359 ethnic and racial achievement data, 230–231 gender differences, 138–139 learning disabilities, 145, 146, 147 neuroscience and, 145, 146 self-concept and, 103–105 stereotype threat, 236–238 technology, use of, 59 Maturation, 32, 46, 75–76 Mean, test scores, 615–617 Meaning, knowledge construction and, 313 Meaning, language development, 179–180 Means-ends analysis, 359 Measurement, 592–593 data-based decision making, 592 intelligence, measures of, 135–138 standard error of, 594 Measures of Teaching Effectiveness (MET) Project, 11–12 Media aggressive behavior and, 90–91 effects of, 94–95 impact of, 4–5 literacy, 410–418 prejudice and, 234, 235



Media literacy, 410–418 Median, test scores, 616 Mediation of mental processes, 59 Medulla oblongata, 35 Melting pot, 195 Memory cognitive load and retaining information, 311–314 emotions, neuroscience of, 487 executive control processes, 340 executive functioning, development of, 56 explicit memory, 316–321 implicit memory, 316, 321–322 individual differences, 314–315, 324 information processing system, 302–304 learning strategies, 346, 347 long-term memory, 316–324 mnemonics, 328–329 neuroscience of, 146 problem solving schemas, 356, 357, 359, 362 retrieval practice, 340, 349–350 robust knowledge, 373 rote memorization, 329–330 sensory memory, 304 short-term memory, 303, 309–310 working memory, 131, 309–316 Menarche, 75 Mental age, 136 Mental retardation. See Intellectual disabilities Mentorship, for developing critical thinking skills, 365 Metacognition, 340–343 development of, 342–343 executive control processes, 340 individual differences, 341 KWL (know, want, learn) strategy, 342, 349 self-regulation and, 439, 440 Metalinguistic awareness, 181 Microgenetic studies, 18 Middle class, defined, 223 Middle school aged children concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 50–52 peers, influence of, 86–92 psychosocial development (Erikson), 97–99 relationships with teachers, 92–93



self-concept, development of, 104–105 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 60–62 Mindful abstraction, 369 Mindfulness training, 451 Minority group, 229 Mirror systems, 300 Mixed methods, research, 19, 21 Mnemonics, 328–329 CAPS, 349 INCLUDE strategy, 579 as learning strategy, 344, 346, 350 READS, 350 TREE, 149 Mode, test scores, 616 Modeling, 426, 435 aggressive behavior, 90–91 cognitive behavior modification, 448 observational learning, 429–433 triadic reciprocal causality, 427 Moderately difficult goals, 470 Monitoring skills, 341, 362 Monolingual children, 187, 196 Moodle, 411, 418 Moral development, 107–115 Moral dilemmas, 108 Moral judgments, 111 Moral realism, 111 Moral reasoning, 108 Morality of cooperation, 111 Moratorium, 99 Morphemes, 147 Morphological awareness, 147 Motivation, 343, 345, 351, 371, 429, 462. See also Behavioral learning theories attribution theories, 475–477 autonomy, support of, 493–494 beliefs and, 477–482 classroom strategies, summary of, 498–499 curiosity and, 484–485 diversity in, 497 emotions and anxiety, 477, 486–490 evaluation and grading, 495 expectancy x value theories, 474–475 flow, 486 general approaches to, 462–465 goals and goal orientations, 469–474 grades and, 613 grouping and goal structures, 494–495



S U B J EC T INDEX interests, tapping of, 482–484 intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, 463–464 intrinsic task motivation, 142 learning, motivation for, 491–500 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 465–466 needs and, 465–469 observational learning and, 431 recognition of accomplishment, 493–494 self-determination and, 465–469 self-efficacy and, 437 self-regulation and, 441 time available for tasks, 495 and transfer, 369, 371 triadic reciprocal causality, 427–428 Motivation to learn, 491–500 Motor skills, development and, 41, 48–49, 56, 65, 74–76 Movement, theory of multiple intelligence, 131–134 Movement management, 514, 524 Moving residences, impact on students, 224 Mozart effect, 42 Multicultural education, 248 creation of culturally compatible classrooms, 248–256 diversity in learning, 251–256 lessons for teachers, 253–256 overview of, 248–256 Multimedia learning activities, 410–418 Multiple-choice tests, 598–601 Multiple representations of content, 387 Multitasking, 306–307 Musical intelligence, 131–134 Myelination, 38 National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), 166 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 63 Native Americans, 235, 251– 256 Native-language maintenance instruction, 203 Natural (logical) consequences, 517, 529 Naturalist intelligence, 131–134 Nature vs. nurture, 33, 139, 167 Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT), 35, 36 Need for autonomy, 466–467



Need for competence, 466–467 Need for relatedness, 466–468 Needs, 465–469 Negative behavior functional behavioral assessments, 284–285 ignoring of, 271, 273, 292 response to, 280–283 Negative correlation, 16 Negative reinforcement, 268– 269, 280–281, 285 Neglect, child, 93–94 Neglected children indicators of child abuse, 94 in peer popularity, 88, 89 Neglecting parents, 83 Negotiations, 540 Neo-Piagetian theories, 56–57 Nervous system, brain development, 34–41 Neurogenesis, 35–37 Neuromyths, 42–43 Neurons, 35–38, 41 Neuroscience behavioral learning and, 269–270 cognitive learning and the brain, 300–301 emotion and, 486–487 forgetting, memory and, 314 learning and teaching implications, 39–44 of learning challenges, 145–146 Neutral stimulus, 265 Nigrescence, 102 NIR-OT (near-infrared optical tomography), 35, 36 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2002), 6, 19 Nonacademic self-concept, 103–106 Norm groups, 597 Norm-referenced grading, 610–613 Norm-referenced testing, 596–597 Normal distribution, 618, 620 Note taking skills, 346–347 Obama, Barack, 6 Obesity, 78–79 Object permanence, 48 Observational learning, 289, 427, 429, 430–433 Occipital lobe, 35, 39 Offensiveness, 595 Open-source software, 411 Operant conditioning, 266–272 challenges and criticisms, 289–291 encouraging positive behaviors, 268–274, 276 praise, 273, 274



punishment, 263, 268–270, 279–282 Operants, defined, 266 Operations, 49 Opportunity gaps, 230 Organization, 325, 552–555 Organization of thoughts, Piaget on, 46–47 Organizational skills, 424, 458–459 Organizing, learning strategies, 346, 347–349 Originality, 141 Outcome expectations, 429 Outside-in skills, 182–183, 184 Overlapping, 524 Overlearning, 371 Overregularize, 180 Overt aggression, 89 Overweight children and obesity, 78–79 Pacific Islanders, 230 Paraphrase rule, 538 PARCC tests, 625 Parenting styles, 82–83 Parietal lobe, brain, 35, 39 Part learning, 330 Participant observation, 18 Participants/subjects, research, 17 Participation structures, 253, 511, 516 Participatory appropriation, 396 Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC), 625 Passive construction, language development, 181 Pavlov, Ivan, 265 PBWorks, 411 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 553 Peer cultures, 87 bioecological model of development, 86–92 poverty, effect of, 226–227 social goals, 472–473 Peer mediation, 542 Penalties. See Discipline Percentile rank scores, 618–619 Perception, 304–306 Performance assessments, 604–609 Performance components, triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 134–135 Performance goals, 471–472, 487 Permissive parents, 83



S-11



Person-first language, 129–130 Personal caring, 92–93 Personal choice, 110, 111 Personal development, 32, 33 Personal interest, 463, 493 Personal learning environment (PLE), 411–412 Personal learning network (PLN), 412 Personal territories, classroom planning, 518–519 Personality, learning and thinking styles, 139–141 Perspective-taking ability, 108 Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), 162–165 PET (positron emission tomography) scans, 34, 36 Petit mal seizures, 160 Phoneme-grapheme correspondence, 182, 183 Phonemic awareness, 147, 188 Phonological awareness, 182, 183 Phonological loop, 309–312 Physical abuse of children, 93–94 Physical activity, 76–78 Physical development, 32, 33 eating disorders, 79–80 obesity, 78–79 overview, 74–76 play, recess, and physical activity, 76–77 Physical disabilities adaptive teaching, 576–580 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 145 assistive technology, 579–580 cooperative learning, use of, 407–408 English language learners, 208–210 high-stakes tests and, 627 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 141–145 language and labels, 128–130 physical activity and, 77–78 positive behavior supports (PBS), 283, 285–286 trends in education, 4 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 144–145 Physical neglect of children, 93–94 Physiological arousal, 436 Physiological needs, 465–466 Piaget, Jean, 33, 45–57, 383, 385, 400, 406, 455. See also Theory of cognitive development (Piaget)



S-12



SU B J E CT I N DEX



Pituitary gland, 35 Planning, of instructional content constructivist approaches, 561–562 design process, 575 flexible and creative plans, 559–561 learning targets, 556–559, 561–562 research on, 555–556 Understanding by Design (UbD), 573–574 Planning tasks, students Framework for Teaching, 10–11 learning strategies, 346 metacognition and, 341 problem solving and, 362–363 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 60 Plasticity, brain, 35–37, 41, 43 culture and, 41 synaptic plasticity, 35–37 Play cultural differences and, 77 physical development and, 76–77 value of, 76–77 Podcasts academic optimism, 582 brain-based education, 41 classroom management, 511 cooperative learning, 399 cultural differences, 219 efficacy judgments, 437 learning theories, differences in, 301 positive and negative reinforcements, 268 procrastination, 480 self-efficacy, 435, 480 student sense of self, 103 teacher involvement, importance of, 7 as teaching tool, 141, 209 test taking skills, 596 understanding cultural differences, 196 Point/Counterpoint ADHD, pills or skills, 151 brain-based education, 42–43 building self-esteem, schools role, 107 Common Core standards, value of, 558 English language learners, teaching strategies, 203 gender differences and teaching, 244–245 grade retention, 614 grit, 444



inquiry and problem-based teaching approaches, 396–397 making learning fun, 484 multitasking, 307 research as guide to education, 20 rewards for learning, 290– 291 teaching of critical thinking and problem solving skills, 367 zero tolerance policies, 532 Pons, 35 Popular children, 88, 89 Popularity, 88–89 Portfolios, 604–608 Positive behavior supports (PBS), 283, 285–286 Positive correlation, 16 Positive practice, 275 Positive reinforcement, 268– 272 Positron emission tomography (PET) scans, 34, 36 Poverty achievement gap and, 230– 231 assessment bias, 595–596 gifted and talented students, identifying, 169 rates of, 224–226 student achievement and, 224–229 trends in education, 4 Practical intelligence, 134, 135 Practice. See also Deliberate practice; IES Practice Guides; Retrieval practice brain, retrieval practice/ testing effect, 349 deliberate practice, 331 developmentally appropriate practice, 63 distributed learning/practice, 330, 350 interleaved practice, 327–328 as learning strategy, 346, 374 massed practice, 330 memory, retrieval practice, 340, 349–350 positive practice, 275 retrieval practice, 327–328, 340, 349–350 Pragmatics, 253 of classroom, 253 language skills, 181 Praise-and-ignore approach, 273 PRAXIS II ADHD, 150 alternatives to standardized testing, 625 antecedents, 271



applied behavior analysis, 272 attention, 304 attribution theory, 475 authentic tests, 604 bilinguial Issues, 187 Characteristics of Cooperative Learning, 399 concepts of standardized testing, 615 criterion-/norm-referenced tests, 597 cultural and gender differences in the classroom, 221 developing basic skills, 331 Discovery Learning, 394 distinctions between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories, 65 economic conditions/ socioeconomic status (SES), 222 encouraging/discouraging behaviors, 274 Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development, 96 families, 83 Forms of Cooperative Learning, 406 gender bias, 242 implications of Vygotsky’s theory, 64 individual education programs (IEP), 143 instructional objectives, 556 intelligence testing, 136 interpreting achievement tests, 620 the larger community, 218 learning by association, 264 learning/cognitive styles, 139 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 465 memory and instruction, 309 memory and recall, 322 memory strategies, 329 modeling, 435 moral development, 112 multicultural education, 248 multiple intelligences, 131 observational learning, 431 operant conditioning, basics of, 266 planning thematic units, 561 portfolio assessment, 606 prior knowledge, 328 procedures and routines to minimize confusion and misbehavior, 514 promoting intrinsic motivation to learn, 464 questioning, 568 racial bias, 233



scoring rubrics, 607 self-determination, 466 self-regulation, 449 standardized testing: major issues, 624 Student-Centered Learning, 386 TARGET model, 491 taxonomies of educational objectives, 559 teacher-centered instruction, 563 teacher professionalism, 9, 13 teacher’s role in studentcentered instruction, 576 teaching and management, 283 teaching concepts, 318 test anxiety, 488 traditional assessment, 596 types of assessment, 592 Pre-encounter nigrescence, 102 Precorrection, 286 Preferences, learning, 139 Prejudice, 233 Premack principle, 273–274 Preoperational stage of development, 48, 49–50 Preparation tasks, 10–11 Preschool-aged children physical development, 74 psychosocial development (Erikson), 96–97 self-concept, development of, 104–105 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 60–62 Presentation punishment, 268 Pretest, 593 Priming, 322 Principle, defined, 22 Prior knowledge. See also Scaffolding cognitive views of learning, 324, 328, 331 complex cognitive processes, 346, 347 constructivism, 385, 388, 390, 392, 396–397, 412 managing learning environments, 544 motivation in learning and teaching, 478 social cognitive views of learning and motivation, 455 teaching every student, 563, 564, 576, 577, 581 Private speech, 59–61 Probing questions. See Deep questions Problem, defined, 352



S U B J EC T INDEX Problem-based learning, 392–396, 492–493 defined, 394 inquiry and, 392–396 research on, 395 Problem solving, 19–20, 351–364 attention, 353, 362 cognitive development, 52 cognitive processes, 351–364 cognitive views of learning, 323, 328, 331, 333 complex cognitive processes, 350, 351–364, 367–373 creativity, 139–144 crystallized intelligence, 131 culture and diversity, 228, 236, 250, 287 defining goals and representing the problem, 354–358 examples and, 356–357 expert knowledge and, 362–363 learning differences and needs, 146, 147, 162 learning disabilities, 146, 147 mathematics comprehension and problem solving, 354, 355, 359 memory, problem solving schemas, 356, 357, 359, 362 planning tasks and, 362–363 Point/Counterpoint, 367 problem identification, 352 procedural knowledge and, 362 reconstruction, 323 representations and, 353, 355, 358 robust knowledge, 373 schema-driven, 355–358 self-concept and, 103, 104 skill development, 352, 361 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 58–61. See also Scaffolding successful intelligence, 128 teaching of critical thinking and problem solving skills, 367 translation and, 355–358 triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 134–135 well structured vs. ill structured problems, 352 Procedural fairness, 595 Procedural knowledge, 302 development of, 331–333 metacognition and, 341 problem solving and, 362 Procedural memory, 322



Procedures, classroom, 514–518 Process portfolio, 606–607 Production, observational learning and, 430 Production deficiencies, 350 Productions, 322 Productive Thinking Program, 367 Professional organizations, 13 Professional responsibilities, 19 Framework for Teaching, 10–11 Programming languages, digital literacy, 416 Project Look Sharp, 416–417 Promotive interaction, 399–400 Pronunciation, dialects and, 193 Propositional networks, 317 Prototype, 318 Proximal development, zone of (ZPD), 61–62 Proximal goals, 470 Pruning, synapses, 36–38 Psychological tools, 59 Psychomotor domain, 561 Psychosocial, defined, 96 Psychosocial development (Erikson), 95–107 Puberty, 75 Punishment, 263, 268–270, 279–282 Pygmalion effect, 581 Qualitative change, 33 Qualitative research, 18–19, 20 Quantitative change, 33 Quantitative research, 18, 19, 20 Quasi-experimental studies, 17 Quebec Sign Language, 189 Questioning. See also Deep questions as teaching method, 568–573 Race. See also Diversity American cultural diversity, 218–222 assessment bias, 595–596, 609 caring relationships and school connections, 526 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 248–256 culturally relevant pedagogy, 249–251 culturally responsive classroom management, 543–544 discrimination, legacy of, 232–235 diversity in learning, 251–256



drug use and abuse, 157 immigrant students, teaching of, 194–208 intelligence, differences in, 138–139 labels and, 130 moral reasoning, 112–113 motivation and, 477, 481 parenting styles, 83 poverty rates, 224–226 racial identity, 100–104 school achievement and, 230–231 self-concept, ideas of, 104, 105 stereotype threat, 236–239 trends in education, 4–5 use of term, 229–230 Racial and ethnic pride, 103 Racism, 233–235 Radical constructivism, 383 Random, 17 Range, test scores, 617 Ratio schedule, 270 Reading brain research and, 42–43 cognitive apprenticeships, 397–398 cultural differences, 41 emergent literacy, 181–186 language diversity and emergent literacy, 185– 186 learning disabilities, overview, 146–149 neuroscience and, 145, 146 poverty, student achievement and, 225, 227–228 summer reading programs, 227–228 READS, 350 Receptive vocabulary, 179–180 Recess, importance of, 77 Reciprocal questioning, 405– 406 Reciprocal teaching, 397–398 Recitation, 568–573 Recognition, providing, 493– 494 Reconstruction, 323 Reflective teachers, 10, 553 Refugees, 195–196 Rehearsal, executive control process, 340 Reinforcement, 267, 320 classical conditioning, 265–266 encouraging positive behaviors, 268–274, 276 observational learning and, 431 schedules, 270–271 Reinforcer, 267 Rejected children, 88–89



S-13



Rejecting parents, 83 Rejection, peer groups, 88–89 Relatedness, need for, 466–468 Relational aggression, 89, 90 Relationship skills, emotional self-regulation, 450. See also Social skills Relationships creating culturally compatible classrooms, 251 inferring, 53 Reliability, assessments, 593– 594, 609 Remarriage rates, 85 Remembering. See Memory Remembering questions, 559– 560, 570 Removal punishment, 269, 281, 282 Representations cognitive development theories and, 57 problem solving and, 353, 355, 358 Representativeness heuristics, 360 Reprimands, 281 Research descriptive studies, types of, 16–18 as guide to education, debate about, 19–20 insights from, 15 methods, summary chart, 21 role of time in, 18 in support of student learning, summary chart, 23–24 teachers as researchers, 19–21 theories for teaching, 22–23 Resistance culture, 227 Respondents, 265 Response, contiguity and, 264 Response cost, 280, 281, 283 Response set, 360 Response to intervention (RtI), 163–165 Restorative justice, 542–543 Restructuring, 142 Retention, observational learning and, 430 Retention in grade, 613–614 Retrieval, 322–323 Retrieval practice cognitive views of learning, 327–328 complex cognitive processes, 342, 346, 348, 349–350, 371, 374 Reversibility, 50 Reversible thinking, 49 Rewards, 463–464, 474, 499 Right brain learning, 42–43



S-14



SU B J E CT I N DEX



Ripple effect, 432 Risk taking behavior, adolescents, 40 Roam and review, 209 Robust knowledge, 372–374 Roles, cooperative learning groups, 403 Rosenshine’s six teaching functions, 563–564 Rote memorization, 329–330 Routines, classroom, 514, 515 Rubrics, scoring, 606–609 Rules, classroom, 514–518 Safety needs, 465–466 SBAC tests, 625 Scaffolding advance organizers as, 390–391 constructivism and, 386, 388, 389–391 development and, 61–62, 64, 65 Scheduling, learning tasks, 495 Schemas, 235, 319–320, 355–358 cognitive load theory, 356 embodied cognition, 357 schema-driven problem solving, 355–358 self-explanation, 356 worked examples, 355–357 Schemes, 47–49, 56–57 School connections, 524–526 Science, 432. See also STEM Scientifically based research, 18 Scoring rubrics, 606–609 Script, 322 Scripted cooperation, 564–565 Seating arrangements, 518–519 Seatwork, 565–566 Second-language learning, 187–188. See also Bilingualism common errors and accomplishments, 191 Secondary school students. See High school-aged children Section 504, 144–145 Seizure disorders, 160 Selected-response tests, 598–600 Self-actualization, 465–466 Self-agency, 251 Self-awareness, 450 Self-concept, 103–106, 434 defined, 103 development of, 104–105 gender differences, 105–106 poverty, effect of, 226 psychosocial development (Erikson), 95–107 structure of, 103–104



Self-control, 442. See also Selfregulation Self-determination culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 251 motivation and, 465–469, 480 Self-efficacy, 476–477 agency and, 434–439 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 251 social cognitive theory and, 434–439 teachers’ sense of, 438–439 teaching toward, 451–454 triadic reciprocal causality, 427, 429 Self-esteem, 106–107, 434–435 global self-esteem, 103, 106 need for, 465–466 social goals, 472 Self-evaluation, self-regulated learning and, 453–454 Self-explanation, 356, 374 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 581–582 Self-handicapping strategies, 481 Self-influence, 445 Self-instruction, 448 Self-knowledge, theory of multiple intelligence, 131–134 Self-management, 287–288, 448, 450. See also Selfregulation Self-motivation. See Motivation Self-regulated learning, 439–440 cognitive behavior modification, 448–449 examples of, 446–447 models of, 443–445 social cognitive model of, 443–445 teaching toward, 451–454 Zimmerman’s three-phase model of, 446 Self-regulation, 439, 513 achievement gap and, 230 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 250, 251 designing classrooms, 452 development of, 442–443 vs. discipline, 529, 536 emotional, 449–451 failure of, 424 influences on, 440–443 organizational skills and, 424, 458–459 self-reinforcement and, 431



sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 60 steps toward preventing management problems, 524 technology and, 447–448 Self-regulatory knowledge, 302, 341, 371 Self-reinforcement, 288, 431 Self-starter, 439 Self-worth, beliefs about, 480–482 Semantic memory, 317 Semilingual, 202, 203 Semiotic function, 49 Sensitive periods, development, 33 Sensitive periods, second language learning, 187 Sensorimotor stage of development, 48–49 Sensory memory, 303–308 Serial-position effect, 330 Seriation, 51 Sexual abuse, 93–94 Sexual orientation, 239, 243– 245 reaching out to help students, 247 Shaping, 275 Shared regulation, 443, 452 Sheltered instruction, 205–210 Sheltered Instruction Observational Protocol (SIOP), 206–210 Short-term memory, 309–310 information processing system, 303 Sickle cell disease, 160–161 Sign language, 162 Signed English, 189 Signed languages, 189 Simon, Theodore, 136 Single-subject experimental studies, 17, 19 Situated learning, 370, 385 Situational interests, 482–484 Skill-building tasks, for cooperative learning, 400–401 Skinner, B. F., 266–267, 455 Sleep, adolescents and, 40 Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) tests, 625 Social aggression, 89, 90 Social class, 222–229 Social cognitive theory, 426–429 cognitive behavior modification, 448–449 modeling, 429–433 motivation and, 465, 473



overview of, 425, 455 self-efficacy and agency, 434–439 self-regulated learning, 443–445 self-regulated learning, examples of, 446–447 self-regulated learning, teaching toward, 451–454 Social considerations, English language learners, 198, 211 Social constructivism, 382–387 Social context. See Bioecological model of development Social conventions, 110, 111 Social development, 32, 33 early and late maturation, 75–76 Piaget on, 46 psychosocial development (Erikson), 95–107 Vygotsky’s theory, 57–62 Social goals, 472–473 Social intuitionist model (Haidt), 112–113 Social isolation (time out), 281 Social learning theory, 289–290, 427 Social media bullying. See Cyber aggression eating disorders and, 79 effects of, 94–95 identity and technology, 100 Social negotiation, 387 Social organization, diversity in learning and, 251–252 Social persuasion, 435, 436 Social skills autism spectrum disorders, 162–163 gifted students, 167 practical intelligence and, 134 preventing problems, classroom management, 522–525 social awareness, 450 theory of multiple intelligence, 131–134 Social transmission, 46 Socialized speech, 60 Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 57 assisted learning, 65 cooperative learning and, 384–385, 387, 389, 400 implications for teaching, 62, 64–65 limitations of, 62 overview of, 57–62



S U B J EC T INDEX Socioeconomic status (SES), 223 achievement gap and, 230– 231 assessment bias, 595–596 cultural differences, 222–229 Generation 1.5, 197–198 gifted and talented students, identifying, 169 poverty rates, 224–226 trends in education, 4 Sociohistoric theory. See Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) Sociolinguistics, 253 Software appropriate for young children, checklist, 414 Sounds, language development, 179, 183 Spaced practice. See Distributed learning/ practice Spasticity, 159 Spatial information, brain regions for, 39 Spatial intelligence, 131–134 Special education. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Specific goals, 470 Speech disorders, 152–153 Speech reading, 162 Spermarche, 75 Spiral curriculum, 387 Spock, Benjamin, 96 Spreading activation, 323 Stability, 476 Standard deviation, 616–618 Standard error of measurement, 594 Standard scores, 619–620 Standardized testing, 592–593. See also Assessment accountability and highstakes testing, 622–625 No Child Left Behind Act and, 6 test reports, interpreting, 620–622 types of scores, 615–620 Standards, learning, 557–558 Stanford Achievement Test, 10th Edition, 621–622 Stanford-Binet test, 136–138 Stanine scores, 620 Statistically significant, 17 Stem, multiple choice questions, 600 STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields, 432 and gender bias, 241–242 Stereotype threat, 236–239



Stereotypes, 222, 235, 481. See also Bias Stimulated recall, 552 Stimulus, 264 Stimulus control, 271 Storage and retrieval, executive control processes, 340 Story grammar, 321 Strategies. See also Learning strategies executive functioning, development of, 56 strategy selection skills, 134–135 Strategy instruction, learning disabilities and, 148, 149 Stress brain research and, 43–44 English language learners and, 198, 211 student achievement and, 226 teacher burnout, 438, 451, 452 Structured controversies, 406–407 Structured English immersion (SEI), 202, 203 Student teachers, advice for, 13 Student teams achievement divisions (STAD), 402 Students. See also Learning assessment, involvement in, 603–604 current teaching trends, 4–8 grading, effects of, 613–614 learning, research summary chart, 23–24 sharing control with, 453 student-led conferences, 200–201 student ownership of learning, 387 teacher expectations and, 581–584 teacher relationships and, 7–8 Stuttering, 152, 153 Subjects, research, 17 Subtractive bilingualism, 188 Successful intelligence, 134–135 Successive approximation, 275 Suicide, 155–156 Summaries, learning strategies and, 345–346 Summarizing, paraphrase rule, 538 Summative assessment, 12, 593, 606 Summer, student achievement and, 227–228 Survival needs, 465–466 Sustaining expectation effect, 581–583



Symbols, preoperational stage of development, 49 Synapses, 35–38 Synaptic plasticity, 35–37 Syntactic awareness, 182, 183 Syntax, language development, 180–181, 182, 190 T score, 619–620 Talented students. See Gifted and talented students TARGET model, motivation to learn, 491–500 Task analysis, 275 Task goals, 471 Task value, 475, 491–492 Tasks academic, 491–492 authentic, 492–493 multitasking, 307–308 staying focused on, 499–500 Taxonomy, 559–561 Teacher attention, as reinforcement, 273 Teachers. See also Teaching advice for beginners, 13 attributions, 477 burnout, 438, 451, 452 caring relationships, 524–528 caring teacher-student relationships, 251 characteristics of effective teachers, 552–553 child abuse, recognizing, 93–94 control shared with students, 453 culturally compatible classrooms, creation of, 248–256 diversity of, 5 expectations of, 581–584 expert teachers, 553 multicultural classroom, tips for, 253–256 relationships with students, 92–93 as researchers, 19–21 response to cheating, 115 sense of efficacy, 5, 438–439 value of, 7–8 Teachers’ Casebook abstract concepts, teaching of, 30, 70–71 bullies and victims, 506, 548–549 culture clashes in classroom, 176, 214–215 ELL students and testing, 2, 28–29 failure to self-regulate, 424, 458–459 including all students, 126, 174–175



S-15



learning to cooperate, 380, 422–423 Leaving No Student Behind, 2, 28–29 mean girls, 72, 119 meaningful grades, 590, 632–633 motivating students, 460, 504–505 reaching and teaching every student, 550, 588–589 remembering the basics, 298, 336–337 sick of class, 260, 295–296 Symbols and Cymbals, 30, 70–71 uncritical thinking, 339, 378–379 “white girls club,” 216, 259 Teaching. See also Classroom management; Guidelines adaptive teaching, 576–580 anxiety, helping students cope, 488–490 attention and, 307–308 constructivist studentcentered teaching, 386–387 current trends in, 4–8 dialects and, 193–194 differentiated instruction, 576–580, 588–589 direct instruction, 563–566, 573 of English language learners, 194–211 fitting to goals, 573 Framework for Teaching, 10–11 gender bias in, 242–245 goals, motivation and, 469–474 good teaching, defined, 8–13 of immigrant students, 194–211 making meaningful connections, 324–328 meaningful lessons, 328–329 memorization, 329–330 metacognitive development skills, 342–343 moral climate of classroom, 111–112 motivation, supporting, 491–500 neuroscience and, 39–44 observational learning and, 431–433 questioning, discussion, and dialogue, 568–573 research on, 552–554 Rosenshine’s six functions of, 563–564



S-16



SU B J E CT I N DEX



Teaching (continued ) seatwork and homework, 563–564, 565–569 self-efficacy in learning and, 436–439 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), implications of, 62, 64–65 student learning research, summary chart, 23–24 students who live in poverty, 228 TeachingWorks, 11–12 theories for, 22–23 theory of cognitive development, implications of, 62–64 toward self-efficacy and self-regulated learning, 451–454 transfer of learning, 368–372 understanding by design (UbD), 573–574 TeachingWorks, 11–12 Teasing, 516, 533. See also Bullying dos and don’ts, 535 Technical tools, cognitive development and, 59 Technology, 432. See also STEM fields assistive technology, 579–580 digital media, learning and, 410–418 identity and, 100 self-regulated learning and, 447–448 social media, effects of, 94–95 STEM fields, and gender bias, 241–242 Technology-rich environments (TREs), 410–411 Television, aggressive behavior and, 90–91 Temporal lobe, brain, 35, 38, 39 Testing. See Assessment; Standardized testing Testing effect, 327–328, 349 Thalamus, 34, 35 Theory defined, 22 development, questions for, 32–34 teaching theories, 22–23 Theory-based, 319 Theory Into Practice, 21 Theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 33, 45–57 cooperative learning and, 383, 385, 400, 406 four stages of, 47–54



implications for teachers, 62–64 limitations of, 54–56 neo-Piagetian views, 56–57 private speech, 59–61 underestimation of children’s abilities, 55 Theory of fluid intelligence, 131 Theory of mind, 108 Theory of moral development (Kohlberg), 108–110 Theory of multiple intelligences (MI), 131–134 Think-Pair-Share, 209 Thinking styles, 139–141 Thorndike, E. L., 14 Three-tiered system, autism spectrum disorder interventions, 163–165 Time, for learning tasks, 495 Time for learning, 511, 512, 522 Time lines, 349 Time on task, 512, 522 Time out, 281 Token reinforcement systems, 278 Tools, cognitive development and, 58–59 Tools for Getting Along, 449 Tools of the Mind, 65, 66 Top-down processing, 306 Tracking, 228–229 Transfer of learning, 368–372 Transgendered people, 239– 240, 243–247 Transition programming, 159 Translation, problem solving and, 355–358 TREE, persuasive writing mnemonic, 149 Tree diagrams, 349 Trends in education, 4–8 Triadic reciprocal causality, 427–429 Triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 134–135 Tripod Student Perception Survey, 12 True/false testing, 598–599 True score, 594 Trust, importance of, 93 Tryptophan, 226 TV Talk Show, 209 Type 2 diabetes, 161 Unconditioned response (UR), 265 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 265 Underlining, as learning strategy, 346



Understanding by Design (UbD), 573–574 Understanding questions, 559– 560, 570 Undesirable behaviors, response to, 280–283 Unfair penalization, 595 Uninvolved parents, 83 United Spinal Association, 129 United States, education trends, 4–8 Universal design, 579 University of Chicago, Laboratory School, 14 Upper class, defined, 223 U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 19 Utility value, 475, 499 Vagueness, 552 Validity, 594–595, 609 Value, 475, 498–499 Value-added measures, 628 Variability, test scores, 617 Variable-interval reinforcement schedule, 270 Variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, 270 Venn diagrams, 349 Verbal learners, 140–141 Verbal skills. See Language development; Vocabulary development Verbalization, 359 Vicarious experiences, 435–436, 439 Vicarious reinforcement, 431 Video examples adaptation, 47 ADHD students, strategies for, 150 assisted learning, 65 autism spectrum disorders, teaching of, 163 behavioral learning theory, 264 bullying, 533 caring relationships, 526 classroom management, 511 classroom rules, 514 conferences, 603, 615 conflict resolution, 542 conservation, 49 constructivist view of learning, 382 critical thinking skills, 366 curiosity, motivation and, 483 desegregation and discrimination, 232 dialect and accents, 193 differentiated instruction, 578 digital media, learning and, 410



domain-specific knowledge, 302 effective teachers, qualities of, 553 emotional and behavioral disorders, 154 English language learners, teaching of, 196 extrinsic motivators, use of, 463 friendships, 87 gender roles and bias, 242 good teaching models, 7, 10 IEP conference, 142 literacy skill development, 183 long-term learning, 331 memory strategies, 301, 313 metacognition, 342 modeling, 429 moral development, 109 motivation, 465, 476, 491 multicultural teaching principles, 254 Native Americans, discrimination of, 236 peer teaching, 386 planning of instruction, 555 portfolios, 603, 606 positive behavior support system, 286 problem solving skill development, 352 public exhibitions, 606 recognizing responsible behavior, 427 reinforcement methods, 273 respecting cultural differences, 222 scaffolding, use of, 388 seatwork, 565 self-efficacy, building sense of, 436 self-evaluation, 454 self-regulation, 440 sheltered instruction, 205 state test data, use of, 625 student engagement, 522 tapping into cultural funds of knowledge, 200 teacher as researcher, 22 teacher expectations, 582 theory of multiple intelligences, 132 token reinforcement systems, 278 zone of proximal development, 61 Video games, aggressive behavior and, 91–92 Violence, effect of media, 90–91 Virtual learning environments (VLEs), 411 Vision impairments, 161



S U B J EC T INDEX Visual cortex, brain, 39 Visual information, brain regions for, 39 Visual learners, 140–141 Visual-spatial information, working memory and, 146 Visual strategies for teaching English language learners, 204 Visuospatial sketchpad, 309–311 Vocabulary development. See also Language development developmental milestones and, 179–180 preoperational stage of development, 49



Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 144–145 Voicing problems, 153 Volition, 441–442, 443, 444 Vygotsky, Lev, 57–62, 384–385, 387, 389, 400, 455 Warlpiri Sign Language, 189 Warm demanders, 544 Warmth, 553 Weiner, Bernard, 475–476 Welcome centers, 199–200 White coat syndrome, 265 White matter, 38 Wikis, 209, 410, 411, 418 Within-class ability grouping, 576



Withitness, 523 Work-avoidant learners, 472 Work ethic, 442 Worked examples cognitive views of learning, 312 complex cognitive processes, 355–358, 374, 397 constructivism and designing learning environments, 397 Working backward strategy, 359 Working class, defined, 223 Working memory, 309–316 cognitive load and retaining information, 311–314 fluid intelligence and, 131



S-17



individual differences, 314–315 information processing system, 303 limited capacity, 313, 326 neuroscience of, 146 Writing headlines, 209 Writing skills, 146, 148–149 z score, 619–620 Zero reject, 141 Zero tolerance policies, 532 Zimmerman’s three-phase model of self-regulated learning, 443, 445, 446 Zone of proximal development (ZPD), 61–62, 384, 389



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