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Introduction to Linguistics A Learning Module
Bonifacio T. Cunanan Henrietta Miranda Mary Joy Yambao
Preface Introduction to Linguistics: A Learning Module is the result of the collaborative efforts of Bonifacio T. Cunanan, Henrietta Miranda, and Mary Joy Yambao. This learning material consists of 20 basic lessons in the scientific and philosophical study of language that are grouped in seven units.
Mary Joy Yambao, in Units 1 and 2, provides for the historical backdrop of linguistics as a legitimate branch of social sciences. These preliminary parts discuss the philosophical forces that pushed for the development of principles and procedures in studying the nature of language, which in effect analyses human nature. In doing so, language described in terms of its physical features. These characteristics are material in the study of the building blocks of language: sound system, vocabulary, and grammar. Lessons 7 and 8 were completed with the help of Bonifacio T. Cunanan. Henrietta Miranda elaborates the basic grammatical units of language. In Units 3 and 4, she discusses how words are formed and combined. Initially, she compares traditional and contemporary approaches of language description. Going beyond grammar, she compares two of the most influential theories of contemporary syntax: Transformational Generative and Systemic Functional models of Chomsky and Halliday. For the last part, Bonifacio T. Cunanan elucidates the two allied fields of descriptive approaches to language analysis: psycholinguistics (the nature of language within the framework of the mind) and sociolinguistics (the study of language in relation to society). In Unit 5, he discusses the biological and sociological dimensions of language development and language pedagogy. In Unit 6, he addresses social issues like language change, language shift, and language revitalization. Finally, in Unit 7, he demonstrates the practical uses and applications of linguistics in promoting and sustaining scientific methods in language teaching and language learning. This learning module, though it appears encompassing, can be compared to the tip of an iceberg. There are numerous topics that had been left out in the interest of time. Some of which include writing system, lexicography, translation, just to name a few. Indeed, linguistics is a broad field of study. The scope and sequence of the topics in this learning module are intended primarily for tertiary students who wish to pursue teacher education in English. Much of the topics in this compilation can be enriched through selfstudy inasmuch as online materials are provided by the contributors in all the lessons. The authors assure the readers that the materials included in this module are the accumulation of ideas that they have gained through extensive reading and teaching experiences through the years.
Republic of the Philippines Bulacan State University City of Malolos, Bulacan Tel/Fax (044) 791 -0153 COURSE SYLLABUS Introduction to Linguistics First Semester, AY 2020-21 COLLEGE DEPARTMENT COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE FACULTY
: : : : :
College of Arts and Letters Department of English EL 102 Introduction to Linguistics Bonifacio T. Cunanan, Ph.D.
CONSULTATION HOURS: To be arranged. COURSE DESCRIPTION: This three-unit undergraduate course is designed for future teachers of English. It aims to provide the intended users with the depth and extent of scientific procedures in describing the very structures and building blocks of language. Further, it encompasses two major allied disciplines: the psychology and the sociology of language. The course aims to provide the intended students with the scientific and philosophical principles and procedures in studying language, specifically the English language. University Vision Bulacan State University is a progressive knowledge-generating institution, globally-recognized for excellent instruction, pioneering research, and responsive community engagements. University Mission Bulacan State University exists to produce highly competent, ethical, and service-oriented professionals that contribute to the sustainable socio-economic growth and development of the nation Core Values: SOAR BulSU! Service to God and Community Order and Peace Assurance of Quality and Accountability Respect and Responsibility The BulSU Ideal Graduates Attributes (BIG A) reflect the graduate’s capacity as: a. highly and globally competent, b. ethical and service-oriented citizen, c. analytical and critical thinker, and d. reflective life-long learner. Program Educational Objectives (PEO) Program Educational Objectives (PEO)
University Mission
AIG-a Equip students with strong foundation in the scientific and philosophical study of language. Produce graduates who are imbued with the seal of excellence and service. Produce graduates who are catalysts for social transformation.
AIG-b
AIG-c
AIG-d
Program Outcomes (PO) On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to do the following: PROGRAM OUTCOMES Provide an academic environment that promotes higher order thinking skills that are tempered with humanistic perspectives. Promote an academic and liberal environment anchored on academic freedom and excellence.
Program Educational Objectives PEO1
PEO2
PEO3
Course Outcomes and Relationship to Program Outcomes Course Outcomes Program Outcomes After completing this course, the student must be able to: a b c Attributes of Ideal Upon completion of the course, the student is expected to be Graduate (AIG) able to do the following: LO1. Highly 1. Have a thorough knowledge of the competent principles of the science and I E D philosophy of language LO2. Ethical 2. Can close the gap between linguistic I E D professional theory and language pedagogy LO3. 3. Can apply linguistic principles and Serviceoriented procedures in teaching the different I E D aspects of English LO4. Contribute to 4. Demonstrate familiarity with the country’s technical and practical aspects of I E D sustainable linguistics growth and development Note: (I) Introductory Course to an Outcome (E) Enabling Course to an Outcome (D) Demonstrative Course to an Outcome
LEARNING EPISODES: Learning TOPIC Week Learning Activities Outcomes Unit 1. Linguistics: The Scientific and Philosophical Study of Language
• Differentiate language and others forms of communication. • Discuss the philosophical basis of language study.
Lesson 1. The Historical Background of Linguistics Lesson 2. Human Language and Animal Communication Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics
• Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets
Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics
Lesson 4. The Human Speech Apparatus Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English Unit 3. Morphology and Syntax Discuss the Lesson 9. Free, Bound, Derivational, and Inflectional word formation Morphemes and basic units Lesson 10. Morphophonemic of grammar. Changes and Types of Word Formation Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars Discuss the building blocks of meaning in language.
Unit 4. Semantics • Differentiate two Lesson 12. Meaning: The grammatical Transformational Generative models. and The Systemic • Trace language Functional Turns change. Lesson 13. Language Change: Semantic Change and Semantic Broadening Unit 5. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics • Explain the Lesson 14. Language and the Brain: psychological The Biological dimensions of Dimension of Language language. Lesson 15. Language • Discuss the Development: The Behaviorist and developmenta The l milestones of Cognitivist Perspectives language. Unit 6. Sociolinguistics
• Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets
• Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets • Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets • Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets
Discuss the social and political aspects of language.
Lesson 16. Language and Society: The Sociological Dimension of Language Lesson 17. Language Change : Dialect and Register Lesson 18. Language and Culture: Linguistic Relativism
• Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets
Unit 7. Linguistics and Language Teaching Conceptualize the importance of scientific language teaching.
Lesson 19. Applied Linguistics Lesson 20. Educational Linguistics
• Virtual Lecture Online Google Meet • Completion of Modular Learning Tasks • Online Submission of Accomplished Worksheets
FINAL COURSE OUTPUT: The students are expected to write a 2000-word synthesis of the relevance of linguistics in English language pedagogy. RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT: Rubrics for Short Research in Linguistics Criteria - 4 pts - 2 pts Quality of Research 50 %
Practically Perfect Solid - 3 pts acceptable - 1 pt
Hovering around
Not ready yet
Practically Perfect • Cited 3 or more sources • Sources reliable and properly cited. • All information relevant to topic • Sufficient information provided to support all elements of topic. • Research indepth and the beyond the obvious, revealing new insights gained.
Hovering around acceptable • Failed to cite 3 sources. • Source reliability questionable. Omitted information does not interfere with ability of reader to find the source. • Some information relevant to thesis. • Information provided to support some elements of topic • Surface research.
Not ready yet
Solid • Cited 3 sources • Sources mostly reliable. Citation errors minor. • Most information relevant to thesis. • Sufficient information provided. • Research of sufficient depth.
• Failed to cite sources. • Source reliability questionable. Omitted information does not interfere with ability of reader to find the source. • Some information relevant to thesis. • Information provided to support some elements of topic. • Surface research.
Content 30 %
Practically Perfect • Question interesting, of appropriate breadth for length of paper & an appropriate topic for research. • Support for thesis complex, complete, & indepth. • Writer involved with subject, not merely doing an assignment. • Clear and appropriate organization, with effective
Solid • Question somewhat broad or narrow for length of paper and/or a questionable topic for research. • Support for thesis sufficient but lacking in depth or complexity. • Organization, transitions, introduction, and conclusion slightly lacking clarity and/or appropriatenes s.
Hovering around acceptable • Question too broad or narrow for length of paper and/or a poor topic for research. • Support for thesis barely sufficient, and/or. • Organization, transitions, introduction, and conclusion lacking clarity and/or appropriatenes
Not ready yet • Question too broad or narrow for length of paper and/or a poor topic for research. • Support for thesis barely sufficient, and/or. • Organization, transitions, introduction, and conclusion lacking clarity and/or appropriateness.
s.
transitions, introduction, and conclusion. Works Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet Cited and All sources All sources acceptable Not all sources Bibliogra properly cited in properly cited properly cited in both phy both paper and in both paper Not all sources paper and 10 % bibliography. and properly cited bibliography. No more errors in bibliography. in both paper More than 4 errors in format or 2 errors in and format or punctuation. punctuation. format or bibliography. punctuation. More than 3 errors in format or punctuation. Grammar Practically Perfect Solid Hovering around Not ready yet and Consistent and Voice mostly acceptable Voice somewhat Mechanic appropriate consistent and Voice consistent and s voice. appropriate. somewhat appropriate. 10 % Sophisticated Fairly effective consistent and Correct word and precise word choice. appropriate. choice. word choice. No more than Correct word More than 4 • No spelling 2 spelling choice. spelling errors. errors. errors. More than 3 More than 3 errors • No errors in Fewer than 1 spelling errors. in agreement, agreement, error in More than 2 pronouns/antecede pronouns/antece agreement, errors in nts, or tense. dents, or tense. pronouns/ante agreement, More than 4 • No punctuation cedents, or pronouns/ante punctuation or or capitalization tense. cedents, or capitalization errors. Fewer than 2 tense. errors. • Met all style and punctuation or More than 3 Failed to meet min/max page capitalization punctuation or style and/or requirements. errors. capitalization min/max page Met most style errors. requirements. and min/max Failed to meet page style and/or requirements. min/max page requirements.
Source: https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?code=W952CX&sp=yes&
OTHER REQUIREMENTS AND ASSESSMENTS:
Occasional papers may be required as additional assessment/evaluation procedures in addition to active class participation and discussion. GRADING SYSTEM: Term Examinations 30% Quizzes/Activities 20% Project 30% Participation/Recitation 10% Attendance/ Promptness 10% TOTAL 100% Final Grade = Midterm Grade + Tentative Final Grade Period 2 Range 97-100 94 – 96 91 – 93 88 – 90 85 – 87 82 – 84 79 – 81 76 – 78 75 74 and below
Grade 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 5.00
References: Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2010). Introduction to Linguistics. Pasig City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd. Online Resources: Coulmas, F. (ed.). (1998). The handbook of sociolinguistics. Blackwell. http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9780631211938_c hunck_g97806312119381 Required Readings: Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K., and Harnish, R.M. (2010). Linguistics: An introduction to language and communication, 6th ed. London: MIT Press. Chapman, S. & Routledge, C. (eds.). (2009). Key ideas in linguistics and the philosophy of language. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press. Collinge, N.E. (ed.). (1990). An encyclopaedia of language. London: Routledge. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Incorporated. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2013). An introduction to language, 10th ed. NY: Cencage Learning. Llamas, C., Mullany, L., & Stockwell, P. (Eds.). (2007). The Routledge companion to sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge. Malmkjær, K. (ed.).(2005). The linguistic encyclopedia, 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. London: Penguin Books. ZaoHong, H. & Odlin, T. (eds.) (2006).Studies of fossilization in second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Class Policies: 1. Students should read in advance the assigned text/s. 2. Students who incur absences more than 20% of the total number of class hour shall be considered dropped. 3. Students are encouraged to use resources other than those available in the University. 4. Schedules of oral presentations shall be followed as scheduled. 5. Course requirements should be free from any form of plagiarism. 6. Course requirements shall be submitted as scheduled. 7. Queries about grades shall be attended immediately upon posting on the University portal. 8. Incomplete grades must be attended to as prescribed in the Student Handbook. Note: The subject teacher who prepared this syllabus reserves the right on the content of this material. The Office of the Dean of Instruction can exercise possession of the hardcopy of this syllabus only for administrative purposes.
Prepared:
BONIFACIO T. CUNANAN, Ph.D. Professor 6
Evaluated: ANALIZA Program/Area Chair Approved:
VILLACORTE,
Ph.D.
MARIA BULAONG Dean
Declaration I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this course I agree to the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and my responsibilities, and I have discussed everything unclear to me with the instructor. I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students and my teacher with due respect. I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of the instructor in class or on any social media site at any time ______________________________________ Student’s Printed name
____________________ Signature
_______________ Date
______________________________________ Parent’s Printed name
____________________ Signature
_______________ Date
Student’s Copy -------------------------------------------------------Cut here----------------------------------------------------------
Declaration I have read and understood the above syllabus in full and in participating in this course I agree to the above rules. I have a clear understanding of the policies and my responsibilities, and I have discussed everything unclear to me with the instructor.
I will adhere to the academic integrity and policy and I will treat my fellow students and my teacher with due respect. I understand that this syllabus can be modified or overruled by announcements of the instructor in class or on any social media site at any time ______________________________________ Student’s Printed name
____________________ Signature
_______________ Date
______________________________________ Parent’s Printed name
____________________ Signature
_______________ Date
Instructor's Copy
Table of Contents Preface Syllabus Table of Contents Unit 1. The Scientific and Philosophical Study of Language Lesson 1.The Historical Background of Linguistics Lesson 2.Human Language and Animal Communication Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics Lesson 4. The Human speech Apparatus Unit 2. Phonology and Phonetics Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English Unit 3. Morphology and Syntax Lesson 9. Free, bound, Derivational, and Inflectional Morphemes Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of Word Formation Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars
Unit 4. Semantics Lesson 12. Lesson 12. Meaning: The Transformational Generative and The Systemic Functional Turns Lesson 13. Language Change: Semantic Change and Semantic Broadening Unit 5. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistics Lesson 14. Language and the Brain: The Biological Dimension Language Lesson 15. Language Development: The Behaviorist, The Cognitivist, and The Constructivist Perspectives Unit 6. Sociolinguistics Lesson 16. Language and Society: The Sociological Dimension Language Lesson 17. Language Varieties : Dialect, Register, Sociolect, Genderlect, and Idiolect Lesson 18. Language and Culture: Linguistic Relativism Unit 7. Linguistics and Language Teaching Lesson 19. Applied Linguistics Lesson 20. Educational Linguistics
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF LANGUAGE
Lesson 1. The Historical Background of Linguistics Duration: 3 hours Introduction The study of linguistics involves several components which are all leaning to the study of morphology, syntax, phonetics, and semantics. This scientific study aims to fully understand how words are produced and combined to come up with fully understandable and comprehensible communication among humans. Also, this body of knowledge focuses on finding general properties common to all languages or groups of languages that greatly impacts different fields
of
of
such as education, anthropology, sociology, language teaching, philosophy, and artificial intelligence. Although linguistics plays an important role in understanding of how language is being produced, how language affects cognition, and how language is manifested in actions, its importance and significance to people remain to be low. People do not have a strong idea how linguistics works nor do they give attention to how it affects their daily life. Linguists analyze human language and how it is being produced by humans. It was Ferdinand de Saussure who pioneered the study of linguistics through his idea of sign. From this concept, many thoughts sprung that ignited the thoughts of other linguists to explore other ideas concerning language. In this lesson, you will learn how language and linguistics come hand in hand and we will also learn how to identify their distinctions. Objectives/Competencies During the allotted time, you are expected to 1. articulate a comprehensive and contextualized understanding of importance of signs through a reflective essay 2. Create a visual representation of how sign works in communication, and 3. Illustrate the importance of signs by defending points of view.
Pre-test In order to check how much you have learned previously in your language classes, here are some activities that we will work on. Choose the correct word that may appropriately describe the picture in column A from the words listed on column B. Write your answer on the space provided. Column A ____1.
a.
Column B dog b. aso c. perr o
____2
a. table b. lamesa c. mesa
____3
a. red dot b. Japanese flag c. red moon
____4.
a. life b. go c. nature
____5. b. c.
a. tree family unity
Lesson Proper From the activity that we have done in pre-test we can say that language has a wide scope when it comes to meaning. A mere symbol or sound can be interpreted in many different ways and still can be considered a possible or right answer. As we have mentioned early, the study of linguistics was fathered by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist whose idea of language is more on the agreed signs and meanings.
Saussure contended that meaning is derived from the sign that is being associated with it. He aimed to find a bridge between the psychic essence concept and the concrete reality of word. He therefore came up with the of
“sign” as an indivisible pair which is consisted of abstract concept and concrete realization.
Ferdinand de Saussure was born on November 26, 1857. He was considered to be the Father of Linguistics.
Let us take the examples in the pre-test. All the pictures found on column A can be interpreted using the words on column B. The words found on the second column are correct interpretations of the signs on the first column. Based on the idea of de Saussure, a representation of communication can be interpreted by: a. intentional – such as word uttered with specific meaning b. unintentional – such as a symptom being a sign of a particular medical condition The “Sign” is the whole result from the association of the following concepts: 1. Signifier= any material thing that signifies e.g. word on a page, facial expression, image 2. Signified= the concept that a signifier refers to Together, the signifier and the signified can create a sign which gives the smallest unit of meaning that can be used to communicate. The relationship of the signifier and the signified is referred to as “signification.”
Let us take these examples: (SIGNIFIER) CODE D-O-G
(SIGNIFIED) CONCEPT four legs barks furry not g-o-d
T-A-B-L-E
w o o danger d flat surface gs are on it dining place
R-E-D D-O-T en thin
blood anger love
G-R-E-E-N life nature freshness
What is Signifier and Signified then? Signifiers are the physical form of anything that are considered signs. They are something that can be heard, touched, smelled, tasted, or seen. Based on the examples given the first column which can be seen, touched, tasted, heard, or smelled are the physical forms of the signs. Signified on the other hand, are the mental concepts that are being referred to. We must take note that the relationship of the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. In order to understand a particular sign, we need to know the signifier and the signified. It is also important to note that sign can only be understood when the relationship of the signifier and the signified are agreed upon by the users.
Example:
dog =
English
aso = Filipino perro = Spanish
This sign can be referred to as dog, aso, perro or any kind of signifier that a group of people will agree upon. All of the words that are used to describe the said sign are correct. Depending on the group of people who are using the said signifier, they will be able to understand each other if they are referring to the same sign. However, if a signifier is going to be used in a different group, communication or understanding will be impossible. Let us take for example the word “aso” when used to a group of Americans, they will certainly not understand the signifier as this was not the agreed one. It is important to note that signifier and signified should be agreed upon by users to ensure understanding and eliminate confusion. Confusion and misunderstanding can easily happen if the users of the sign do not have the common background of the signifier and signified.
The illustration shows the connection of signifier and the signified in a single sign. This only shows that language is mainly symbolic, since the sequence and their meanings are conventional, arbitrary and have to be learnt. What is the main purpose of Linguistics then? The focus of Linguistics as a body of knowledge is mainly on recognizing how laws, processes and ways operate in languages. It aims to understand how these laws apply universally in different languages. The way linguists
work on investigating phenomena common in language is the primary work of linguistics. Reminder: Here are some points that we need to know about languages which were discovered and generalized through the use of Linguistics
An American linguist named Charles Hockett has identified some properties common to all languages. Here are his generalizations: Features Common to all languages. a) all languages have vowels and consonants; b) all languages have words; c) all languages can create new words when required and modify their meanings; d) all languages are open-ended in the sense that they can produce totally new utterances which are understood by the users of the language; e) all languages can form questions; f) in all languages it is possible to talk about things and situations that are removed from the immediate situation of the speaker (this is called displacement); g) in all languages we can use hypothetical, unreal, and fictional utterances.
Activity Let us try: 1. View this video about features of language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU7XcD9TIGY 2. Using the features that were given by Charles Hockett and the video that you have watched, try to explain how language works in a chosen advertisement through a caricature.
Analysis Using the diagram below, explain how sign can be manipulated in a conversation that will result into understanding among family members.
Abstraction Imagine that you went on a cruise and along the trip your ship sank and there were only 5 people who made it to a small island. Each of the survivors can only speak 1 language: Filipino, Mandarin, German, Japanese and Urdu. How would you manage to communicate with each other given the language barrier that you have?
Application As a future language teacher, how can the use of signs be beneficial in teaching your students in order to ensure that you are being understood completely?
Reflection and Insights How important are signs in communication? What will happen if signs are deliberately distorted? Write your opinion of the space provided.
__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
Post-test To check your learning of the lesson, answer the questions below. Place a cross mark () on the box of your choice. No.
Statement
True
False
1. Signs are agreed upon by the users. 2. Language can change over time. People speaking diverse languages can never understand each other A single sign has only one definite meaning 5. Linguistics helps understand all languages
3. 4.
Suggested References and Websites https://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/2018/09/ferdinand-de-saussurequickfacts.html
https://dirtyworkblog.wordpress.com/2012/12/14/ferdinand-de-saussurecoursein-general-linguistics/
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY LANGUAGE
OF
Lesson 2. Human Language and Animal Communication Duration: 3 hours Introduction Many scientists believe that all things on the face of the Earth came from simpler life form that had started to stretch and expand causing the birth and development of all living things. As such, animals and humans are said to be coming from the same origin but a certain link that cannot be explained by science is how humans developed extraordinary ways of communicating with each other. In this lesson, you will learn the characteristics of human language that makes human beings superior compared to animals. You will also learn features of language that are not present in the communication process of animals. Objectives/Competencies During the 3 hour period, you are expected to 1. discuss the difference of human communication to animal communication, 2. compile examples that will show or illustrate the differences between human and animal communication, and 3. compose a piece of literature that depicts a preferred feature of human language Pre-test Determine whether the statement is attributed to all animal or only human communication. Write AA if the statement is for all animals and OH for humans. Write your answer on the space provided. _____1. Heavily rely on instinct to understand a message. _____2. Sounds are produced through a voice box _____3. Can refer feelings in the past
_____4. Every sign has one meaning _____5. Communication can be learned. Lesson Proper
Photo credit: owlcation.com
If you will be asked how a cat can express its feelings to its owner, what would you possibly tell? Do you think that pets can really communicate what they want? Can really humans communicate with animals? One of the many linguists who tried to study the difference of human communication to animals is Charles Hockett. He is a well-known linguist who made use of a comparative approach to identify the difference of humans to animals in terms of communication.
Photo Credit: https://alchetron.com/CharlesFHockett
Features of Human Language 1. Vocal-auditory channel: sounds emitted from the mouth and perceived by the auditory system.
2. Transitoriness (Rapid fading) : Signals last a short time. This is true of all systems involving sound. 3.Interchangeability: All utterances that are understood can be produced. 4.Total feedback: The sender of a message also perceives the message. That is, you hear what you say. 5.Specialization: The signal produced is specialized for communication and is not the side effect of some other behavior. 6.Semanticity: There is a fixed relationship between a signal and a meaning. 7. Arbitrariness: There is an arbitrary relationship between a signal and its meaning. That is, the signal is related to the meaning by convention or by instinct but has no inherent relationship with the meaning. 8.Discreteness: Language can be said to be built up from discrete units (e.g., phonemes in human language). Exchanging such discrete units causes a change in the meaning of a signal. This is an abrupt change, rather than a continuous change of meaning. 9. Displacement: Communicating about things or events that are distant in time or space. 10.Productivity: Language is an open system. We can produce potentially an infinite number of different messages by combining the elements differently. 11.Cultural transmission: Each generation needs to learn the system of communication from the preceding generation. 12. Duality of patterning: Large numbers of meaningful signals (e.g., morphemes or words) produced from a small number of meaningless units (e.g., phonemes). 13. Prevarication: Linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or meaningless. 14. Reflexiveness: In a language, one can communicate about communication. 15. Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another language.
Activity 1. Watch this video for additional understanding of the features of human language. Then do the next step. https://youtu.be/LEOPCEiigYQ 2. Compile pictures that will illustrate the features of human language. Be sure to write a short explanation about the picture stating how helpful those features are in communication. Analysis
How does a baby communicate with its parents? Are the features of human language present among babies? When do you think these features are evident in human communication? Abstraction Given the different features of human language, can we safely say that animal communication does not have these kinds of features? Or if there are, can you identify what features are applicable for animal communication? Application As a future language teacher, how can you show your students the difference between animal language and human language? Create a short acrostic poem that can remind you of the importance of human language. Your work will be evaluated using this checklist: Each “Yes” is equivalent to 1 point and each “No” is equivalent to 0 point. Criteria The subject of the acrostic poem is written vertically one letter at a time in a column. Each vertical letter begins a word, a phrase, or a sentence in each line of a poem. No repetitive words in the poem. Words are spelled correctly Is the poem linguistically correct? Total
Yes
No
Reflection and Insights Do you think that language is a gift from a divine entity? Does it mean that humans are better in the eyes of the divine? How about the language used by animals? Write your reflection on the space provided below. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Post-test Based on the discussion above, determine if the statements are true. Write True or False on the space provided. ___1. Animals use language to communicate with each other. ___2. Instinct is the primary source of communication to animals. ___3. Cultural transmission is one feature of human language ___4. Human language is dormant and does not undergo change. ___5. Language is common to both humans and animals.
Suggested References and Websites https://pages.uoregon.edu/redford/Courses/LING162/Handout_1.pdf
UNIT 1. THE SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY LANGUAGE
OF
Lesson 3. The Subfields of Linguistics Duration: 3 hours Introduction Based on what you have learned from the first lesson in this unit, linguistics is known to be the study of human language and what features may be present and shared by different languages. You have learned that it tries to understand how a person conceives ideas and how it is associated with a particular concept in order to convey information to others. Linguists use of different ways on how to examine the human language since language is a vast area of knowledge to examine. Let us take for example a linguist wants to study how an American pronounces the word “often” and compare it on how a British or an Indonesian say that same word? There will be notable differences on how they say it. Another example is when a person wants to know how words are connected to form a simple sentence and why some sentences are correct in grammar, but we find it hilarious? These concepts that we want to understand are investigated by subfields of linguistics. In this lesson you will learn some of the subfields of linguistics which will help us understand human language. Objectives/Competencies During the 3 hour period, you are expected to 1. familiarize with the subfields of Linguistics, and 2. be able to determine features of the different subfields of linguistics.
Pre-test Determine whether the following statements are True or False _____1. There is no difference when the word “often” is pronounced by either American or British. _____2. The sentence, “The radio listens to a boy.” is wrong. _____3. Meanings of statements depend on the speakers alone. _____4. The sentence, “ The horse is owned by a small hotel owner.” can possibly cause confusion. _____5. There is no difference between: Why is there change? vs Why is there change? Lesson Proper Phonetics is the study of the physical attributes of speech sounds and how these sounds are produced. Phoneticians are the people study how sounds are produced by the human speech system. The study of phonetics is further divided into other subparts which are: Articulatory Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics, and Auditory Phonetics. Each of the subfields has its own focus or specialization. The first subfield which is articulatory is focused on studying how sounds are being produced. The second part pertains to the study of the quality of the sound a human produce such as the loudness, frequency, and timber. And the last subpart explains how the brain perceives and processes the sound. Let us take the example of the production of the sound [i] when heard by a person, his brain knows its sounds because he can imagine that it is the sound that is produced in the front of the mouth and when the tongue is tensed and the lips are rounded. Morphology is another subfield of linguistics that investigates the internal structure of words, in which morphemes are the basic unit of a word. This subfield of linguistics delves deeper into some rules in word creation such as when to use -ed or d in a making a past tense of a verb. Lexicology refers to the study of how words are made through the use of lexemes. Lexemes are the smallest unit of syntax. This subfield of linguistics wants to account for the changes of how words change in form using a lexeme. Let us take this example, the words ridden, rode, riding, rides are all forms of the lexeme ‘ride’. The other words enumerated are in similar form to the original lexeme which is ride and it is in verb form.
Another example in the study of lexeme is with the word the difference of the nominal form of the word drink, drinks, drink’s and drinks’ would differ from the verb form drink, drank, drunk and drinking. The lexeme of a word does not change in grammatical form. The focus of lexeme is to further increase the inventory of lexicon or in other words vocabulary. Lay people may refer to lexicon as vocabulary. Syntax is mostly known to people for the arrangement of words in a sentence. This subfield of linguistics assesses and evaluates larger components such as phrases and clauses. The people who specialize in syntax are known to be syntacticians. They study how words and their functions in the sentence complement each other. Most common area of interest of syntacticians are subject- verb- object relationships. For people who may have not known the idea of syntax, they normally refer it to grammar. Semantics is the study of meaning. This subfield of Linguistics investigates the words in a sentence and how they are related to each other to give meaning. Linguists who focus on semantics are known to be semanticists. The primary role of semantics is to explain the relationships of words to their referent. Example we and us are pronouns that may indicate to the same person who is speaking. Pragmatics is the subfield of linguistics that explains how language is used in context, status, and speaker. This subfield is also associated with a body of knowledge called semiotics. Pragmatics considers outside factors that may contribute to the meaning of an utterance or expression. The importance of appropriate communication in social situations is one important area in which pragmatics want to investigate. According to pragmatists, meaning can differ among the interlocutors and the listeners. The meaning being conveyed is sometimes changed because of context. Figure 1.3 shows the different subfields of linguistics that branched out to different areas of expertise. You will notice that language plays an important role in daily communication. Can you tell how these subfields depend and affect each other? We can say that linguistics and its subfields are interrelated with each other. It means that at some point, a linguist may use a particular subfield when trying to explain another subfield. They always come hand in hand with each other. One or more subfields can help explain and shed light to a particular point of view.
Figure 1.3 is taken from: https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/
Activity 1. For your activity, please visit this video to further know what Linguistics is and its subfields. https://youtu.be/bzz1pFWAtMo 2. List down some other subfields of Linguistics which were not discussed in this lesson. Discuss what these subfields focus on in terms of understanding the nature of language. Analysis From the “mine,” try to explain how this word evolved into the social meaning, “It is the practice of examining large databases in order to generate new information.” Abstraction Using the lesson learned, illustrate the development language from Phonology to Pragmatics. How does a simple sound develop into meaningful ideas?
Try to use a simple sound and show how it can turn into meaning that causes conflict among interlocutors. Application As a future educator, how would you explain how word usage differs from being a young learner to a full-fledged teacher within the next five years. Do you think the words, phrases, or expressions that you currently use will be the same words, phrases, or expressions when you are already a teacher?
Reflection and Insights What makes a person speak various ways and use different expressions even in a recurring situation? How do you speak differently when you are talking to your classmates, your parents, or your teacher? Post-test From what we have discussed, try to match the statement from column A to the subfield of Linguistics in Column B A _____1. “It is pronounced as mmmm… like man.
B a. pragmatics
_____2. “ Put the tip of your tongue in between your upper and lower front teeth _____3. “ Can you pass the salt? “
b. morphology c. phonology
_____4. smallest unit in morphology
d. syntax
_____5. Subject – Verb- Object
f. lexemes
_____6. Horses ride men. vs. Men ride horses.
g. phonetics
_____7. change ‘y’ to ‘i” and add ‘es’ . _____8. act, acts, acting, acted vs acts, acts,
f. semantics h. morphemes
Suggested References and Websites https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/too-much-linguistics-too-little-time/
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS
Lesson 4. The Human Speech Apparatus Duration: 3 hours Introduction You have already learned from the previous lesson that language is a human phenomenon. It means that even if there are other creatures that are able to talk such as parrots, seals and other animals which can be trained to utter few learnable words, still there is no other animal which can communicate through words like man. What makes man different from other animals? Based on the study conducted by Jacob Dunn, a zoologist in University of Cambridge, humans have better working vocal anatomy. Unlike the chimpanzees or monkeys which are considered to be near like humans, these animals do not have functional larynx and vocal cords. Humans use the communicative and informative signals to express how they feel. What does it mean when we say signals? Let us take for example when you sneeze, people may get the signal that you have either cough or colds. This situation is when you unintentionally deliver a signal to others. This is considered to be a communicative signal. One can send messages even he did not mean to. But let us take for example you wanted to buy a new pair of sneakers and you wish to ask money from your mother for it. You intentionally say this to your mother, “Mom, may I ask for some money? I’d like to buy the blue sneakers we saw in the mall.” These statements are intentionally given so as to express ideas. This example is a way how humans deliver intentional signals.
What about animals? Many scientists and linguists believe that animals purely rely on instinct for feelings and expressions, like how dogs snarl, squirm or wag their tails. It is important to know what makes humans different from animals and know how sounds are produced in order to make meaningful conversation. In this lesson you will learn how humans create different sounds through their speech apparatus. You will also learn the different parts and how they work together to create words.
Objectives/Competencies During your study in this lesson, you are expected to: 1. Identify the different parts of the human vocal system used in speaking, 2. Contrast the difference between the human speech apparatus to animals, and 3. Explain how sounds are produced by humans. Pre-test Let us try your knowledge about human speech. Determine whether the following statements are True or False. Write True if the statement is correct, and then write False if you think it is incorrect. Write your answer on the space provided. ______ 1. Humans alone can speak among primates. ______ 2. All animals rely on instinct as a means of expressing feelings. ______ 3. All animals have similar sound producing apparatus. ______ 4. Some sounds can be produced even if there is no active use of speech organs. ______ 5. Humans alone can communicate.
Lesson Proper You may wonder how humans speak and how words are being produced. Have you tried checking out how you make sounds whenever you speak? Humans are gifted with what we call speech organs. These parts of the human anatomy allow humans to produce varieties of sounds, blend them together and create a distinct sound that can be associated with meaning. The organs that are used in producing sounds include: lips, teeth, tongue, etc. Below you can find a diagram illustrating the human speech organs.
Photo credit: https://giftofgab-fluentenglish
The diagram shows the different parts of the human speech organs. These parts are also known as Place of Articulation. This means that humans can produce distinct sound using the different places of the human speech organs. But before you proceed with the different places of articulation, let us learn first what are voiced and voiceless sounds. Voice and Voiceless sounds In phonetics, we classified.
learned that linguists investigate how words are formed and
Voiced speech sounds are produced when the vocal cords vibrate. Try to say the sound, “a” as in albatross. When you produce the “a” sound you will notice that your vocal cords vibrate. Voiceless sounds on the other hand are produced when vocal cords do not vibrate. Let us take for example when you say the sound “h” as in hat.
Places of Articulation Bilabial These are sounds that are created when both lips are used. “Bi” which means two and “labia” which means lips. The sounds that are produced using both lips are called bilabials such as [p], [b], and [m]. [p] sound is voiceless and the [b] and [m] are voiced sounds. Examples
[p]
[b]
[m] mat
pink bank pants brick men Labiodental These are sounds that are produced with the combination of the upper teeth and the lower lip. The sounds in this group are: [f] which is voiceless and [v] which is voiced. Examples [f] feet fist found
[v] van velvet
volt
Dental These sounds are formed with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper front teeth. “th” sounds are considered dentals, the [θ] is for voiceless and [ ð ] is for the voiced. Examples [θ] bath thumb thin
[ð] then feather there
Alveolar These sounds are formed when the front part of the tongue is placed on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough and bony ridge right behind the upper front teeth. The [t], and [s] are the voiceless sounds whereas the [d], [n] and [z] are the voice sounds. [t]
[s]
[d]
[n] nun den
[z] zap buzz
tank sip dug bat ticks feed tip seal god net jazz Other alveolar sounds are [l] as in lap and [r] as in right and wrong.
Palatal Just next to your alveolar ridge is the doom of your mouth. It is hard and it is called hard palate or just palate. The sounds that are formed in this section are called palatals. Palatals are produced when your tongue and the palate are used. The sounds that are created with these locations are: [ʃ], present in a word like sheep, and [ʒ], found in a word like occasion and /ʧ/ as in church. [ʃ], and /ʧ/ are voiceless but [ʒ] is voiced. Examples [ʃ]
[ʧ]
[ʒ]
sheep dish
church cheese
treasure pleasure There is a special voice palatal which is [ʤ ] similar to gem and judge.
Velars Even further back in the palate is a soft spot of your mouth. This is your soft palate and known as velum. This place is also used in producing sounds. The velum can come with your back part of your tongue to produce some sounds. These sounds produced by your soft palate and the back of your tongue are called velars. The sounds are: [ k ] which is a voiceless sound and [g] which is on the other hand a voiced sound. Examples
kind cool king
[k] guard go bag
[g]
There is also another velar sound that is produced when your velar is lowered, and the sound passes through your nose and that is the [ŋ]. This is also a voiced sound. Examples to this sound are bang, sing, ring. Glottals Some sounds may be produced with no active use of the parts of the human speech organs. This sound is known as glottal. The sound produced is normally called a voiceless glottal which is represented by [ h ] such as in heart, house. Similarly the sounds [w] and [j] are also considered to be glottal. Manner of Articulation You have already learned the places on which sounds specifically the consonants are produced. Knowing where they are formed is not enough. You should also know how they are produced. In this section, you will learn how sounds are formed. Stops These sounds are produced by stopping the airflow very briefly then releasing it abruptly. These sounds are produced when there is sudden blocking and stopping of the airstream. Stops are sometimes called plosives. The sounds that are produced by plosives are: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k] and [g]. Fricatives The sounds in this type are produced when air is blocked and is allowed to pass through a small opening. The air is pushed through that produces some friction which produces the sound. These sounds are produced through fricatives: [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ] and [ʒ].
Affricates These sounds are similar with stops as they require stopping but the difference with stops is that affricate sounds are released with obstruction which causes friction. The sounds that are formed in the manner are: [ ʧ ] and [ʤ ]. Nasals Sounds that pass through the nasal cavity are called nasals. These sounds are all voiced. The sounds are: [n], [m] and [ŋ]. Laterals The [r] and [l] sounds are all lateral sounds or sometimes called liquids. These sounds are formed by letting the air pass through the sides of the tongue. Glides The sounds [h], [w] and [j] are described as glides. The [h] sound is a voiceless glide, but the two others are voiced and are typically formed with the tongue in motion similar to producing a vowel.
Activity After learning the lesson, you can try doing these tasks. 1. Read the poem below. Focus on the initial sounds of the short poem. Create a tally board for each of the places of articulation.
Poem by: J.R.R. Tolkien. Roads go ever on and on Roads go ever ever on. Over rock and under tree, By caves where never sun has shone, By streams that never find the see; Over snow by winter sown And through the merry flowers of June, Over grass and over stone, And under mountains in the moon. 2. Here are some words, try to identify to which place of articulation does each word belong. Focus on the italicized part of the word. thud_______
wham _______
who_______
cheery _______
goat _______
drive _______
foot _______
hoping_______
calf _______
jolly _______
nap _______
chip _______
Analysis Given the different parts of articulation, do you think that animals can develop a means of way to communicate with each other? Do you think that animals can also use the same parts so they can produce varieties of sounds and eventually mix and match to come up with intelligible combinations? Abstraction Can you describe how Filipinos create sounds when they speak Tagalog? Do you think that these places of articulation are similar in terms of Tagalog or Filipino language? What differences do you notice in the places of articulation when you use Tagalog?
Application 1. Using a dictionary, come up with a list of words for each of the type of sound under each type of place of articulation. Make it 5 words each and highlight the sound that you are focusing on. 2. Try to use the chart below and identify how each consonant is formed. The first one is done for you. Example: [b] = bilabial stop
Reflection and Insights Answer the question below. Write your opinion on the space provided. Can places of articulation be applicable in all types of languages? Do you think that other languages will have a different way of describing how their sounds are produced?
Post-test I. From the topic that we have discussed, answer the following questions. Circle a letter for your best answer. 1. Which of the following does not belong to the group? a. [ŋ] b. [d] c. [k]
d. [g]
2. This refers to the production of sound in which the air passes through the side of the tongue. a. affricates b. fricatives c. lateral d. glides 3. To produce the sound [ ð ] what will be the combination of the place of articulation and manner of articulation? a. bilabial- nasal
b. dental-fricative
c. velar- stop
d. alveolar- fricative
4. What place of articulation is being used when we form the sound [w]? a. none b. tongue only c. tongue and velar d. tongue and lips 5. Consonants are always voiced. a. Maybe b. True II.
c. False
d. No idea
Identify what is being described in each of the following sentences below. Write your answer on the space provided.
________1. This refers to the production of sounds that allow vocal cords to relax resulting in no vibration during the passage of the air from the lungs. ________ 2. This refers to the place of articulation that makes use of both the upper and lower lips. ________3. [n], [m] and [ŋ] are the sounds that are produced with this manner of articulation ________ 4. This refers to the place of articulation that is known to be the soft back part of your mouth. ________ 5. This sound is produced with labiodental and it is voiced. Suggested References and Websites http://giftofgabfluentenglish.blogspot.com/2009/08/speech-organs-howimportant.html
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS
Lesson 5. The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Duration: 3 hours Introduction Have you ever wondered how people learned to unify the pronunciation of certain words? There are times when people do not agree on what is the correct pronunciation of the word “minute.” Some say it is read as “mi-nut” others say “maynut” and one may say “mɪnɪt.” Which one do you think is the correct way of pronouncing the word minute?
The example scenario is quite common especially when people are learning or studying a particular language. This is to ensure that common and uniform pronunciation will be performed. One aim of linguists is to come up with a good strategy to help people to uniquely learn words and the symbols associated. This is also to ensure that these symbols do not overlap with each other for distinction.
Objectives/Competencies During the 3 hour period, you are expected to: 1. Use IPA symbols in transcribing words, 2. Write short sentences using IPA symbols to illustrate proper pronunciation, and 3. Come up with guidelines on how to use IPA in transcribing or reading words Pre-test Determine what words are provided. Write the words on the space provided. 1. kʌmˌbæk =____________________ 2. prəˈvaɪd ðɛm ðɪs ˈsɜrvəs = ______________________________ 3. pɑsəˈbɪləti = _____________________________ 4. aɪ æm ˈtaɪərd = ___________________________ 5. haʊ ɑr ju = ______________________________
Lesson Proper International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a chart that is used in the English language. The symbols that we have in IPA charts are drawn from the study of Phonetics. You were already introduced with the different ways of articulation and places of articulation. In this lesson, we will learn what IPA is and how it is used in reading. Vowel When we were in the lower years, we learned that vowels are just simply a, e, i , o and u. Based on some linguists, vowels are formed with free movement of air in the mouth. All of the vowels are voiced. In American English, there are a lot of vowel sounds. When we try to learn about vowels, we need to take note that these sounds
are associated with the place they are produced. Just like consonants, they too are described in place and manner they are formed. Let us check the diagram below.
The American English vowel sounds are described in terms of height (high, middle, low); backness (front, central, back); lip position (rounded, spread, or unrounded); length (short, long, complex); and tenseness (lax, tense). Study this list. [ I ] eat, bead, bee [ ɪ ] id, bid, pit [e ] eight, wade, bay [ɛ ] bet, fed [ æ ] ask, bat, glad [ ʌ ] under, putt, bud [ ɑ ] cot, bomb
[ u ] boot, two, tube [ o ] location [ ʊ ] foot, should, put [ ɔ ] caught, paw, port [ ɚ ] merge, bird, further [ ɝ ] surfer [ ə ] above
The vowels in English language are remarkably diverse. There are many types of vowels in order to fully illustrate the different sounds produced and their distinctions from each other.
Activity Can you try transforming these words into IPA symbols? 1. back _______________ 2. bought _______________ 3. face _______________ 4. how _______________ 5. hoping _______________
6. cloak _______________ 7. who _______________ 8. bed _______________ 9. chip _______________ 10. gem _______________
Analysis Why do you think linguists have developed the International Phonetic Alphabet? Do you think that this chart is helpful? If so, how? If not, why?
Abstraction How can IPA help an English language learner in his learning experience? As a future teacher of English language, how would you use the chart in teaching students with difficulty in pronouncing words? Can this chart help people with language defects to speak properly?
Application
List down 20 words composed of Filipino languages that you know. Try to transcribe those words using the IPA.
Reflection and Insights Would spelling be a reliable source of pronunciation? Why? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
Post-test Complete the IPA transcription by providing the missing vowel sounds of each word listed below. 1.
great =
gre_t
6. blood = bl__d
2.
road =
ro__d
7. key = k__
3.
myth = m__θ
8. could = k__d
4.
laugh = l__f
9. ball = b__l
5.
move = m__v
10. support = s__ˈpɔrt
Suggested References and Websites http://ingles-americano.blogspot.com/2011/07/vowel-sounds.html
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS
Lesson 6. The Sounds of English: Phonemes and Allomorphs Duration: 3 hours Introduction In the previous lesson you were able to learn how sounds are being produced. It was also discussed that consonants and vowels have distinct places and manners of how they are formed by the human speech organs. It is therefore safe to generalize that all humans share the same process and organs to produce particular sounds. All humans share the same characteristics. However, individuals will have different qualities of producing a particular sound due to physical differences such as size and shape of vocal tracts. Because of these physical differences, people invariably pronounce the word “we.” Similarly, people will have different sounds of the word “we” in given situations. Example, during suffering from bad colds, scared, or even shouting. In this lesson you will learn how to recognize the different variations of the word “we” to other words such as see, me, tea and so many more. How do people manage to constantly recognize the word? In order to understand how people do recognition of sounds, it is the work of phonology. You have already learned that phonology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on describing the system and patterns of speech sounds in a particular language.
Objectives/Competencies During the 3 hour period, you are expected to: 1. Articulate features of sounds by listing them, 2. Describe how changes in sounds happen through analysis of a diagram, and 3. Be able to describe features of different phonemes by giving examples.
Pre-test On the space provided, transcribe the following words. Show the allomorphs or variants for /p/, /t/, /s/, /n/, /m/, and /z/. 1. people 2. potato 3. letter 4. water 5. batman
6. measure 7. pressure 8. incorrect 9. computer 10. boxes
Lesson Proper Phonemes Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound in a word which is perceived to be distinct in a language. Examples: the word “pad” has three (3) phonemes which are: /p/- /a/ and /d/. The slash marks are used to indicate that it is a phoneme. One property of phonemes is contrastive. The contrastive property of phonemes is the basic test used in determining phonemes in a language. It allows people to differentiate each phoneme from the other. A mere single substitution of a phoneme can lead to a different meaning. Examples of contrastive phonemes are /f/ and /v/. We can determine the change between fat and vat or with fine and vine. In knowing the features of phonemes, we make use of the plus sign (+ ) if the feature is available, then we use the minus sign ( - ). Let us take this example: the phoneme / f / -voice, +labiodental, + fricative. Another example is with /h/ -voice, +glottal, +glides. You must identify if each phoneme is voiced, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. Allomorphs You already know that phonemes have distinct sounds and they can be readily distinguished from other phonemes. However, each phoneme can have a variation on how it is produced by the mouth. Phones are the phonetic units produced by the mouth and the word allo- means closely related to or variant. Therefore, the word allophones mean, phonetic sounds closely related to a particular phoneme. Let us take this example: /t/ sound
In the word “tar” /t/ is pronounced as regular /t/ “star” /t/ is pronounced as /th/ “writer” /t/ sound is produced as /d/ The sounds /th/ and /d/ which correspond to the /t/ sounds on the given examples are what you call allophones.
The distinction of phoneme to allophones is that; when we replace a phoneme and the meaning of the word changes therefore it is a phoneme. When the change in sound production does not make any change in meaning, it is an allophone. Activity Research from different references on what allophones do the following sounds have. Cite examples on how these phonemes change. 1. /p/ 2. /k/ Analysis A good example of allophone is the /s/ sound.
Study the /s/ sound and its allophones. Discuss what the table means and give some examples on each allophone.
Abstraction Since you have already learned how to identify the features of a phoneme, can you explain what rule there may be in combining consonants?
Why do you think we have the combination of /p/ + /r/ as a common combination but not /r/ + /p/?
Why do you think we do not see combinations like: 1. /l/ +/s/ = ls 2. /h/ +/s/ = hs Application List down some words in your mother tongue that have allophones. Tell how the changes happen. Reflection and Insights What do you think is the impact of allophones to the daily conversations of humans? Do you think allophones can cause misunderstanding during conversations? _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
Post-test On the space provided, transcribe the following words. Show the allomorphs or variants for /p/, /t/, /s/, /n/, /m/, and /z/. 1. tomato 2. bitter 3. legacy 4. girls 5. plants
6. leisure 7. assurance 8. indecent 9. writer 10. rider
Suggested References and Websites Source: https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/adam/files/phonology.ppt.pdf
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS
Lesson 7. Broad and Narrow Transcriptions Introduction In narrow transcription, you will learn the detailed descriptions of phones in terms of their physical attributes. Compared to broad transcription, it provides explanations how phonemes behave in different phonological environments. These changes manifest in terms of phonetic differentiation. Objectives/Competencies During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. Differentiate long and short vowels through narrow transcription, 2. Illustrate finer phonetic features through narrow transcription, and 3. Transcribe selected words in narrow transcription. Pre-test Group the words below in two columns: A for short vowels and B for long vowels. deal feel deep fill dill heat dip hit
A- Short /I/ 1. ____________ 2. ____________ 3. ____________ 4. ____________ 5. ____________
meal mill peak pick
seal ship seat sick seek sill sheep sit
B- Long /i/ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Lesson Proper As explained in the previous lessons, no two languages are the same. Each language is unique and has peculiarities. In comparing languages on the phonological level,
you will notice that there are some phonological features that are not shared by two languages. One of which is the difference between long and short vowels. Failure to recognize the differences between short and long vowels results in the inability to perceive their differences both in receptive and productive skills, listening and speaking, respectively. Surprisingly, the same difficulty may occur in writing and reading as well. Hence, it is very important to get yourself familiar with both broad and narrow transcriptions. In this lesson, you learn to read words as they are transcribed in two ways. Broad transcription is also known as phonemic transcription. It uses slashes. Narrow transcription, which is also known as phonemic transcription, used square brackets. Narrow transcription is more detailed because it considers the physical properties of every speech sound or phone. Aspirated Stops Stops are consonant sounds which are produced with the complete impedance or obstruction of the flow of speech air through the closure of the upper and the lower lips which is immediately followed by a sudden release. Hence, stops are identified with the final position in a word like top, put, book. However, stops become aspirated when they are in initial position. In the case of /t/, it is aspirated both in the initial position or middle position provided that it is part of the stressed or accented syllable. In the final position, stops are unreleased or unaspirated. In narrow transcription, a superscript of /h/ is used. In the case of ‘cook’, only the initial /k/ is aspirated. See the examples below.
Unreleased Stops To indicate that the stop is unreleased, a superscript of /o/ is used. Unreleased indicates that the speech air is not allowed to pass through even a small passage between the lips of teeth.
Flaps When the phoneme /t/ is between two vowels, it is in an intervocalic position. Because it is between two vowels, the unvoiced /t/ becomes similar to /d/. Hence, we use [D] in narrow transcription. Below are examples of flaps.
Dental Consonants Consonants which are placed in close proximity tend to affect each other. The interdental /Ɵ/, for example, assimilates the lateral /l/ such that it becomes dentalized, that is, it is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the upper and the lower teeth. Observe the symbol used beneath /l/, /n/, and /t/. The symbol stands for dentalization.
Velarized / ɫ / The lateral / ɫ / behaves differently in different phonemic environments. If a word ends win a / ɫ /, the sound of the consonant manifests a backward movement of the tip of the tongue. Velarization is represented by a small bar placed across / ɫ /. Compare the examples below.
Voiceless Liquids and Glides Liquids and glides are voiced, but they become voiceless when placed near voiceless consonants like /p/, /s/, and /k/. A small zero is placed beneath a liquid or a glide to indicate that it is voiceless. See the examples below.
Lengthened Vowels Length is phonemic. The meaning of a word changes significantly when the sound of a vowel is lengthened. The symbol for vowel length is a colon [:]. Imagine the communication breakdown if you miss to use a lengthened vowel when you ask a friend, Do you enjoy going to the beach?
Nasalized Vowels Nasalization means letting the air pass through the nasal cavity. When a vowel is near to a nasal consonant, that vowel also becomes nasalized as well. To indicate a nasalized vowel, we use a tilde, a small diacritic in niño, the Spanish word for boy.
Activity Give four examples for every type of phonetic or narrow transcription and have them transcribed using appropriate phonetic characters and square brackets. Category of Phonetic Transcription
Examples
1. Aspirated Stops
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
2. Unreleased Stops
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
3. Flaps
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
4. Dental Consonant
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
5. Velarization
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
6. Voiceless Liquids and Glides
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
7. Lengthened Vowels
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
8. Nasalized Vowels
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
Abstraction Explain how phonemes behave differently in different phonological environments. You may go back to the preliminary parts of this lesson to support your answer. Write your explanation below. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
Application Using your output above, write the words in narrow transcription. Category of Phonetic Transcription
Narrow Transcription
1. Aspirated Stops
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
2. Unreleased Stops
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
3. Flaps
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
4. Dental Consonant
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
5. Velarization
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
6. Voiceless Liquids and Glides
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
7. Lengthened Vowels
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
8. Nasalized Vowels
_______________ _______________
_______________ _______________
Reflection and Insights Which of the phonetic changes do you find most challenging? Do you consider this as a challenge or potential problem area in teaching English to speakers of other languages? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
Post-test Transcribe ‘The Lord’s Prayer” in the space below using narrow transcription. Disregard here the use of square brackets. Make the transcriptions linear.
The Lord’s Prayer Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name; thy kingdom come; thy
_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________
will be done; on earth as it is
_______________________________
in heaven.
_______________________________
Give us this day our daily bread.
_______________________________ _______________________________
And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, the power and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen.
_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________
Suggested References and Websites
The examples in the above narrow transcriptions are accessed from Crabtree, M. & Powers, J. (Comp.) (1991). Language Files, 5th ed. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
UNIT 2. PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS Lesson 8. The Great Vowel Shift in English Duration: 3 hours Introduction Every language is dynamic. As such, every language changes. If a language does not change or the rules are fixed and no new words are added to that language, it is a dead language. Linguists consider English as a living language as it permits changes and accommodates new words. You have known in your previous lessons in English that this language belongs to Indo-European family of languages and its transition from the original structure to its divergent form is attributed to change. Objectives/Competencies During the 3 hour period, you are expected to: 1. Discuss how pronunciation changes and what factors affect it, 2. Provide examples of pronunciation changes, and 3. Propose possible new sound combinations or word pronunciation Pre-test Determine what is the correct pronunciation of the words; put a check mark on the space provided. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
bagel caramel syrup almond salmon
____bay-gull ____ car-ml ____ seer-up ____ ahl-mend ____ sahmon
vs vs vs vs vs
____ ____ ____ ____ ____
bah-gull car-a-mel sirr-up am-end sahlmon
Lesson Proper During the travel or the migration of the known ancestors of English, known as the Anglo-Saxon, various but related languages emerged. Many proofs can relate the modern English language to other languages that are drawn from the same source. English language loaned words from different groups of people either their conquerors or the people they have conquered. Some of the words that have been borrowed are from government, nobility, military, food, and art. Definitely, these words originally had their own form and due to borrowing and time, change occurred. We sometimes refer to the older version of English as Middle English, which was believed to be the type of English language spoken in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. One prominent feature of change that distinguishes Modern English to Middle English is the so-called Great Vowel Shift (GVS). This refers to the changes of pronunciation that happened in English language. The shift has heavily influenced other types of Englishes. You already have an idea on how language has changed and from the article you will read below, you will find out that there are many factors which can contribute to the gradual change of language. Read the article and try to check how changes happened in the English language
GVS can be manifested in many examples, this is due to the different mouth and tongue positioning of speakers. A good example of sound that underwent change is the word “hoose” which originally meant dwelling. This word has changed now to “house.”
Another example is the word “coo” which refers to cows nowadays. Many people are still trying to make changes in pronunciation and linguists believe that GVS will still continue to happen as English varieties prosper and many regional dialects of English emerge. One manifestation of GVS is the emergence of new sound combinations which are mostly turning to new types of diphthongs.
In the illustration below, the process of combination of sounds is explained. This process also happens in GVS
Activity To understand more about GVS, try to check this video https://youtu.be/zyhZ8NQOZeo
Analysis Investigate about the Push Theory and Pull Theory that affected the Great Vowel Shift.
Application
Do you consider the phonological differences between British and American varieties of English a consequence of the Great Vowel Shift? Write your explanation below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Reflection and Insights What do you think are the common reasons why languages change? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Post-test Below is the passage from Matthew 6:9-13 in Anglo-Saxon language ( 410 to 1066 CE) and New International Version of the Bible (21st Century). Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, Si þin nama gehalgod. To becume þin rice, gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum. and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. soþlice.
Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And lead us not into temptation but deliver us from the evil one.
List down some words that have persisted from the Anglo-Saxon Period to the 21st century. Discuss how these words have changed over the last 1,500 years. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Suggested References and Websites https://www.slideshare.net/mlmohlere/great-vowel-shift-64524575 https://www.larapedia.com/english_the_english_language/the_english_langu age.html
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX Lesson 9. Free, Bound, Derivational, and Inflectional Morphemes Duration: 3 hours Introduction Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have described into categories. As a future educator, you need to figure-out the different functions of morphemes or words according to its categories. Moreover, as you study morphemes, you will identify the different kinds of morphemes and their own uses in language. Objectives/Competencies 1. Identify the different types of morphemes 2. Analyze the different usage of the categories of morphemes. 3. Differentiate the different categories of morphemes. Pre-test This first part of your module will not only test your prior knowledge but will also introduce you to the next lesson. Check the box of your choice. YES
MAYBE
NO
1. Morphemes only deals with words.
2. Free morphemes are words that can stand alone.
3. Bound morphemes are divided in three categories which are lexical, derivational, and inflectional.
4. Lexical morphemes refers to bases of the words.
5. Morphemes can be a conjunction, a verb, or an article.
Lesson Proper Morphemes are the smallest grammatical units of language. They can be classified as free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, or bound morphemes, which must be combined with another morpheme to form a complete word. In the English language, bound morphemes naturally appear as affixes. Free morphemes are also called the root words. These words are can stand alone (such as "bag") and cannot be divided into smaller meaning units. Most free morphemes can be improved by affixes to form complex words and compound words through combining two free morphemes like bookmark, while free morphemes modified by affixes are complex words like beginner. Free morphemes are divided in two categories which called as lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Lexical Morphemes are words that make the main meaning of a sentence. These includes nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Examples Noun: bag, book, pencil Verbs: run, seek, walk, dance Adjectives: kind, fast, sad, quick These words are vital parts of a sentence. The gist and meaning of these words might change when joined with other morphemes, but their free morphemes will still make up the content of the sentence.
Functional
morphemes
consist
of
articles,
auxiliaries,
prepositions,
demonstratives, quantifiers, pronouns, and conjunctions. Examples of free morphemes as functional morphemes • Articles: the, a, an • Auxiliary Verbs: will, is, must, does • Quantifiers: some, many, few • Demonstratives: this, that, those, these • Prepositions: under, over, to, by • Pronouns: he, she, his, her • Conjunctions: for, and, but, or
Functional morphemes serve as a grammatical connection between lexical morphemes. They are not usually added or connected with affixes that change their meaning. Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand alone. It has no linguistic meaning unless they are combined and united to a root word, or even in another bound morphemes. These morphemes have no linguistic meaning unless they are linked or connected to a root word, or other bound morpheme. Bound morphemes can be clustered and grouped into two categories: inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. Inflectional morphemes alter the grammatical function of a word whether mood, verb tense, or another language inflection. These morphemes cannot change the meaning, but the suffixes can change the word condition. The eight inflectional morphemes are organized by which part of speech they modify:
Modify a Noun: -s (or -es), -'s (or s') Modify an Adjective: -er, -est Modify a Verb: -ed, -ing, -en
Derivational Morphemes alters and changes the semantic meaning of a word. Most derivational morphemes have roots in Greek or Latin. These morphemes can change a word's part of speech. Prefixes: pre-, un-, non-, anti-, disSuffixes: -ize, -ine, -ary, -ate, -ion
Activity Analyze the given word in each number and identify the free and bound morphemes. Use the table below. WORD
FREE MORPHEME
BOUND MORPHEME ex. beautiful
beauty -ful 1. singing 2. refrigerator 3. assignment 4. cheaply 5. separation 6. unbreakable 7. employment 8. hunter 9. generosity 10. steadfastness
Analysis The components of the morphologically complex words below have been separated by a hyphen (-). Indicate which of these morphemes are bound and which is free, and which bound morphemes are inflectional and derivational.
Ex. Care-ful care (free), -ful (bound, inflectional) 1. kind-ness 2. dance-ing 3. teach-er 4. fright-en 5. understand-able
6. king-dom 7. favorite-ism 8. speak-s 9. award-ed 10. achieve-ment
Abstraction Using the free morphemes below add a bound morpheme and write the new meaning of the word. OLD WORD ex. use
NEW WORD useful
MEANING valuable or productive in kind
1. coordinate 2. tremendous 3. suffocate 4. product 5. possible 6. learn 7. book 8. collect 9. phone 10. paint 11. comfortable 12. wash 13. happy 14. marine 15. acid Application Create ten sentences and label and underline four words that has different types of morphemes. L for lexical morpheme, F for functional, I for inflectional and D for derivational. ex. The businesswoman is selling goods online strategically. F 1.
L
I
D
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Reflection and Insights Reflect on what have you learned about morphemes. What are the implications of the way you learned in teaching new generation of 21 st century learners? Write your insights on the lines provided below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Post-test Answer the following questions to assess your understanding on the lesson.
1. Identify the two types of morphemes? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 2. Differentiate lexical morphemes to functional morphemes? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ 3. How does inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes dissimilar from each other? _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
Suggested References and Websites To enrich your understanding in the given lesson you may read relevant article on the website below.
http://punjabirevolution.com/index.php/morphology/
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX Lesson 10. Morphophonemic Changes and Types of Word Formation Introduction Language is a vital aspect in the life of every human being. We use it to express emotions and thoughts, make sense of abstract and complex ideas, and also to learn how to communicate with others. When we communicate with native speaker, we need a speak with good language and proper pronunciation. Therefore, in English we know about linguistics and its process of learning. Morphology is the study of word structure. It seeks to describe the system of rules and categories involved in word formation and interpretation. Morphology is related with morphophonology, the aspect of linguistics which studies about the phonological structure of morphemes, the alternative series which serve a morphological function and the combinatory phonic modifications of morphemes which occur when they are combined. Morphophonemic change occurs when some phonological features change as a corollary of their phonological environments. Objectives/Competencies a. Identify the different types of word formations. b. Explain the different types of word formations. c. Discuss the process of morphophonemic changes. d. Create a digital organizer containing different word formation and morphophonemic changes. Pre-test This first part of your module will not only test your prior knowledge but will also introduce you to the next lesson. Check the box of your choice. YES MAYBE NO
1. Morphophonemic changes can be classified in different processes.
2. Compounding forms a word out of two or morphemes
3. Assimilation is a type of word formation.
4. A fusion of two phonemes can brought together by combining morphemes into a single phoneme.
5. Morphophonemic changes can change the form of the word. Lesson Proper 1. Loss of phoneme - The loss of phoneme /t/ w word class (adjective to a noun) e.g. different → difference; democrat → democracy 2. Addition of phonemes- The addition of “s” in a word to change it. sword → swordsman; sale → salesgirl; craft → craftsman 3. Simple change of phonemes - The change from singular to plural like the example above. e.g. dog → dogs 4. Assimilation – Dissimilation Assimilation is the process of substituting a sound by another sound under the effect of a third sound which is near to it in the word or sentence. 5. Synthesis- There is the combination of the two phonemes brought together by morpheme combination into a single new phoneme. 6. Stress shift, gradation- The addition of an affix to a word is together with a shift in stress called stress shift 7. Suppletion- This type of morphophonemic change is the incidence of the allomorph totally different in phonemic construction from the normal form. Such are some common change of morphophonemic in English. If we can guess the rule behind the different kind of pronunciation or monomorphemic that occurred, it will make it cooler and easier for us to learn English.
Types of Word Formation Compounding pertains to forming a word out of two or more root morphemes. These are called compounds or compound words. It can be either native or borrowed. Native English roots are commonly free morphemes, meaning to say native compounds are made out of independent words that can arise by themselves.
Examples: mailman, mail carrier, doghouse, fireplace, fire hydrant, dry run, cupcake, cup holder, email, e-ticket Some compounds have a preposition as one of the component words like pick-up truck and talking-to Roots do not typically stand alone in Greek and Latin, in contrast to English. Therefore, compounds are composed of bound roots. Compound words shaped in English from derived Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this distinctive. Some examples are photograph, iatrogenic, and many thousands of other conventional words. Note that compounds are written in various ways in English: with a space between the elements; with a hyphen between the elements; or only with the two roots run together with no separation. Words written in this way do not affect its status as a compound. Later on, the way for writing compounds can also change, such as the word email used to be written with a hyphen before. In the 19th century, today and tomorrow were occasionally still written to-day and to-morrow. The particle to formerly was the preposition to with an older meaning 'at [a specific period of time]'. Clock work changed to clock-work and finally to one word with no break, clockwork. Some compound words in earlier literature are now written as one word appearing with unfamiliar spaces or hyphens between the components. Another thing to note about compound words is how different parts of speech can be combined with each other. Some common examples are the nounnoun combination, yet, there are others, like adjective-noun (dry run, blackbird, hard drive), verb-noun (pick-pocket, cut-purse, lick-spittle) and even verb-particle (where 'particle' means a word mostly entitling spatial expression that means to complete a literal or metaphorical path), such as run-through, or hold-over. Occasionally, these compounds are different in the part of speech of the whole compound vs. the part of speech of its components. Remember that the last two are nouns, despite their components. Some compounds have more than two component words. These are formed by sequentially combining words into compounds, such as pick-up truck, formed from pick-up and truck, where the first component, pick-up is itself a compound formed from pick and up. Additional examples are no-fault insurance, ice-cream cone, and even more complex compounds like top-rack dishwasher safe. There are a number of subtypes of compounds that do not relate with part of speech, yet the sound characteristics of the words. These subtypes are not commonly exclusive. Rhyming compounds (subtype of compounds) These words are formed or compounded from two rhyming words. Examples: Lovey-dovey, chiller-killer
There are words that are very alike to rhyming compounds but are not quite compounds in English for the reason that the second component is not really a word--it is only a nonsense item added to a root word to form a rhyme. Examples: higgledy-piggledy tootsie-wootsie This formation process is connected in English with child talk precisely called hypocoristic language. Examples: bunnie-wunnie, Henny Penny, snugglywuggly, Georgie Porgie, Piggie-Wiggie Another word type that similar a bit to rhyming compounds includes words that are formed of two components that almost match but differ in their vowels. The second element is naturally a nonsense form Examples: pitterpatter, zigzag, tick-tock, riffraff, flipflop Derivation is the creation of words by alteration of a root without the addition of other roots. Frequently the effect is a change in part of speech. Affixation (Subtype of Derivation) Affixation is the addition of one or more affixes to a root, as in the word derivation itself. A term which shelters both prefixation and suffixation and this process is called affixation. Blending is of word formation processes in English that loved almost by everyone. Speakers take two words and merge them based not on morpheme structure but on sound structure. The result is called blends. Commonly in word formation we join or combine roots or affixes along their boundaries: one morpheme comes to an end before the next one starts. Like, when we form derivation out of the sequence of morphemes de+riv+at(e) +ion. One morpheme follows the next and each one has recognizable boundaries. But in blending, part of one word is stitched onto one more word, without any regard for where one morpheme ends, and another begins. Examples include glitterati=glitter+literati mean 'Hollywood social set', mockumentary= mock+documentary means 'spoof documentary'. These are some common blends that we usually use. 1. brunch (breakfast and lunch) 2. motel (motor hotel) 3. electrocute (electric and execute) 4. smog (smoke and fog) 5. cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger) 6. stagflation (stagnation and inflation) 7. spork (spoon and fork)
8.
carjacking (car and hijacking)
Here are some more recent blends. 1. mocktail (mock and cocktail) 'cocktail with no alcohol' 2. splog (spam and blog) 'fake blog designed to attract hits and raise Google-ranking' 3. Britpoperati (Britpop and literati) 'those knowledgeable about current British pop music' Clipping is a kind of abbreviation of a word in which one part is 'clipped' off from the whole word, and the remaining word now means fundamentally the equivalent thing as what the whole word means or meant. Example rifle=rifle gun (means having a spiral groove causing the bullet to spin, and thus making it more accurate) Burger=hamburger (This could only come about once hamburg+er was reanalyzed as ham+burger.) Acronyms are formed by getting the initial or first letters of a phrase and making a word out of it. Acronyms turned a phrase into a word. The usual acronym is also pronounced as a word. Examples: Scuba(Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus Snafu (Situation Normal All Fucked Up) Sometimes an acronym uses also the first syllable of a component word. Examples Radar-RAdio Detection And Ranging SonarSOund Navigation and Ranging. Initialisms include words made out from the first letters of a phrase yet NOT pronounced as a normal word – instead, it is pronounced as a string of letters. Organization names are some initialisms Examples: NOW (National Organization of Women) US or U.S., USA or U.S.A. (United States) UN or U.N. (United Nations) IMF (International Monetary Fund) Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word: UNICEF MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving) The last example integrates a meaning into the word that turns the nature of the organization. This type is called a Backronym OR Reverse Acronym. Some example of special case of acronyms.
Memos, email, and text messaging are manners of communication that give rise to both clippings and acronyms, since these word formation methods are designed to abbreviate. Some acronyms: NB - Nota bene, literally 'note well'. Used by intellectuals making notes on texts. BRB - be right back (from 1980s, 90s) FYI - for your information (from mid-20th century) LOL - laughing out loud (early 21st century) - now pronounced either /lol/ or /el o el/; has spawned compounds like Lolcats). ROFL - rolling on the floor laughing ROFLMAO - rolling on the floor laughing my ass off Reanalysis Sometimes speakers create a new morph or making an old one unrecognizable that happen unconsciously when change they morphological boundaries of a word. This occurred in hamburger, which was initially Hamburger steak 'chopped and formed steak in the Hamburg style, then hamburger (hamburg + er), then ham + burger Folk etymology A common and popular idea of a word's etymology or origin that is not in harmony with its real etymology. Some cases of reanalysis of many folk etymologies are which the word is not only reanalysis, but it deviates under the effect of the new understanding of its morphemes. The outcome is that speakers think it has a different origin than it does. Analogy Speakers in analogy take an existing word as a model and create other words using some of its morphemes as a fixed part, with an analogically similar meaning they will change the other one to something new. An example is the word cheeseburger it was formed on the analogy of hamburger, substituting apparent morpheme ham with cheese. carjack and skyjack were also formed by analogy. Novel creation In novel creation, a writer or speaker forms a word without beginning from other morphemes. It is as if the word if formed out of 'whole cloth', without reusing any parts. Examples Blimp, googol (the mathematical term), bling, which appeared in the last 200 years with no clear etymology. Some novel creations likely to show 'sound symbolism', in which a word's phonological form recommends its meaning in some way. Like the sound of
the word bling appears to evoke heavy jewelry making noise. Another novel creation whose sound seems to tell its meaning is badonkadonk, 'female rear end', a copied word which can remind English speakers of the monotonous movement of the rear end while walking.
Creative respelling Sometimes words are formed by changing the spelling of a word that the speaker wants to create to a new word. Product names often involve creative respelling, like the brand Mr. Kleen. Activity Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the word at the end of each sentence. 1. When my cellphone was kept on lagging, I realized that I needed to _____________ it with a new one. (PLACE) 2. He has an _____________ resume, I will hire him. (IMPRESS) 3. He has achieved recognition and respect as a _____________. (SCIENTIST) 4. Life is just like a painting. Many things make it colorful and _____________. (MEANING) 5. Do not worry it is safe. The helmet and _____________ chambers will protect you. (INFLATE) 6. Mrs. Villegas is really _____________. She did not remember when she placed her wedding ring. (FORGET) 7. A _____________ is a must. When you want to dine-in in that restaurant. (SERVE) 8. Joanna changes her _____________ settings in Facebook for safety purposes. (PRIVATE) 9. The _____________ in paying in the cashier was too slow. 10. The President’s _____________ about lockdown is to prevent the spread of virus. (ANNOUNCE) Analysis Change the following words according to the given parts of speech. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
fortunate (adverb) satisfy (noun) necessary (noun) mountain (adjective) entertain (noun) energy (adjective) believe (noun)
11. happy (noun) 12. invite (noun) 13. regular (adverb) 14. expense (adjective) 15. success (adjective) 16. globe (adjective) 17. grace (adverb)
8. direct (adverb) 9. envy (adjective) 10. free (noun)
18. frequent (adverb) 19. argue (noun) 20. reason (adjective)
Abstraction Give five examples of the following in each type of word formation. CLIPPING 1.
COMPOUND WORD ACRONYMS 1. 1. 1.
2.
2. 2.
2.
3.
3. 3.
3.
4.
4. 4.
4.
5.
5. 5.
5.
BLENDING
Application Research about different examples of word formation. Create your own inforgraph or digital graphic organizer that you can use as a future educator. Use the rubric below as your guide. Reflection and Insights Reflect on what you have learned about morphophonemic changes and types of word formation. What are the implications of the way you learned in teaching the new generation of 21 st century learners? How will you make the lesson creative and meaningful? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Post-test This checklist will assess your total understanding of the concepts and competency level for Introduction to Linguistics. You will rate yourself based on overall evaluation as illustrated in the table.
Performance Standards
Yes
No
Identify the different types of word formation
Explain the different types of word formation.
Differentiate the different of formation.
characteristics
word
Explain the process of morphophonemic changes
List down the types of word formation
Give different examples of word formation according to its type.
Integrating different types of word formation in creating graphic organizer
Suggested References and Websites Sabtu. (2013). Morphonemic Process. Retrieved from: http://aridewi13.blogspot.com/2013/11/morphophonemic-proccess.html
UNIT 3. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX Lesson 11. Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammars Introduction Grammar means different things to different people. It may refer to set of rules to regulate certain aspects of use. Generally, grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive. Objectives/Competencies 1. Explain the usage of descriptive and prescriptive grammar. 2. Differentiate descriptive grammar from prescriptive grammar. Pre-test This checklist will assess your understanding of the concepts of language. You will rate yourself based on overall evaluation as illustrated in the table. Performance Standards Identify the different types of word formation
Yes
No
Explain the different types of word formation.
Differentiate the different characteristics of word formation.
Explain the process of morphophonemic changes
List down the types of word formation
Give different examples of word formation according to its type.
Integrating different types of word formation in creating graphic organizer
Lesson Proper
Descriptive Grammar Descriptive grammar stresses the style how either native or non-native speakers use the language on their daily lives. Therefore, the set of rules about the language is according on how the language is spoken or used and not how the language should be spoken or used. Descriptive approach is usually followed by the linguists, where they can study the patterns and rules on words and sentences used by the speakers. Descriptive grammar does not explicate or explain which grammar is correct or not. In this means, this approach is defined as ‘objective description of the grammatical constructions of the language’. The principles and patterns that underlie the use of words, phrases, and clauses, and sentences of the specific users and speakers of the language was studied and examined by descriptive grammarians.
According to Greenbaum and Quirk (1990), “A descriptive grammar is a study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily life by its speakers from all walks of life, including standard and nonstandard varieties.” Additionally, based on the definition provided by Edwin L. Battistella “Descriptive grammar is the basis for dictionaries, which record changes in vocabulary and usage, and for the field of linguistics, which aims at describing languages and investigating the nature of language.” Prescriptive Grammar Prescriptive grammar views and asserts what language use ought to be by setting some parameters on how language have to be used. In this means, this approach has set of rules that impart and teach the speaker the most precise and the correct way to use the language. The grammar and the language standard can be achieved by letting the speakers learn what should be used and what should be avoided. The use of prescriptive grammar started in the 18th century, in which the social elites desired to prescribe the standard form of language. This approach attempts to impose and enforce rules regarding the “correct” usage of a language. In addition, prescriptive grammar requires how aspects of language should be used. This employs for teaching those who use nonnative or nonstandard language forms. “Prescriptivism” and “normative grammar” also denote this feature of grammar. The prescriptivists’ view of language infers the difference between “good grammar” and “bad grammar”. This approach of grammar usually incorporates many opinions, ideas, and judgments about when and how grammar rules ought to be used (Greenbaum, 1996). According to Ilse Depraetere and Chad Langford (2012), “A prescriptive grammar is one that gives hard and fast rules about what is right (or grammatical) and what is wrong (or ungrammatical), often with advice about what not to say but with little explanation.” For instance, if someone says; “She and me were arguing about the performance”. A descriptive grammarian will clarify this sentence as grammatical while a prescriptive grammarian will tell this sentence is incorrect since it has violated the standard rules of grammar with the improper usage of ‘me’ with “She” (where it should be She and I). Activity Talk with one of your classmates, list information about descriptive and prescriptive grammar. List all the information that you have and create a Venn diagram comparing and contrasting the approaches of grammar.
Analysis Based on your answers above, how do you come up with those answers? Which do you think is often used and why?
Abstraction Which do you think is more important approach in grammar? Which do you think is the best to be learn by a future educator like you?
Application As a future educator, how does descriptive and prescriptive grammar help you to become an effective educator? Elaborate your answer. Reflection and Insights Write your key take away about the lesson prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Post-test Identify the statement if it is about descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar. Check the box of your answer. Statement
Descriptive Prescriptive
Grammar 1. It usually avoids clichés such phrases with no longer interesting.
Grammar
2. It usually omits contractions.
3. The verb should always agree with subjects
4. Using split infinitives is prohibited.
5. It is allowed to start a sentence with because
Suggested References and Websites https://pediaa.com/difference-between-descriptive-and-prescriptive-grammar/
UNIT 4. SEMANTICS Lesson 12. Meaning: The Transformational Generative and The Systemic Functional Turns Introduction Transformational generative grammar (TGG) and systemic functional grammar (SFG) are two of the most significant contemporary schools of thought theoretical linguistic. Previous literature has mostly taken the two models as two contrastive perspectives to language. These two grammatical models focused on how they could be assured together to complement each other in terms of linguistic competence, syntax, and pragmatics, thus creating a more comprehensive and inclusive picture of language. This module tends to discuss on the application of these two grammars models. SFG and TGG complement each other and together present us a more rounded and holistic picture of language with their own definition and meaning. Objectives/Competencies During the three-hour period you are expected to 1. Identify the Transformational Generative Grammar and Systemic Functional Turns 2. Differentiate the two grammatical models 3. Explain the impact of the grammatical model in English
The
Pre-test Identify the following terms. Write your answer on the space provided. ______________ 1. It is a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among the various elements of a sentence and among the possible sentences of a language and uses processes or rules. ______________ 2. He is the one who established and developed systemic functional grammar.
______________ 3. It categorizes our perceptive on the basis of our experience. ______________ 4. It relates to a text’s aspects of tenor or interactivity. ______________ 5. It systematizes our understanding and experience of the world.
Lesson Proper Transformational Generative Grammar Noam Chomsky is one of the most influential linguists of the second half of the 20th century and beyond. His seminal work Syntactic Structures (1957) has initiated reconceptualization in contemporary linguistics. It challenged the norms set by his predecessors, the so-called American Structuralism. This new approach would put syntax at the center of the theory of language and disregard empiricist and discovery actions put forth by recognized structuralists. The existence of some underlying transformational rules was advocated by Chomsky, together with the morphophonemic rules and phrase structure, that let us speakers of language to produce different kinds of sentences, differing from the standard-kernel-sentence, which is simple, declarative, and active. BACKGROUND Ferdinand de Saussure’s Structuralism and American Structuralism (20th century) Before the Chomskyan revolt struck, the linguistic theory that was mostly acknowledged was Structuralism. The beliefs of structuralisms revolved around the study of languages from scratch, by recognizing the smallest linguistic units: phonemes, morphemes, phrases, clauses, sentences and so on. As defined by Bloomfield, the practice employed was named ‘discovery procedures. Hence, higher linguistic levels -sentences- were appealed to be built out of lower linguistic levels. The objective of the empiricists about the scientific approach of languages is based on study of languages which constructed on a corpus of actual utterances without appeal to meaning (semantic criteria). Additional condition was the avoidance of mixing linguistic levels, e.g., not resorting to morphology to explain a syntactic phenomenon, or else the study of any language would be rejected and thus flawed.
At the level of science, many of their approaches were unsuccessful to deliver a thorough study of languages, as they manifestly had to resort to different linguistic levels and semantic standards to account for certain
phenomena. If we take the proposition that morphemes are made of phonemes, as in the case of the past simple of look –> look-ed (/lʊkt/) , how could we go about explaining the construction of irregular past forms such as went? Where is the phoneme /d/, /Id/ or /t/ in that word? Here we have one of the inconsistencies and conflicts that Structuralists had to discourse somehow, and therefore failing in their methods and beliefs. Syntactic Structures (1957) by Noam Chomsky The preliminary point of this new era in linguistics was released by the publication of this book, a linguistic current that has been painstakingly examined and modified, though only an account of the first TGG principles and beliefs will be provided. • The fundamental goals in the linguistic analysis of a language L will be to distinct the grammatical sentences from the ungrammatical ones and study those grammatical sentences. The grammar of the language is said to create an infinite number of grammatical sentences, excluding the ungrammatical ones. • One of the perplexing points at issue is to discuss what grammaticality means and what it does not mean. The grammaticality of the sentence centers upon the native speakers’ acceptability, i.e., their intuition, though we should not be tricked into thinking that non-sensical sentences must be exempted of the grammatical ones. In fact, nonsensical sentences can be structural insofar as these sentences are suitable in grammatical terms and adequacy. Contemplate on the following example, taken from Chomsky’s book: e.g. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously e.g. Furiously sleeps ideas green colorless The first sentence, regardless of not making any meaning, it is grammatically correct and the second one is totally ungrammatical. Semantics must be disconnected from syntax and considered as an autonomous and independent field. •
The grammar of any given i-language is finite i.e. involves of limited number of phonemes, morphemes, and words- thus far these, once joint, may generate an unlimited number of sentences.
•
A theory of any i-language must account not only for the sentences that have been said and registered in a body, but also for an infinite number of sentences that have not been said yet.
•
A kernel (or standard) sentence is painstaking a simple, declarative, active sentence. (e.g. The boy broke the window).
•
The example sentence is expected to go through several stages: phrasestructure rules, transformational rules, and morphophonemic rules.
Phrase structure rules
S –> NP + VP NP –> Det + N VP –> V + NP etc. The application of these rules denotes a derivational process, by means of which we attain the string of constituents of a given example sentence by applying the rules aforementioned.
Transformational rules
These can be either obligatory or optional, and their goal is to produce a new string of elements out of a given string. An obligatory transformation could be the S-V agreement, whereas an optional transformation would be, for example, the formation of a negative sentence. Considered the sentence: They have come. Negation (Tnot hereafter) is a transformational process that would apply in this specific string NP – C + have, adding n’t/not after the second unit of the string. The terminal string of the abovementioned sentence is they – Ø + have-en+come, which after the application of Tnot would appear as they – Ø + have + not – en + come, which rendered in actual speech after the application of the morphophonemic rules would obtain, They have not come.
Other optional transformations would be passive constructions, cleft sentences, etc.
Systemic Functional Grammar
Michael Halliday developed and established a model of grammar which is Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) in the 1960s. It is part of a comprehensive social semiotic approach to language called systemic language. The word “systemic” means interconnected sets of selections for making meaning. The term “functional” refers to the approach that contextualized, it is a practical use to which language is put, as different from formal grammar, which concerned on compositional semantics, syntax, and word classes such as nouns, pronouns, and verbs. SFG focuses on the choices of grammar that makes available to writers and speakers. The intentions to the concrete form of language to the choices of speakers and writers. Conventionally the “choices” are viewed in terms of either the structure of the language used or the content. In addition, SFG analyzed the language in three different ways (strata): phonology, semantics, and lexicogrammar. This model presents a view of language in terms of both words and grammar.
Metafunction According to SFG, the bases of grammatical phenomena are divided into three broad areas: the interpersonal, the ideational, and the textual metafunctions.
Ideational function The ideational metafunction is separated into two: logical and experiential metafunctions. The experiential metafunction organizes our understanding and experience of the world. It is the latent of the language to interpret figures with elements for example are screen shots of a moving picture or pictures of a comic novel. Its potential to distinguish these elements into processes, the contributors in these processes, and the conditions in which the processes occur. The logical metafunction works above the experiential. It categorizes our perceptive on the basis of our experience. It is the potential of the language to understand logical relations between figures; such as “this happened after that happened” or, with more experience, “this happens every time that happens”. The ideational metafunction narrates to the field features of a text, or its subject matter and context of use. Field is divided into three areas: specialization, semantic domain, and angle of representation. Specialization is moderately identified through attention to other technical and vocabulary words or jargons. The semantic domain of SFG proponents assess the subject matter of a text through organizing noun/ noun phrases and its lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These are the words that transmit lexical meaning in a text which the is purely grammatical in terms of purpose, it is basically related to other words in the vicinity. Examining the angle of representation encompasses a close look at types of participants, processes, and circumstances. Interpersonal metafunction The interpersonal metafunction deals with the aspect of the text here referred to as the tenor or interactivity. Like field, tenor contains three elements: the speaker/writer point of view relative social status and social distance. Social distance and relative social status are appropriate only to spoken texts. We can scrutinize “how the individual authors present themselves to the reader”, therefore, we are able to look at social distance and relative social status in texts where there is only one author. The speaker/writer persona about the bearing, personalization and standing of the speaker or writer. This aspect contains seeing at whether the writer or speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive
or negative use of certain language features. Social distance tells how close the speakers are, for example is how they address each other such using of nicknames it shows the degree to which they are intimate. Relative social status asks whether they are alike in terms of power and knowledge on a subject, for example, the relationship between a principal and teacher would be considered unequal. Focuses here are on speech acts (e.g. whether one person ask questions and the other speaker tends to answer), turn management, who chooses the topic, and how capable both speakers are of evaluating the subject. Textual metafunction The textual metafunction pertains to mode, the communicative nature and internal organization of a text. This encompasses textual interactivity, communicative distance, and spontaneity. Textual interactivity is assessed with reference to disfluencies like pauses, hesitators, and repetitions. Spontaneity is distinguished through an emphasis on lexical density, coordination, and grammatical complexity such how clauses are connected together and the use of nominal groups. The study of communicative distance focuses on looking at a text’s cohesion—that is, how it dangles together, as well as any abstract language it uses. Cohesion is analyzed in the context of both lexical and grammatical also the intonational aspects with reference to lexical chains, in the speech register, and tone. The lexical feature emphasis on sense relations and lexical repetitions, while the grammatical feature looks at repetition of meaning exposed through reference, substitution and ellipsis, and the role of linking adverbials. Post-test Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not. _____ 1. The merchant is an example of verb phrase. _____ 2. Noam Chomsky examined and developed the Transformative Generative Grammar. _____ 3. The textual metafunction refers to our ability to create long utterances or pieces of writing which are both cohesive and coherent. _____ 4. Interpersonal metafunction emphasizes that language is mainly a social phenomenon, but apart from enabling communication with other people it enables to project the speaker in the desired way and to represent the speaker. _____ 5. Transformational rules can be either obligatory or optical, and their goal is to produce a new string of elements out of a given string.
Suggested References and Websites Tesl, C. (2011). Systemic functional grammar (SFG) or systemic functional linguistics (SFL). Retrieved from: https://charttesl.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/systemicfunctionalgrammar-sfg-or-systemic-functional-linguistics-sfl/ De Niko, E.(2016). Linguistics for Dummies: Transformational-Generative Grammar I. Retrieved from: https://elrincondeniko.wordpress.com/2016/08/21/linguisticsfordummies-transformational-generative-grammar-i/ https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stratification-and-metafunctions-inasystemic-functional-linguistic-framework-following_fig1_325768921 To enrich your understanding about these two grammatical models you may read an article Combining transformative generative grammar and systemic functional grammar: Linguistic competence, syntax and second language acquisition on the website below: https://academicjournals.org/journal/IJEL/article-full-text/72EE98164411
UNIT 4. SEMANTICS Lesson 13. Language Change: Semantic Change and Semantic Broadening Introduction Traditional approaches to semantic change naturally emphasis on results of meaning change and list types of alteration such as metaphoric and metonymic extension, broadening and narrowing, and the development of positive and negative meanings. Examples are usually painstaking out of context and are lexical members of nominal and adjectival word classes. Language is a communicative activity that heavily depends on context. Some current work on semantic change has focused, not on results of change, but on pragmatic qualifying factors for change in the flow of speech. The contributions of cognitive processes have been paid of attention, such as analogical thinking, production of cues and signs as to how a message is to be understood, and interpretation and perception of meaning. Mechanisms of change such as metaphorization, metonymization, and subjectification have been among topics of distinct interest and debate. The work has been permitted by the specific approach to relative data that electronic corpora allow. Objectives/Competencies At the end of this module the students will be able to: 1. Recognize the meaning of semantic change, 2. Examine and discuss semantic changes, and 3. Create a semantic map based on your understanding about the lesson. Pre-test Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not. _____ 1. Woman is the old English of the word queen. _____ 2. Some aspects of semantic changes are cognitive and social aspects. _____ 3. Syntactical change happen due to the distinction of synonyms is a slow process experiential in the course of language acquisition. _____ 4. Elevation occurs when a word gains association with a negative stimulus, to then hold negative connotations.
_____ 5. The word business is an example of broadening semantic change.
Lesson Proper 1. Semantic Change As English has grown as a language, it has also experienced changes in the meaning of words or semantics. All words have a meaning and denotation. However, English first appeared from its main language of Anglo-saxon, the denotation or meaning of words have undergone changes. These changes include a narrowing of meaning, a broadening of meaning, or a complete shift in meaning altogether. 2. Causes for semantic change Linguistic and extralinguistic causes Meaning of words are relatively constant. Communication would be impossible If they changed too frequently. Semantic changes are deliberate, and we speak of semantic change from a diachronic point of view. But semantic changes started in context, on the synchronic level. On the synchronic level we speak of nonconformity of meaning only. Linguistic factors leading to semantic change: differentiation of synonymy, ellipsis, and fixed contexts Semantic change due to the distinction of synonyms is a slow process experiential in the course of language history For example time and tide used to be synonyms. Tide has a limited use, means the periodical shifting of water time alone is used in the universal sense.
Fixed context token and sign The word sign was borrowed from French and it creates an effect on the meaning of token. Example: A token of love, a token of respect Ellipsis – a syntactic phenomenon, omission of syntactic elements Maria came into the kitchen and went to the fridge. Jake was reading a book and Peter a magazine.
From cut-price sale to sale - succeeding words may be dropped From to propose marriage to propose to starve originally meant to die Germany which is sterben means to die. It replaced the whole phrase to die of hunger which also started to mean suffer from lack of food and then it developed the colloquial meaning to feel hungry
Extralinguistic causes for semantic change –historic, cognitive, social, economic, political, cultural ones. earth and heaven wealth – originally meant well-being, happiness. This connotation is still wellkept-up in the compound word commonwealth Modern English fee – firstly meant both cattle and money Latin pecu meant cattle and pecunia meant money Historic causes. Why are there so many words in English of French origin? The name of the animal of native origin, but the word for the meat of French origin - pig, lamb, sheep, calf, cow, deer; castle and fortress, soil and earth, sign and token, finish, and end
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE Narrowing and widening of meaning Narrowing (specialization) of meaning Word Deer Meat Fowl Dole Starve
Old English Meaning Modern English Meaning Wild beast Food Bird Part or portion To die
wild ruminant of a particular species a particular kind of food Domestic bird money given to the unemployed’ To die in hunger
More examples of narrowing: interest, duty, business, undertaker, newspaper, operation, token, and sign. Corn originally meant ‘grain’, the word became specialized locally – in England corn means ‘wheat’, in Scotland it means ‘oats’, in the US it means ‘maize’. Widening (generalization) of meaning Modern English Space Place Town arrive
Etymology German- stadion, spadion German- plateia arribare, adripare
Old meaning ‘a place for athletic events’ a broad way and a courtyard a fence, ‘an enclosure’
to bring or come to shore or into port, ‘to land Widening of meaning has to be well-kept separate from what is so-called grammaticalization of lexical meaning
Do in Do you speak English? Shall in I shall come. Shall and will were full notional verbs in OE. Have in Have you been to London? Verbs of motion as in to ‘turn red’, to ‘go green’. Weakening of lexical meaning in awfully, terribly, terrific, smashing. Elevation and degradation of meaning Elevation of meaning Modern English Old English Queen woman Knight Young servant Steward Keeper Lord The keeper of the bread Lady The kneader of the bread annoy from Lat to make loathsome’; to regret from Fr ‘to lament over the dead’ sophisticated artificial
Degradation of meaning Modern English
Old English
Silly stupid Mistress originally from French
blessed cretin in Fr. meant “Christian’ A bride
Pejoration Modern English
Old English
boor, from Du churl villain in Old French
‘a farmer man, free man of the lowest rank’ ‘feudal serf
Metaphor-involves relationship of perceived similarity Word Meaning stud 'good-looking sexy man '(of slang origin) derived from stud 'a male animal used for breeding root (of plant) root of plant, root of word, root in algebra, source chikk relax, calm down' of slang origin, original 'to cool’ Metonymy Metaphor and metonymy – illustrate non-literal use of language Metaphor - traditional and modern views. We shall discourse metaphor not as an elaboration of language in poetry and literature but as something we can’t do without in everyday speech.
The traditional view on metaphor Metaphor is the result of the comparison between two objects metaphor is observed on the word level; it is reformed into a simile simile is literal paraphrase of metaphor Aristotle’s view – metaphor is a transmission of name: from genus to species, from species to genus, from species to species or as a result of analogy. Isaac Passy on metaphor - Метафората How we describe or explain something might also depend on the vocabulary that is used. In English, a distinction is made between simile and comparison that we don’t find with Passy. “Всяка метафора е съкратено сравнение и всяко сравнение преформирана метафора. Metonymy – It is the inclusion of additional senses which were originally not present, but which are associated with word's original meaning. Word The chair The bar The pulpit The town the House
Meaning The chairman The lawyers The priest the inhabitants of the town members of the House of Commons or of Lords
symbol for the thing symbolized – the crown for the monarchy – synecdoche; instrument for the product – hand for handwriting; receptacle for content – The kettle is boiling. He drank a bottle; the material for the product – glass, iron, copper, nickel;functional relation – pen from Lat. penna (feather) physical and technical units named after the scientist – volt, ohm, ampere, watt; locative relation – The White House, the Pentagon, Wall Street, Downing Street, Fleet Street; geographical names tuned into common nouns – china, astrakhan, bikini, boston, cardigan; proper names for the garment the referent brought into fashion – mackintosh, raglan, wellingtons.
Activity Change the following words to its special meaning.
1. Liquor 2. Accident 3. Angel 4. governer 5. disease
Old Meaning Liquid event messenger pilot discomfort
Special Meaning
Analysis Based on the answers above, how do you think time or culture affect semantic change. Does it affect the value of a word? Abstraction If you are going to choose a word that you want to have a semantic change what would it be and why? Also identify the type of semantic change that you will use. Application Create a semantic map about the word “language”. Use the example picture as your guide.
Reflection and Insights Write your key take away about the lesson.
Post-test Identify the following terms. Write your answer on the space provided.
___________1. It is the change in the meaning of a word by expansion, so that the word is applicable in more contexts than it previously was and means more than it previously did. ___________2. It occurs when a word gains association with a negative stimulus, to then hold negative connotations. ___________3. is the result of the comparison between two objects ___________4. is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. ____________5. It is a cause of semantic change about dealing the minds of a person.
Suggested References and Websites https://eflcourses.blogspot.com/2016/08/semantic-changes.html https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0 001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-323
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS Lesson 14: Language and the Brain: The Biological Dimension of Language Duration:
3 hours Introduction
The learning process is one of the functions of the mind. And since the mind works in connection with the brain, knowing how it works is significant in optimizing the learning process. In this lesson, you will go through the biological dimension of language. In this regard, you will also be invited to reflect on the role of maturation in language development: acquisition and learning. As a future teacher of English, you need to understand how the learning process takes place because our teaching approaches, methods, and strategies largely depend on your understanding of the nature of language and the learning process.
Lesson Objectives During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. have familiarity with the parts of the brain where language is processed and produced, 2. recognize the role of maturation in language learning, 3. associate maturation and language development, and 4. discuss the implications of language development to language instruction.
Pretest To help you reflect on the relationship between psychology of language and language teaching, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box of your best choice. No. 1
4
Language Description Agree Language can be acquired much faster at a younger age. The mind of a child is more analytic than the mind of an adult. Language is biologically conditioned. Language develops through imitation.
5
Language learning weakens as one
2 3
Not Sure
Disagree
gets older.
Lesson Proper Our understanding of the biological side of language, ironically, has no from the study of normal individuals. Instead, our knowledge of psycholin and neurolinguistics started with people whose left side of the brain, o aspect of the ability to process and produce language, has been da because of an accident or a disease. A French surgeon and anatomi Broca, described in 1861 the part of the brain that is responsible for production. At the present time, this is known as the Broca’s area, the fron in the left cerebral hemisphere. Also, Carl Wernicke, a German ph strengthened in 1874 the earlier studies made by Broca. These earlier had set the foundations of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics. Figure 14.1 shows the structure of the brain and the parts which are responsible for the production of speech sound (Broca’s area) and understanding of speech (Wernicke’s area).
Figure 14. The Parts of the Brain that Control Speech Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Language-specific-areas-inthebrain_fig1_317356553 Based on the studies made by Broca and Wernicke, succeeding scholars and language experts have established that the human brain consists of the right and the left hemisphere. Medical workers have also observed that patients whose left hemisphere of the brain has been damaged or injured because of accident or illness manifest speech difficulty or impairment. This observation has led neurologists and psychiatrists to postulate that the left hemisphere plays a significant role in language development and processing. Noam Chomsky, an American nativist and mentalist, in his theory of Universal Grammar, has established that human beings are born with a
language acquisition device (LAD). His theory asserts that our language ability is genetically predisposed. Hence, this ability has some biological constraints. His theory of language has successfully challenged some other established views including Classical Conditioning, The Tabula Rasa, and the Behaviorist Theory of Learning. Chomsky discounts the role of modelling in language learning and also criticized the stimulusresponse bond. He questions the generalizability of the findings in behaviorist experiments because the nature of language is cognitive. Instead, he stresses the cognitive aspect of language development which is dependent on hypothesis formation and testing. His theory has also led to the development of Systematic Error Analysis in which errors or lapses in a child language development are viewed as indicators of the child’s progress. Among many other reasons, lapses in language development result from over generalized, self-constructed rules or interference of another language.
In extending the Innateness Hypothesis of Chomsky, Eric Lenneberg developed his Critical Period Hypothesis. According to Lenneberg, language development takes place rapidly from birth to childhood and slows down after the age of puberty. Hence, learning a second language or a foreign language appears relatively more challenging after the age of puberty. This position is of course criticized by those who view language development from a sociological perspective.
As a mentalist, Chomsky has succeeded in formalizing the abstract and metal structures of language with his Transformational Generative Grammar. This theory demonstrates that language has both surface and deep structures. His theory of grammar is based largely on the principle of the infinite use of the finite means of language. He rejects the role of imitation, which is the basis of behaviorism. To Chomsky, language is creative inasmuch as errors cannot be fully explained by the input-output scheme of things. To him, language is a corollary of our being humans and that we know so much about language though we do not know what we actually know. The stages of language development, according to Chomsky, are universal and involuntary. A child acquires language unconsciously and automatically.
Activity Let us compare the language development of a child and that of an adult learner. Tick (✓) the box of your best choice.
No.
Task
Child Adult Learner Learner pronunciation
1
Can easily produce native like
2
Can analyze grammar accurately
3
Can memorize a poem faster
4
Can critically get the meaning of a
5
Can diagram a sentence structure
6
Can acquire a language faster
7
Can easily discern an implied message
8
Can easily show inhibition
9
Can be less self-conscious
10
Can be more tolerant with mistakes
written message
Analysis Based on your choices above, which do you consider is more analytic, a child or an adult learner? Who is more tolerant to mistakes and errors?
Abstraction Are children better language learners compared to adults? Could the difference in the learning patterns between children and adults be an age related factor? What does this difference indicate about the mind of a child and that of an adult?
Application As a future teacher of English, how do you make the learning situation stress free? How would you practice error feedbacking? Is on the spot error correction a good or a bad practice?
Reflection and Insights Does being too self-conscious about the rules of grammar slow down language acquisition?
Write your reflection below. How do you find the article relevant to your future career as a language teacher? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _ _________________________________________________________ _ _________________________________________________________ _ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________
Post-test
To check your appreciation of the lesson, answer this short activity. Tick (✓) the box of your best choice. No. Language Description
True
1
A nativist believes that language is learned through imitation
2
Transformational Generative Grammar is a behaviorist theory.
3
Language errors and mistakes can be analyzed systematically.
4
The Critical Period Hypothesis is a nativist view of language.
5 Maturation
is limited to the psychological aspects
False
of development.
Suggested References and Websites To enrich your reflection on the role of maturation in language development, you may read an article The Age Factor Revisited: Timing
in Acquisition Interacts With Age of Onset in Bilingual Acquisition on the website below:
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02732/full
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS
Lesson 15. Language Development: Language Learning and Language Acquisition Duration: 3 hours Introduction Do you remember the first word that you uttered when you were just about eighteen-month old? If you speak a language other than English, how did you acquire or learn it? Did you happen to know how you acquired your first language? How did you learn English? Most of us are trilinguals or bilinguals because we can speak three or two languages with almost the same fluency. Those who speak only one language, their first language (L1), are called monolinguals. In this age of globalization, we need a second language (L2) for wider communication. English is our L2 in the Philippines because we learn it after our L1 and it accommodates many of the functions of Filipino in the fields of education, arts, science, commerce, defense, business, law, entertainment, just to name a few.
Learning Objectives During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. differentiate language acquisition and language learning, 2. discuss the psychological and sociological factors related to language acquisition and language learning, and 3. reflect on the implications of the differences between language acquisition and language learning for language teaching. Pretest Before reading the lesson proper, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box that best describes your answer. No.
Language teaching and learning situation
True
1
Error correction can trigger learning anxiety.
2
Explicit language teaching suits L1 acquisition.
3
Implicit language teaching is exclusive to L1 acquisition. Self-esteem plays an important role in language learning. The psychological environment does not have significant effect in the teaching-learning situation.
4 5
False
Lesson Proper Research studies in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics indicate that the development of L1 has predictable milestones. Children go through these predictable stages regardless of gender, race, social status in life, or geographical location. Children go through these stages unaware because they are born with language. It is this genetic predisposition that allows them to acquire the different features of a language that they are exposed to. With language being genetically programmed does not give the guarantee that children inherit their parents’ language or languages. The language that children will develop depends on what language the parents use at home. Children will not inherit the language of their parents if the parents do not speak the heritage language at home. Therefore, language is a biological capability, but its transmission is socio-cultural in nature. The sociological and cultural aspects of language will be discussed in separate sections of this module. Going back to the stages of the development of the first language, Table 15 shows their manifestations across age brackets as well as their functions and linguistic realizations.
Table 15.1. Stages of First Language Development Age
Stage
Accomplishment
0-2 months
Crying
Expressing hunger and discomfort
2-4 months
Cooing
4-9 months
Babbling
Gurgling or changing to echolalic babbling
gagaga, mamamama
9-18 months
One-word utterances
Referring to people and objects in baby’s life
juice, mama More juice.
18 months
Two-word
Beginning of syntax or grammar,
to 21/2 years utterances
21/2 years – 4 years
Source:
Telegraphic stage
Expressing satisfaction or pleasure
expanding to three-word utterances allowing communicative functions
Examples
aaa, oooo
Juice fall down. Daddy go?
Using expanded syntax and vocabulary, omitting key grammatical markers and function I eated bread. words
http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-and-secondlanguagedevelopment.html
Studies in L1 acquisition have inspired scholars to investigate if the same route of development is true in L2 acquisition. Also, the said studies have led language researchers to contrast language acquisition and language learning. Table 15.2 presents the comparison of language acquisition and language learning.
Table 15.2 Comparison of language Acquisition and Language Learning Language Acquisition Implicit and subconscious Occurs in informal situations Uses grammatical’ feel’ Depends on attitude Stable order of acquisition
Language Learning Explicit and conscious Occurs in formal situation Uses grammatical rules Depends on aptitude Simple to complex order of learning
Source: https://teachinglanguages.com.au/language-acquistion-vs-languagelearning/
Activity Compare the following language tasks. Tick (✓) the box to indicate if it is implicit or explicit. No. Language Task
Implicit
1.
Memorizing and singing a song.
2.
Role playing using formal and informal
3.
Memorizing and giving examples of agreement
4. 5.
Imitating the native speakers in a movie. Changing sentences from active to passive voice.
6.
Dramatizing a telephone conversation.
7.
Using varied types of connectors in a
8.
Differentiating Yes-No and Wh-
9.
Asking or giving directions in going to a
10.
Conjugating irregular verbs in simple past participle form.
Explicit
greetings. rules
in Subject and Verb
written composition. interrogatives. shop and
past
Analysis You will find that the following tasks are implicit: items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 9. The rest of the tasks are explicit. In the given activity, which of the sets of language tasks can make you feel anxious? Which are less stressful and less threatening?
Abstraction Does anxiety play a significant role in language learning? Do children acquire their L1 faster because they can analyze grammar better than their adult counterparts? Do they acquire L1 faster because their learning environment is less threatening? Write your thoughts in the space below. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
Application List down at least five practices that you will avoid in a language classroom. 1. _____________________________________________________ 2. _____________________________________________________ 3. _____________________________________________________ 4. _____________________________________________________ 5. _____________________________________________________ Reflection and Insights Does language ability weaken simply because of maturation? Can language learning be optimized if the learning environment is less threatening and more friendly? As a future teacher of English, how will you help your learners optimize their ability? Write your reflection below. ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________
Post-test Before you end this lesson, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box that best describes your answer. No. Language teaching and learning situation True False 1
Language has biological and socio-cultural dimensions.
2
Implicit language teaching does not suit L2 acquisition.
3
Implicit language teaching is limited to L1 acquisition.
4
Self-esteem is negligible in language learning.
5
Selective error feedbacking is a factor in effective language teaching.
Suggested References and Websites
The interested reader may find the website below particularly useful in extended reading on first and language development. http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-andsecondlanguage-development.html
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS Lesson 15. Language Development: Language Learning and Language Acquisition Duration: 3 hours Introduction Do you remember the first word that you uttered when you were just about eighteen-month old? If you speak a language other than English, how did you acquire or learn it? Did you happen to know how you acquired your first language? How did you learn English? Most of us are trilinguals or bilinguals because we can speak three or two languages with almost the same fluency. Those who speak only one language, their first language (L1), are called monolinguals.
In this age of globalization, we need a second language (L2) for wider communication. English is our L2 in the Philippines because we learn it after our L1 and it accommodates many of the functions of Filipino in the fields of education, arts, science, commerce, defense, business, law, entertainment, just to name a few.
Learning Objectives During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. differentiate language acquisition and language learning, 2. discuss the psychological and sociological factors related to language acquisition and language learning, and 3. reflect on the implications of the differences between language acquisition and language learning for language teaching.
Pretest Before reading the lesson proper, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box that best describes your answer.
No.
Language teaching and learning
1 Error correction can trigger learning anxiety. teaching suits L1
2
Explicit language
acquisition.
3
Implicit language teaching is exclusive to L1 acquisition.
4
Self-esteem plays an important role in language learning.
5
True False situation
The psychological environment does not have a significant effect in the teaching-learning situation.
Lesson Proper Research studies in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics indicate that the development of L1 has predictable milestones. Children go through these predictable stages regardless of gender, race, social status in life, or geographical location. Children go through these stages unaware because they are born with language. It is this genetic predisposition that allows them to acquire the different features of a language that they are exposed to. With language
being genetically programmed does not give the guarantee that children inherit their parents’ language or languages. The language that children will develop depends on what language the parents use at home. Children will not inherit the language of their parents if the parents do not speak the heritage language at home. Therefore, language is a biological capability, but its transmission is sociocultural in nature. The sociological and cultural aspects of language will be discussed in separate sections of this module.
Going back to the stages of the development of the first language, Table 15 shows their manifestations across age brackets as well as their functions and linguistic realizations.
Table 15.1. Stages of First Language Development Age
Stage
0-2 months
Crying
2-4 months
Cooing
4-9 months
Babbling
9-18 months One-word utterances 18 months to 21/2 years Two-word utterances
21/2 years – 4 years
Source:
Telegraphic stage
Accomplishment
Examples
Expressing hunger and discomfort Expressing satisfaction or pleasure
aaa, oooo
Gurgling or changing to echolalic gagaga, babbling mamamama Referring to people and objects juice, mama in baby’s life Beginning of syntax or grammar, More juice. expanding to threeword utterances allowing Juice fall down. communicative functions Daddy go?
Using expanded syntax and vocabulary, omitting key grammatical markers and function words
I eated bread.
http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-and-secondlanguagedevelopment.html
Studies in L1 acquisition have inspired scholars to investigate if the same route of development is true in L2 acquisition. Also, the said studies have led language researchers to contrast language acquisition and language learning. Table 15.2 presents the comparison of language acquisition and language learning.
Table 15.2 Comparison of language Acquisition and Language Learning Language Acquisition
Language Learning
Implicit and subconscious
Explicit and conscious
Occurs in informal situations
Occurs in formal situation
Uses grammatical’ feel’
Uses grammatical rules
Depends on attitude
Depends on aptitude
Stable order of acquisition
Simple to learning
complex
order
of
Source: https://teachinglanguages.com.au/language-acquistion-vs-languagelearning/
Activity Compare the following language tasks. Tick (✓) the box to indicate if it is implicit or explicit. No. Language Task
Implici Explici t
1.
Memorizing and singing a song.
2.
Role playing using formal and informal
3.
Memorizing and giving examples of rules in Subject and Verb agreement
4.
Imitating the native speakers in a movie.
5.
Changing sentences from active to passive
6.
Dramatizing a telephone conversation.
7.
Using varied types of connectors in a written
8.
Differentiating Yes-No and Wh-
t
greetings.
interrogatives.
voice.
composition.
9.
Asking or giving directions in going to a
10.
Conjugating irregular verbs in simple past form.
shop and past participle
Analysis You will find that the following tasks are implicit: items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 9. The rest of the tasks are explicit. In the given activity, which of the sets of language tasks can make you feel anxious? Which are less stressful and less threatening?
Abstraction Does anxiety play a significant role in language learning? Do children acquire their L1 faster because they can analyze grammar better than their adult counterparts? Do they acquire L1 faster because their learning environment is less threatening? Write your thoughts in the space below. ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
Application List down at least five practices that you will avoid in a language classroom. 1. ____________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights Does language ability weaken simply because of maturation? Can language learning be optimized if the learning environment is less threatening and more friendly? As a future teacher of English, how will you help your learners optimize their ability? Write your reflection below.
______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
Post-test Before you end this lesson, do the short activity below. Tick (✓) the box that best describes your answer. No. Language teaching and learning True False situation 1 2 3 4 5
Language has biological and socio-cultural dimensions. Implicit language teaching does not suit L2 acquisition. Implicit language teaching is limited to L1 acquisition. Self-esteem is negligible in language learning. Selective error feedbacking is a factor in effective language teaching.
Suggested References and Websites
The interested reader may find the website below particularly useful in extended reading on first and language development. http://thelimitsofmylanguagemeansthelimitsofmyw.weebly.com/first-andsecondlanguage-development.html
UNIT 5. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND NEUROLINGUISTICS Lesson 16. Language Development: The Behaviorist, The Cognitivist, and The Constructivist Perspectives Duration: 3 hours Introduction This lesson introduces you to the three primary schools of thought that have greatly affected the teaching-learning processes through several generations. Specifically, it provides you with the historical and philosophical bases of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. These schools of thought can be compared in terms of how each perceives the nature of language, the learning process, and language teaching-learning approaches, methods, and strategies.
Learning Objectives During the there-hour period, you are expected to 1. Characterize the three schools of thought in terms of their philosophical foundations, 2. Discuss the pedagogical implications of the three schools of thought, and 3. Identify their strengths and weaknesses in light of the current practices in second language acquisition and learning. Pretest Before you proceed to the lesson proper, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. No. 1.
Language teaching and learning situation Children learn their L1 by imitation.
2.
Children are aware of grammar rules.
3.
Right practice results in mastery of a
4.
The mind is empty at birth.
5.
The rules of grammar are pre-existent.
6.
Learning is “input equals output”.
7. 8. 9.
Intake of information is uniform and Language has surface and deep Surface structures are syntactic.
10.
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
skill.
predictable. structures.
The meaning of a sentence remains the same even the surface structure is transformed
Lesson proper Systematic error analysis can be a good starting point to discuss the features of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. How may learners’ errors help teachers understand the complexity of the language acquisition and language learning? Why do learners commit errors or mistakes? How do they acquire language? Behaviorists believe in the role of the environment in the learning process. To them learning can be associated with a significant change in one’s behavior as a confluence between modelling and imitation. Behaviorists also put a high premium on the role of the environment, both material and non-material. Also, behaviorists assert that the connection that has been established between stimulus and response has to be reinforced to through practice. One classical example to support behaviorism is an experiment in which a dog was made to salivate with the sound of a buzzer. In the said experiment, a piece of meat was introduced to a dog. After some time, a buzzer was
sounded off while introducing meat to the dog. When the link between the sound of the buzzer and the introduction meat was established, the latter was withdrawn. Hence, the dog was made to salivate merely by hearing the sound of the buzzer. This experiment is known as the Classical Conditioning of Ivan Pavlov. This has established a frame of thinking which we now call the S-R Bond Theory. One of the supporters of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner. Around the 1960s, Noam Chomsky issued his review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Chomsky critiqued the behavioral paradigm. To him, the results of the experiment cannot be generalized. Whatever findings there have been could not be applied to human beings because the subject of the experiment was a dog. Besides, the experiment was conducted in a confined environment, a laboratory. Such cannot be the case in language development. Language cannot be acquired in a similar condition. Chomsky asserted that what lies between the S and the R is what matters most. To him this is the LAD or the language acquisition device. The fame of Chomsky lies on discrediting two schools of thought single handedly: behavioral psychology and structural linguistics. He was able to do so by introducing cognitive psychology and transformational generative grammar. To him, language development is not nurture, as behaviorism puts it. To Chomsky, it is nature because we are genetically programmed to acquire a language. He also rejects that the mind is a blank slate. He argues that with the tremendous complexity of language, it cannot develop from nothing. There is only one explanation to him, the mind is preprogrammed at the onset of life. Language is an axiom of our being human. Also, he downplayed structuralism when he introduced Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG). To him, language production is creative. It is dictated by the principle of the infinite use of the finite means. To Chomsky, grammar consists only of a handful of rules of syntax which a child manipulates in some infinite ways provided by the parameters of language. These parameters dictate what is possible and not possible in grammar. The grammar rules, he asserts, are too abstract for the child to comprehend. Yet, a child of three or four can discern the difference between a statement, a request, and a question even without any formal background in grammar. This capability cannot be explained by the principle of modeling and imitation as behaviorism implies. To Chomsky, there exists an immutable characteristic of language which his TGG strongly supports. In this grammatical model, a single linguistic phenomenon can be expressed in several ways. Take for example the sentences below.
John paints the wall. The wall is what John paints. Painting the wall is what John does. It is John who paints the wall. The wall is painted by John. Does John paint the wall? Is the wall painted by John? Our knowledge of the syntax of English enables us to generate all and only acceptable sentences derived from the original sentence. Could this capability be imitational or creative? Because of our ability to transform a sentence, we can manipulate the syntax of the sentence without changing its basic essence. In other words, the surface structure of the sentence can be changed without necessarily changing the meaning of the sentence. Obviously, the sentences below transgress the meaning of the original sentence because they do only alter the surface structure or syntax of the sentence, but they spoil the deep structure or semantics of the sentence. The wall paints John. John wall the paints. Wall the paints John. How many sentences can we produce during the day? What about within our lifetime? Can these huge numbers of sentences be produced just because of imitation? Or are they generated from a language dynamo? This is what Chomsky calls the Universal Grammar. Chomsky has made an indelible mark in the collective consciousness of contemporary scholars. However, his critics point out the downsides of his linguistic theory. As a nativist and mentalist, his theory of language concerns the intra-organismic aspects of language. His frame of thinking discounts the role of the environment and that language exists independent of the physical realm. Hence, his grammar is not context sensitive. In fact, it is context free. Following his argument, a sentence can be grammatically correct for as long as it conforms to the prescribed syntactic rules of the target language. The following sentence can be said to be well-formed though it does not have any sense at all. Green ideas sleep furiously under the chair. His critics argue that language is a social phenomenon. As such, the meaning of an utterance cannot be confined in the combination or order of words in a sentence. To the sociolinguists and functional linguists, language
is inter-organismic. In other words, language is both form, use, and meaning. In doing so, language needs to be understood beyond its syntactic or grammatical features. It has to be appreciated in the context of the situation and the context of culture. This development has led scholars to reformulate the nature of language. The third school of thought can be considered as a compromise between behaviorism and cognitivism. The social influences and interactions need to be factored in the teaching and learning processes. Table 16 describes the three schools of thought very briefly.
Table 16. The Three Schools of Thought and Their Descriptions
Source: https://acjohnson205.school.blog/2019/06/05/edm-510-learning-theory-matrix/
Activity List down some classroom activities and be able to classify each according to the three schools of thought. Classroom Activity School of Thought 1. ________________________________________
_______________
2. ________________________________________
_______________
3. ________________________________________
_______________
4. ________________________________________
_______________
5. ________________________________________
_______________
Analysis Compare behaviorism and cognitivism by identifying their inherent strengths and weaknesses. Write your answers in the next table. School of Thought Strength Weakness
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Abstraction How may constructivism fill the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism? Write your answer in the space below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Application List down activities in teaching the four macro-skills according to the principles of the three schools of thought. 1. Listening Behaviorism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
Cognitivism _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ Constructivism _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ 2. Speaking
Behaviorism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
Cognitivism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
Constructivism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ ____________________________________________
3. Reading Behaviorism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
Cognitivism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
Constructivism
_____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________
4. Writing Behaviorism
____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________
Cognitivism
____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________
Constructivism ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________
Reflection and Insights How may the role of the teacher change according to the three schools of thought? In the space provided, write your reelection.
School of Thought
The Changing Role of the Language Teacher
Behaviorism
______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________
Cognitivism
______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________
Constructivism ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Post-test As you are about to finish this lesson proper, categorize the statements below according to the three schools of thought. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. No. Language Teaching and Behavioral Cognitive Constructivist Learning situation 1. Children learn their L1 by imitation. 2.
Children have innate and abstract rules of grammar.
3.
Right practice results in mastery of a skill.
4.
The mind is empty at birth.
5.
The rules of grammar are pre-existent.
6.
Learning assumes that input is equal to output.
7.
Intake of information is uniform and predictable in
8.
Language has surface and deep structures.
the learning process.
9.
The learner’s context is significant in the learning
10.
The teacher has to provide
process.
opportunities of learning.
Suggested References and Websites The interested and motivated student may visit the website below for further reference and reflection. https://ripslawlibrarian.wordpress.com/2017/03/14/learning-theories-andlawbehaviorism-cognitivism-constructivism/
UNIT 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS Lesson 17. Language and Society: The Sociological Dimension of Language Duration: 3 hours Introduction Proactive language teachers are concerned with language issues and challenges taking place in the classroom and beyond. They do not only put premium on the structural and functional aspects of language teaching, but they are also interested in what goes on in society. Though most of these concerns are not school-related variables, still language teachers need to be aware of the issues that may affect language teaching both directly and indirectly. These issues concern the politics of language which are crucial in language planning and policy implementation. Considering that language is an economic commodity, language teachers need to be acquainted with these sociolinguistic issues. Learning Objectives During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. differentiate language and dialect, 2. differentiate dialect and register, and 3. discuss the politics of language in relation to language pedagogy.
Pretest Before you proceed with the lesson proper, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. No.
Language teaching and learning situation
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
1.
Cebuano and Ilocano are dialects.
2. 3.
The number of speakers differentiate language and dialect. British English and American English are dialects of English. Geographical boundaries differentiate language and dialect. There are varieties of English as there are varieties of professions in English. The varieties of English as regards the different professions are dialects of English.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
American English is better than Philippine English. The difference between language and dialect and political in nature.
English is an intranational language in the Philippines. 10. English is a lingua franca in the ASEAN beyond.
is both linguistic
9.
region and
Lesson Proper The Philippines is a linguistically diverse nation. As such, there are around 187 living languages in the country. Though we are linguistically rich, we cannot afford, at least for this century, to completely shift from English to Filipino as the medium of communication in education, judiciary, legislation, science and technology, and more other disciplines. In addition to our regional languages, we need to learn Filipino, our National Language, as our linguistic identity. Also, we need to learn English for wider communication in this age of ever increasing globalization, while we maintain the use of our regional languages or vernaculars. Therefore, an ordinary citizen of the Philippines needs to be bilingual. Ordinarily, most of us are multilinguals because we speak not only two but three or more languages. When you go to places outside Metro Manila, you will notice that people speak languages other than Tagalog. And if you do not speak Kapampangan, Ilocano, or Cebuano, you will hardly understand people in the community because of lack of mutual intelligibility. Just the same, speakers of Kapampangan and speakers of Ilocano or Hiligaynon do not have mutual intelligibility because they speak different languages. Kapampangan, just like the rest of our 187 tongues, is a language because it has a distinct sound system, vocabulary, and grammar. Kapampangan is not a dialect. As a language, it has other variants like those spoken in the municipalities of Apalit, Arayat, San Fernando, Lubao, Macabebe, Mexico, and the other parts of the province. These varieties are the dialects of Kapampangan. Though there is mutual intelligibility, still there are significant
differences in how some words are pronounced, intonation patterns, vocabulary, and usage. If every language is a collection of dialects, the Philippines has more than a thousand dialects. Though language varieties can be geographical; however, dialects can transcend geographical boundaries just as languages can be spoken in one place. On the one hand, the island of Negros is divided into two linguistic territories, that is, two languages are spoken on a single island, Cebuano in Negros Oriental, and Hiligaynon in Negros Occidental. On the other hand, Tarlac, a province to the north of Manila is the melting pot of three languages: Ilocano, Kapampangan, and Tagalog. English is an international language. It is the default language of the ASEAN region. When our national leaders meet to discuss matters that concern the region, they use English as their bridge language, just as we use English when we meet someone in Baguio or Davao who does not speak Tagalog. This bridge language is a lingua franca. English is not a foreign language in the Philippines. In fact, it has been in the country for more than a century. We use it as one of our official languages. For example, we write our laws in English. We can feel the presence of English across the disciplines in the Philippines. This language provides us the opportunity to access the knowledge that is not available in our languages. It is both a useful and powerful language. When there is a controversy in the interpretation of the 1987 Constitution, for example, the English version shall prevail over its Filipino version. Having been in the Philippines since 1898, English has developed into our own variety, the Philippine English. Can this variety be considered a dialect of English? Caution needs to be observed in using the term dialect. If speakers of British English and American English have mutual intelligibility, are these two varieties considered dialects of English? Is Philippine English a language or a dialect? Is Philippine English inferior to American English? Is British English superior to American English? These questions cannot be answered categorically because linguistics is a science. Whether a language is inferior, or superior is a matter of preference. Every variety of English is unique in its own right just as every variety of language is accorded recognition and respect. Do speakers of Tagalog and Filipino have mutual intelligibility? Given that Filipino is Tagalog-based, can we consider Filipino as a variety of Tagalog? Is Filipino a dialect of Tagalog? If it is a dialect of Tagalog, does it have legitimacy to become our national linguistic identity? At this point, we can say that the distinction between a language and a dialect is not only linguistic in nature. The differences between language and dialect can also be political. In addition to dialects as varieties of a language, we also have other varieties which are identified with certain professions. These varieties of a language are what we call registers. In English, for example, there are terminologies
and usages peculiar to different professions. We have registers of English for different professions like accountancy, arts, biology, business, computer science, creative writing, education, engineering, forestry, journalism, law, mathematics, and many others. Therefore, a language teacher, in light of these developments, needs to be acquainted with varieties and registers of English. The above discussion emanates from sociolinguistics, the study of language and social behaviors. As a subfield of linguistics, it is the study of language in relation to social factors like differences of regional, class and occupational varieties of a language. Sociolinguistics, as a discipline, came to existence by accident. It started in the works of William Labov, a firefighter. He had observed that language occurs in society as it is used by the members of the community and not how it should be used. Rejecting intuition and contemplation, Labov developed rigorous and scientific methods to study how language is used in society. In his works, he succeeded in showing significant changes in language use in relation to the social forces in society. Sociolinguistics has achieved authenticity in language study by bringing the outside world into the language classroom. Nowadays, we use authentic texts, materials, activities, and assessment procedures in our language classes. These texts, materials, classroom activities, and assessment procedures are not intended for classroom use, but such can be used inside the classroom for educational purposes.
Activity Match columns A and B to show which terms belong to specific disciplines. On the blanks, write the letter for your best choice. Column A. Term ______ 1. Motherboard ______ 2. Foreshadowing ______ 3. Integer ______ 4. Protoplasm ______ 5. Hypotenuse ______ 6. Independent variable ______ 7. Compounded interest ______ 8. Allophone ______ 9. Trajectory ______ 10. Crescendo
Column B. Disciple A Biology B Computer Technology C Economics D Law E Linguistics F Literature G Mathematics H Music I Physics J Research K Trigonometry
Analysis Based on the above activity, choose and discuss which of the two statements is more valid. The different disciplines enrich English. English enriches the different disciplines.
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Abstraction Discuss how language changes. How does a language break down into dialects? How does language branch into registers? Write your answer below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Application Should we encourage teaching of the Philippine English in our school system? Why? Why not? Write your answer below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights a. What makes sociolinguistics scientific? Write your answer below. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
b. Is there any scientific evidence that can prove that Filipino is different from Tagalog? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Post-test Before you end the lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. No.
Language teaching and learning situation True
1.
False
In the Philippines, all academic subjects can be taught in Filipino.
2.
Dialectal variations can be set by geographical boundaries.
3.
Philippine English is inferior to American English.
4.
Registers are set by political boundaries.
5.
Political boundaries and jurisdictions can determine language territories.
6.
The emergence of language registers has resulted in specific purposes. The difference between language and dialect can be
7. 8. 9.
teaching of English for
dictated by politics. Sociolinguistics is insignificant in language curriculum design. Because language is an economic commodity, language planning needs to be part of national development and economic planning.
10.
English is a Philippine language.
Suggested References and Websites If you are interested in enhancing your knowledge in sociolinguistics, you are encouraged to read an article online. Below is the website.
Source:
https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branchesoflinguistics/sociolinguistics/what-does-sociolinguistics-study/
UNIT 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Lesson 18. Language Varieties : Dialect, Register, Sociolect, Genderlect, and Idiolect Duration: 3 hours Introduction You have heard on different occasions words like lectern, lectionary, lecture, and lexicon. Have you noticed that these words have been described from a common root? This kind of word analysis is known as etymology. Language learners have the capacity to enlarge their vocabulary through derivation. Hence, the root lect- can
generate words like dialect, genderlect, idiolect, and sociolect. Observe also that the root -lect is at the final position of the word. The words that have been derived and generated through affixation have a common essence. The words pertain to varieties of language. Language, like any other living entity, changes across time and space. As future teachers of language, you will find learning varieties of a language particularly important.
Learning Objectives During a three-hour period, you are expected to 1. Recognize the overlapping subcategories of language, 2. Discuss the foundations of teaching English for specific purposes (ESP), and 3. Explain the social factors that contribute to language change. Pretest Before you proceed to the lesson proper, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. No. Concepts in language change
Disagree
Agree
Strongly Agree
1.
Gender can tells a story. influence how a person
2.
News stories and feature articles have distinct language use and structures.
3.
There are terminologies that are specific to some disciplines or areas of specialization.
4.
The communicative intent of writers influences the level of formality of language.
5.
Language features reflect the time when the work or document is written.
6.
Authorship attribution can be appraised and confirmed with mathematical precision.
7.
Reading vocabulary differs from writing vocabulary.
8.
Not all good speakers are good writers.
9.
No two authors have exactly the same writing style.
10.
Language use may reflect one’s socioeconomic status.
-
Lesson Proper While it is true that human beings are born with language, socio-cultural factors also play important roles in language transmission and language change. The spread of English across the globe in the past 500 years can be described exponentially. Some of the factors that have catalyzed the internationalization of English are imperialism, military power, economic activities, intellectual advancement, cultural exchanges, scientific development, and communication technology. As a global language, English is now an official, second, or a foreign language in almost all parts of the world. As such, the English language grows rapidly. Fig. 18.1 shows the spread of English and other major languages across the globe. In 2000, compared to Mandarin Chinese, with 874 million native speakers, English had only 341 million. However, English is spoken as a native language in 104 countries, whereas Mandarin Chinese has only 16. The figure does not include speakers of English either as a second or a foreign language. Truly, the sun never sets in the English language. Used in most parts of the world, English has developed into different varieties: dialects, registers, jargons, sociolects, and idiolects. These varieties of English remarkably differ from general English. Some linguists also call it standard English. This is the variety of English being used in speech and writing by educated people. The Philippine English can be subcategorized into three: acrolect, mesolect, and basilect varieties. While on the one hand, the acrolect variety can closely resemble the native variety; on the other hand, the basilect, is characterized by heavy traces of regional accents. The mesolect is obviously the midway between the two. Language attitude and motivation play an important role in one’s language preference. Generally, these attitudes are either integrative or instrumental. While the first pertains to the person’s desire to become part of the community that speaks the language, the second refers to the perceived usefulness of English both for cultural, social, economic, and personal reasons. To avoid the pejorative or negative connotation of dialect, scholars use the term language variety.
Figure 18.1. The spread of English and other major languages across the globe (Source: The World Almanac and book of Facts, 20023) Aside from geographical boundaries, language variation can also be determined by other factors. The choice of word, tone, voice quality, or level of formality can be linked to some situational or cultural factors. This change in language use is called style shift, a feature of language which is used by competent speakers or writers. For the level of formality, competent language users can easily shift from low to high registers depending on the context of discourse. This language condition is known as diglossia. The study of language registers is far reaching in studying communication. This process is far more complicated than sending and receiving information and messages. More so, communication means negotiation. In negotiating meaning, some other factors have to be considered: the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the channel of communication, and the register that is being used. With these developments in language study, one can sense that familiarity with the target language is only one of many other things that are needed to achieve communicative competence. Fig. 18.2 shows the four components that are needed in achieving communicative competence.
Fig. 18.2.Tthe Four Components of Communicative Competence Source: https://www.learnalberta.ca/content/eslapb/understanding_the_acquisition_language _in_stages_working_towards.html
English is such a rich language. In journalism, some terms are peculiar and identified with sports events. If you are familiar with baseball, basketball, boxing, chess, lawn and table tennis, swimming, taekwondo, track and fields, and volleyball, you will notice that certain terms are identified with sports events. This language variety is called jargon. Lastly, the other varieties of English include sociolect, genderlect, ethnolect, and idiolect. Sociolect is also known as a social dialect, a variety of language that is used by an economic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group. Genderlect refers to the variety of language in relation to gender orientation. Members of the gay community use peculiar registers for some social reason. Americans of African, Asian, or Spanish ancestry also constitute a certain language variety called ethnolect. Language variety differs from person to person. Even in a group, certain persons do not lose their individualities as each of them speak a personal register, variety, or style that is known as idiolect.
Activity Cut out from newspapers an editorial and a news article. Compare the language features of the two journalistic write-ups in terms of (a) use of modifiers, (b) tense, and (c) voice of verbs. Write your answers below. Language
Feature Article
News Article Feature
a. Use of ______________________ _______________________ modifiers
______________________
b. Tense
_______________________
______________________
_______________________
______________________
_______________________
______________________
______________________
_______________________
_______________________
______________________
_______________________
______________________
_______________________
c. Voice of ______________________ _______________________ verbs
______________________ ______________________ ______________________
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ Analysis
1. Which genre uses modifiers less frequently, feature article or news article? Why? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 2.
Which of the two genres uses the past form of verbs more often? Why?
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
3.
Which of the two genres uses the active voice more often? Why?
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Abstraction How do you explain “language changes across time and space”? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights Is language change the same as language evolution? Why? Why not? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Post-test After completing the lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. No. Concepts in language change
True
False
4.
Failure to style shift indicates poor linguistic competence. Social exposure can help improve one’s sociolinguistic competence. Linguistic competence can be achieved through formal study of language. Compensatory strategy is a form of linguistic competence.
5.
ESP is used in teaching idiolects.
6.
A sociolect can constitute several idiolects.
1. 2. 3.
7.
An idiolect cannot be formally analyzed.
8.
A sociolect can have recurring structural
9.
A jargon can be an idiolect.
10.
Sociolect can reveal a person’s education.
patterns.
Suggested References and Websites Does language progress or retrogreens as a consequence of language change? The interested reader is encouraged to read the article available in the webpage below. https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacstranscripts-andmaps/language-change
Source: Nordquist, Richard. (2020, February 11). Definition and Examples of Language Varieties. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/languagevariety-sociolinguistics1691100 https://notesread.com/6-major-language-variation-in-linguistics/
UNIT 6. SOCIOLINGUISTICS Lesson 19. Language and Culture: Linguistic Relativism Duration: 3 hours
Introduction If you speak one or two languages in addition to your L1, you must have observed that each language you speak has its own uniqueness. This is so because no two languages are the same. Not only that languages differ in terms of their structural characteristics, languages also differ in terms of their cultural characteristics. Language and culture are very much interrelated. Studying a language is an opportunity to study the culture of the people who speak that language. In the same
manner, studying the culture of a people enables you to have a better appreciation of their language.
Learning Objectives During the three-hour session, you are expected to 1. explain the difference between linguistic relativism and linguistic determinism, 2. discuss how language, culture, and thought are connected to each other, and 3.
give the practical uses of linguistic relativism in our daily lives.
Pretest a. Name as much as shades of red you can. How many shades of red can you identify?
Answer: _____
b. How many of the shades of red can you identify in your L1? Answer: _____
Lesson Proper Because language and culture are very much related to each other, there are concepts and expressions that are language speaking. Tagalog, a major Philippine language has some peculiarities. Rice has so many Tagalog translations: palay, bigas, or kanin. Try to translate kalamay, sapin-sapin, bibingka, suman, palitaw, puto, kutsinta, biko, and puto bungbong. You will find out that they are all rice cakes. This peculiar observation may suggest the connection among language, thought, and culture. You may find so many counterparts for the English rice cake because we live in an agricultural community where rice is in abundance and is a staple food. Also, brown sugar and egg yolk are translated as asukal na pula and pula ng itlog. Does this suggest that Tagalog has a different color spectrum?
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee hypothesized that the way we speak influences the way we think. This connection among language, culture, thought is known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or linguistic relativism
Whorf
and
By extension, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis implies that the way we view the world is linked to our L1. In relation to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or linguistic relativism, Ludwig Wittgenstein has asserted that “the limits of our language are the limits of our universe.” Based on the validity of the foregoing statement, a bilingual or a multilingual person is afforded with a better world perspective compared to a monolingual speaker. A stronger version of the Sapir Whorf hypothesis is linguistic determinism. This suggests that multilinguals have different thought processes compared to monolinguals. Does this also suggest that kids reared in multilingual families appear to be smarter than their monolingual counterparts?
Activity See the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors in Fig. 19.
Figure 19. Names of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors
1. Name the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors. a. What are the three primary colors? _______ _______ _______ b. What are the secondary colors? _______ _______ _______ c. What are the tertiary colors? _______ _______ _______
_______ _______ _______
2. What are the names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors in your L1? a. What are the three primary colors? _______ _______ _______ b.
What are the secondary colors?
_______ _______ _______ c. What are the tertiary colors? _______ _______ _______
_______ _______ _______
3. In which language do you find the names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors much easier to remember? Why? ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Analysis Does L2 help you in remembering better the names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors? Yes or No? Explain your answer. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Abstraction What are the advantages of being a bilingual or a multilingual? Explain your answer. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Reflection and Insights Can we afford to be monolingual? Yes or No? Explain your answer. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Post-test Does it matter if you know about 10 shades of red? How may linguistic relativism help in the following fields: agriculture, textile industry, fashion, and cosmetics? What must be the practical applications of linguistic relativism in our daily lives? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Suggested References and Websites The interested student is encouraged to do an extended reading. In this regard, the article Linguistic Relativity and Linguistic Determinism: Idiom in 20th Century Cornish by John Mills can be a good source of information. The article is available at this website: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED540362.pdf https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-biolinguistic-turn/201702/howthelanguage-we-speak-affects-the-way-we-think https://sciencestruck.com/linguisticrelativity-hypothesis
UNIT 7. LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Lesson 20. Applied Linguistics Duration: 3 hours Introduction In this lesson, you will learn the relevance of linguistics in our society and daily lives. As a discipline, applied linguistics has its legitimate place in promoting a better world. As a growing discipline, applied linguistics becomes more relevant in providing real life and language related problems and situations. Learning Objectives During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. Explain the differences between theoretical and descriptive linguistics, 2. Identify problems that may need intervention of applied linguistics, and 3. Discuss the relevance of applied linguistics in language teaching. Pretest Before you start the lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. Identify each of the potential language issues according to their degree of complexity: 1 - not challenging, 2 -challenging, 3- particularly challenging. No. Potential Language Issue
1
2
3
1.
Solving some reading problems of grade school
students
2.
Determining the grammaticality of sentences
3.
Comparing the phonological rules of two varieties
of a language
4.
Explaining why a group of people shifts from one
language to another
5.
Illustrating how language is used in different
discourses
6.
Discussing how grammar rules can be used in a
7.
Using cohesive devices in improving writing skills
8.
Designing a computer software for speech
9.
Explaining how certain consonants are produced some words
10.
Contrasting vowels in terms of their highness or
literary analysis
processing relative to their positions in lowness of pitch
Lesson Proper Applied linguistics is one of the three major divisions of linguistics. The other two are theoretical linguistics and descriptive linguistics. Being the third division, applied linguistics put to use the knowledge that has been developed at the theoretical level and has been formalized in descriptive linguistics. With linguistics as the philosophical and scientific study of language, the first division provides philosophical answers to what language is and its role in society. In descriptive linguistics, we study the formal features of language. It is descriptive linguistics that we search for some evidence as regards the formal features and properties of the spoken language by way of searching for some generalizable patterns that constitute its building blocks. It is descriptive linguistics that the phonetic features of speech sounds are defined and explained. These features are then organized into phonological rules to explain the speech patterns that are inherent in a particular language. The same procedure applies to how words are described down to the basic units of grammar. Such tasks are in the domain of morphology. Then, how words are combined according to the abstract rules of the grammar of a language is formalized in syntax. All these descriptions fall under the sentential and sub-sentential level of analysis. Above and beyond the sentential level is the study of language in wider contexts. For this higher domain of descriptive linguistics, we study pragmatics, semantics, and discourse. And since language is more than just a set of formal rules, it becomes apparent that language needs to be studied in broader contexts. When we use our knowledge in both theoretical and descriptive linguistics to provide solutions to some problems in society, we make applied linguistics operational. Some of the social fields that involve language are, but not limited to, advertising, artificial intelligence, corporate communication, cultural studies, gender studies, international diplomacy, language planning and development, language policy implementation, language teaching, law, and media communication/studies, and translation just to name a few. Specifically, applied linguistics can provide solutions to problems in teaching language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary approach to solving problems that involve language use. In a language class, Applied linguistics is used in making language
teaching more effective as it uses scientific procedures based on systematic study of language, theories of learning, and carefully designed assessment procedures.
Theoretical Linguistics
Philosophy of Language Sociolinguistics Anthropological Linguistics Psycholinguistics
Social Fi Langu advertising artificial int corporate communica cultural stu gender stu internation diplomacy language p and develo language p implementa language t law media communica studies translation
Applied Linguistics
Descriptive Linguistics Phonology and
Phonetics Morphology Syntax
Fig. 20 Applied Linguistics in Different Social Fields of Language
Activity Below are boxes containing statements related to language. Determine which of the statements have linguistic basis: theoretical or descriptive. Tick ( ✓) the box if the statement is valid. Cross (X) it if it is not valid.
Verbs are action words. A sentence expresses a complete thought.
Language develops through imitation.
Primitive languages have simpler grammar rules.
Language acquisition is implicit.
In English, the subject controls the number of the verb.
In every rule, there are exemptions.
Context is important in communication.
Language learning is explicit. In English, the verb determines the role of the subject.
Language use is needed in language acquisition.
Grammar rules arefixed.
Analysis Based on the above activity, choose your three best answers and explain each below. 1. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 2. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 3.
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Abstraction In your own words, what do you mean by scientific language teaching? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights If there is one common practice in language teaching that you have been exposed to in the past, how would you improve such practice by using Applied Linguistics? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Posttest As you are about to complete this lesson, do the activity below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice. Identify the division of linguistics in which the following language issues can be addressed. TL -Theoretical Linguistics, DL – Descriptive Linguistics, or AL – Applied Linguistics. No .
Potential Language Issue
TL
DL
1.
Solving some reading problems of grade school students
2.
Determining the grammaticality of sentences
3.
Comparing the phonological rules of two varieties of a language
AL
4.
Explaining why a group of people shifts from one language to another
5.
Illustrating how language is used in different discourses
6.
Discussing how grammar rules can be used in a literary analysis
7.
Using cohesive devices in improving writing skills
8.
Designing a computer software for speech processing
9.
Explaining how certain consonants are produced relative to their positions in some words
10.
Contrasting vowels in terms of their highness or lowness of pitch
Suggested References and Websites The interested student may find the slides in the website below very enriching. The article presents a broader perspective about applied linguistics.
https://www.slideshare.net/shalabymostafa/what-is-applied-linguistics-90019901
UNIT 7. LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Lesson 21. Educational Linguistics Duration: 3 hours Introduction In this lesson, you will determine the borderline separating educational linguistics and applied linguistics. Though the two coexist in a symbiotic relationship, these two streams in contemporary linguistics have their distinct emphases which benefit allied fields in which language takes the central role, most particularly language pedagogy.
Learning Objectives During the three-hour period, you are expected to 1. Trace the historical backgrounds of applied linguistics and educational linguistics, 2. Identify the specific domains of applied linguistics and educational linguistics, and 3. Discuss the importance of educational linguistics in language pedagogy. Pretest Before starting this lesson, tick (✓) the box for your best choice to indicate the categories of some topics in language studies: applied linguistics (AL) or educational linguistics (EL). No. 1.
AL
EL
Gendering language in mass media
2.
Language cultivation in context of multiple communities
3.
The language of online advertising
4.
The impact of English on the school curriculum analysis of political speeches
6.
Authorship attribution in literature
7.
Literacy in vernacular languages
8.
Using phonetics in teaching pronunciation
9.
The role of feedbacking in error correction
10. The viability of using home language as medium of
5.
Discourse
instruction
Lesson Proper Linguistics, like many other disciplines, is not intended primarily for classroom use. Its inception was primarily to develop scientific means of studying the very nature of language. Way back in 1904, Ferdinand de Saussure, in his lectures in Geneva, Switzerland, established the foundations of modern linguistics. His lectures were compiled by his students and had it posthumously published in a book, General Course in Linguistics. This book is so influential so much that generations of linguists that followed considered it as a seminal work. From the first quarter of the
20th century, linguistics branched out into different streams in academic circles in Europe and beyond. Fig.21.1 shows how educational linguistics descended from theoretical linguistics.
Over the past century, linguistics branched out into several streams. 1930s Leonard Bloomfield had his version, Descriptive Linguistics. Zellig Harris, 1950s, developed Structural Linguistics. Noam Chomsky laid down the foundations of Transformational Generative Linguistics in the 1960s. His contemporary, Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday, developed a sociologically oriented version, Systemic Functional Grammar.
Theoretical Linguistics Descriptive Linguistics
had In the own in the
Applied Linguistics Educational Linguistics
Figure 21.1. Transition from Theoretical Linguistics to Educational Linguistics
Steve Pit Corder, in the early 1970s, established Applied Linguistics. And Bernard Spolsky, in the latter part of the decade, refined it into Educational Linguistics. Each of the offshoots of linguistics now has taken its niche in the realm of linguistics enriching and cross pollinating other disciplines like anthropology, cognitive psychology, sociology, philosophy, mathematics, computer science, media studies, and pedagogy. Applied linguistics and educational linguistics, being the relatively recent widening or perhaps narrowing of the linguistic highway are focused on real life problems that involve language issues. Between the two, educational linguistics is more focused on language and education; though there exists a symbiotic connection between the two. As a new discipline, educational linguistics traces its foundations in neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, theoretical linguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, politics of language, and education. In practice, it is present in language instruction, bilingualism, vernacular education, language and identity, postcolonial studies, language acquisition, language assessment, and language instruction and technology.
Spolsky (Spolsky & Hult, 2008, p.1) first proposed the term “educational linguistics” because of his “dissatisfaction with efforts to define the field of applied linguistics.” In his words, he highlighted the gray areas in applied linguistics saying: It was becoming clear, particularly with the failure of the audiolingual method on the one hand and the refusal of transformational linguistics to accept
responsibility for practical issues on the other, that the simplistic notion that applied linguistics was simply linguistics applied to some practical question was misleading. Applied linguistics as it had developed seemed to me to be a fairly soulless attempt to apply largely irrelevant models to a quite narrow range of problems, especially in teaching foreign languages. It produced a couple of potential monsters in language teaching: the deadening drills of the audio-lingual method, and the ungoverned chaos of the early natural approach. I saw the challenge in this way: Many linguists believe that their field should not be corrupted by any suggestion of relevance to practical matters; for them, linguistics is a pure science and its study is motivated only by the desire to increase human knowledge. Others, however, claimed that linguistics offers a panacea for any educational problem that arises and quickly offer their services to handle any difficulties in language planning or teaching. Each of these extreme positions is, I believe, quite wrong, for while it is evident that linguistics is often relevant to education, the relation is seldom direct. Hult describes educational linguistics as “an area of study that integrates the research tools of linguistics and other related disciplines of the social sciences in order to investigate holistically the broad range of issues related to language and education (Spolsky & Hult, 2008, p. 10).
Activity Based on the Fig. 21.2., discuss how educational linguistics transcended from the other subfields of linguistics. Write your answer on the space provided.
Fig. 21.2. Schematic connection of educational linguistics to the other subfields of linguistics
Write your answer here. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Analysis Give five reasons why educational linguistics is important to language teachers. 1.____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 2.____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 3.____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ 4.____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ 5.____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ Abstraction Observe how the development of educational linguistics has grown from an extremely broad field to a much focused study of language. Do you think this is true to educational linguistics alone? Explain your answer below.
Answer _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Reflection and Insights Based on the development of educational linguistics, what must be the future of linguistics in the next 20 years? Write your answer below. Answer _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ test
Post-
As you end this lesson, do the short test below. Tick (✓) the box for your best choice to indicate the classroom use of educational linguistics: LP (Low Probability), MP (Moderate Probability), of HP (High Probability) in higher level English instruction. No Language Activity .
LP
MP
HP
1.
Gendering language in mass media
2.
Language cultivation in context of multiple
3.
The language of online advertising
4.
The impact of English on the school curriculum
5.
Discourse analysis of political speeches
6.
Authorship attribution in literature 7. Literacy in vernacular languages 8. Using phonetics in teaching pronunciation
9.
The role of feedbacking in error correction
10.
The viability of using home language as medium of instruction
communities
Suggested References and Websites The interested reader may find the eBook on educational linguistics on the webpage below. Spolsky, B. and Hult, F. (Eds.). (2008). The Handbook of Educational Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Accessed from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.452.5648&rep=rep 1&type=pdf
