The Surveying Handbook (1995, Springer US) [PDF]

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THE SURVEYING HANDBOOK



THE SURVEYING HANDBOOK S E C O N D EDITION



edited by Russell C. Brinker and Roy Minnick



SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.



Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication The surveying handbook/editors, Russell C. Brinker and Roy Minnick--2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-5858-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-2067-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2067-2 1. Surveying. I. Brinker, Russell C. (Russell Charles). IL Minnick, Roy. TA555.887 1994 526.9--dc20 91-5241 CIP



British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available Copyright ® 1995 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1995 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1995



All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer-Science +Business Media, B.V. Printed on acid-free paper.



Contents



Preface



1



Preface to the First Edition



xxzx



Contributors



xxxi



Surveying Profession, Registration, and Associations Walter G. Robillard



1-1 1-2 1-3



1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 2



xxviii



Introduction OveIView The Future Background of Surveying and Mapping The SUIVeying Profession SUIVeying Literature SUIVeying Education



1 1



1 1 1



2 2 2



Surveying Field Notes, Data Collectors Russell C. Brinker



3



2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7



3 3 4



2-8



Introduction Importance of Field Notes Essentials of Superior Notes Field Books Types and Styles of Notes Automatic Recording Notekeeping Pointers Additional Basic Noteforms



5 5 7 11 12 v



vi



Contents



3 Measurement Errors



20



Bro. B. Austin Barry, FSC 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20



3-21 3-22 3-23 3-24



Introduction Readings Repeated Readings Best Value Accuracy and Precision Errors in Measurement Systematic Errors Accidental Errors Errors Versus Variations Distribution of Accidental Errors Standard Deviation Uses of Standard Deviation Variance and Standard Deviation Use of Standard Specifications for Procedure Distribution of Accidental Errors Plotting the Normal Probability Curve Meaning of Standard Deviation Meaning of Standard Error Plotting the Normal Distribution in Other Forms Propagation of Accidental Errors 3-20-1 Addition 3-20-2 Subtraction 3-20-3 Multiplication 3-20-4 Division 3-20-5 Other Operations Area of a Traverse Errors and Weights Corrections Significant Figures in Measurements 3-24-1 Exact Versus Doubtful Figures 3-24-2 Use of Zero 3-24-3 Rules of Thimb for Significant Figures 3-24-4 Rounding Off 3-24-5 Using Exact Values



4 Linear Measurements Kmneth S. Curtis 4-1 4-2 4-3



Introduction Units of Linear Measurement Direct Comparison Distance-Measurement Methods 4-3-1 Pacing 4-3-2 Odeometer of Measuring Wheel 4-3-3 Folding Rules and Hardware Tapes 4-3-4 Woven or Fiberglass Tapes 4-3-5 Steel and Invar Tapes 4-3-6 Taping Accessories



20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 23 25 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 31 33 34 34 35 35 35 36 36 38 40 40 40 40 40 41 42 42 42 44 44 44 45 45 46 48



Contents



4-4



4-3-7 Taping Procedures 4-3-8 Taping over Level Ground 4-3-9 Horizontal Taping on Sloping or Uneven Ground 4-3-10 Slope Taping 4-3-11 Dynamic Taping 4-2-12 Systematic Errors in Taping Optical Distance-Measurement Methods 4-4-1 General Introduction 4-4-2 Stadia Tacheometry 4-4-3 Stadia Reduction Devices 4-4-4 Accuracy of Stadia Measurements 4-4-5 Diagram Tacheometers 4-4-6 Plane table Alidades 4-4-7 Optical Wedge Attachments 4-4-8 Double-Image Tacheometers 4-4-9 Subtense Tacheometry 4-4-10 Tangential Tacheometry 4-4-11 Rangefinders



5 Linear Measurements: EDM Instruments



vii



49 50 51 51 51 51 54 54 55 55 59 59 60 60 63 63 64 64



67



PUTter W. McDonnell 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11



Introduction Principles The Application of Modulation The Index of Refraction of Air Decade Modulation Technique Environmental Correction Light Beam Versus Microwave Instrumental and Reflector Errors Slope Correction Accuracy Specifications Total-Station Instruments



6 Angle Measurements: Transits and Theodolites Edward C. Zimmerman



6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4



6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8



Introduction Angular Definition Units of Angular Measurement Bearings and Azimuths 6-4-1 Bearings 6-4-2 Azimuths Operational Horizontal Angles History and Definition of Surveyor's Transit and Theodolite Angle-Distance Relationship Transit 6-8-1 Surveyor's Transit 6-8-2 Telescope 6-8-3 Upper Plate



67 68 69 70 71 72 73 73 74 76 77 80 80 80 80 81 81 81 83 83 85 87 87 87 88



Contents



viii



6-8-4 Lower Plate 6-8-5 6-8-6 6-8-7 6-8-B 6-8-9 6-8-10 6-8-11 6-8-12 6-8-13 6-8-14 6-8-15



6-9



Leveling Head The Compass Tripod Graduated Circles Verniers Transit Operation Instrument Setup Measuring a Horizontal Angle with a Transit Laying out a Horizontal Angle with the Transit Measuring Horizontal Angles by Repetition Laying Out Angles by Repetition ~-16 Extending a Straight Line ~-17 Establishing Line Beyond an Obstruction 6-8-18 Wiggling in 6-8-19 Vertical Angles 6-8-20 Sources of Error Optical Theodolites 6-9-1 Descriptions 6-9-2 Repeating Theodolites 6-9-3 Directional Theodolites 6-9-4 Electronic Theodolites 6-9-5 Theodolite Setup 6-9-6 Horizontal Angles with Directional Instruments 6-9-7 Zenith Angles with a Theodolite 6-9-8 Horizontal Angle Layout by Directional Theodolites 6-9-9 Forced Centering 6-9-10 Expected Accuracy of Theodolites



88 89 90



91 91 91 93 94



95 96 96 97 98 98 100 100 100 103 103 103 105 107 108 108 109 111 111 112



7 Leveling



113



7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-l4 7-15 7-16



113 113 115 115 116 116 120 120 121 121 121 123 124 125 125 126



RDbert J. Schultz



Introduction Definitions Direct Leveling Procedures in Differential Leveling Trigonometric Leveling Earth Shape Considerations Indirect Leveling Other Leveling Procedures Instrumentation Hand Level Leveling Vials Engineer's Levels The Dumpy Level First-Order Levels Leveling Rods Noteforms



Contents



7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-26 7-27



Profile Leveling Precise Leveling Profiles in Highway Design Leveling for Water and Sewer Design Earthwork Quantities Mapping Errors Systematic Errors and Adjustments Specifications Precise Theories Geoidal Height



8 Instrument Adjustments Gerald W. Mahun 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5



8-6



8-7



8-8 8-9



Introduction Conditions for Adjustment Breakdown of Adjustments General Definitions Acljustment of Levels 8-5-1 Dumpy Level: General Information 8-5-2 Dumpy Level: Principal Adjustments 8-5-3 Wye Level: General Information 8-5-4 Wye Level: Principal Adjustments 8-5-5 Automatic Level: General Information 8-5-6 Automatic Level: Preliminary Adjustments 8-5-7 Automatic Level: Principal Adjustments 8-5-8 Tilting Level: General Information 8-5-9 Tilting Level: Principal Adjustments Adjustments of Transits and Theodolites 8-~1 Transit: General Information 8-~2 Transit: Principal Adjustments 8-~3 Theodolite: General Information 8-M Theodolite: Principal Adjustments Other Surveying Equipment 8-7-1 Tribrach 8-7-2 Rod Level 8-7-3 Striding Level 8-7-4 Tripod Cleaning Equipment Shipping Equipment



9 Traversing



ix



127 127 128 129 129 131 131 132 133 136 137 140 140 140



141 141 142 144 144 146 146 147 148 148 148 149 149 149 150



152 153 154 154 154 154 154 155 155 156



Jack B. Evett



9-1 9-2 9-3



Introduction Field Measurements in Traversing Angle Misclosure and Balancing



156 158 159



x



Contents



9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7



9-8



Traverse Misdosure and Balancing 9-4-1 Latitudes and Departures 9-4-2 Traverse Balancing Rectangular Coordinates Missing Data Area Computations 9-7-1 DMDMethod 9-7-2 Coordinate Method 9-7-4 Area by Planimeter Programmed Traverse Computations



10 Survey Drafting Edward G. Zimmerman 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7



10-8



10-9



10-10



10-11



Introduction Survey Drawings Map Scale Map Drafting Datums for Mapping Topographic Maps Topographic Map Construction 10-7-1 Plotting Control 10-7-2 Drafting Machine 10-7-3 Protractor 10-7-4 Coordinates 10-7-5 Alternate Methods of Plotting Angles 10-7-6 Plotting Details 10-7-7 Characteristics of Contours 10-7-8 Plotting Contours 10-7-9 Drawing Contours by Interpolation 10-7-10 Topographic license Construction Maps Earthwork Cross Sections 10-8-1 10-8-2 Plan and Profile Maps 10-8-3 Site or Grading Plans 10-8-4 As-Built Maps Boundary Maps Subdivision Maps 10-9-1 10-9-2 Parcel Maps 10-9-3 Record of Survey Information Shown on Maps 10-10-1 Scales 10-10-2 Meridian Arrows 10-10-3 Lettering 10-10-4 Titles 10-10-5 Notes and Legends 10-10-6 Symbols Map Placement



160 160 161 163 164 166 167 169



170



179



180 180 180 181 181 183 183 183 183 183 184 184 185 185 185 188 188 189 189 189



190



191 191 192 192 193 193 193 193 193 193 194 197 198 198



Contents



10-12 Drafting Materials 10-12-1 Paper 10-12-2 Cloth 10-12-3 Film 10-13 Reproduction of Maps and Drawings 10-13-1 Copying Processes 10-13-2 Diazo 10-13-3 Photographic 10-13-4 Electrostatic 10-14 Automated Drafting 10-15 Sources of Mapping Errors 10-16 Mistakes and Blunders 10-17 Mapping Standards and Specifications 11



xi



200 200 201 201 201 201 201 202 202 202 203 203 203



Triangulation M. Louis Shafer



204



11-1 Introduction 11-2 Geodetic Triangulation 11-3 Classification and Specifications of Triangulation 11-4 Planning 11-5 Strength of Figures 11-6 Base Lines 11-7 Field Reconnaissance 11-8 Setting Station Marks 11-9 Signal Building 11-10 Observations 11-10-1 Description of Triangulation Station 11-10-2 Observations of Horizontal Directions 11-10-3 Observations of Double Zenith Distances 11-10-4 Abstracts 11-11 Field Observations 11-11-1 Station Setup 11-11-2 Vertical Angles 11-11-3 Horizontal Directions to Reference Marks, Azimuth Marks and Intersection Stations 11-11-4 Horizontal Directions to Main and Supplemental Stations 11-12 Conclusion



204 205 207 212 213 216 217 220 221 222 222 222 228 228 231 231 231



12 Trilateration



231 233 233 234



Bryant N. Sturgess and Frank T. Carey



12-1 12-2 12-3 12-4 12-5 12-6



Introduction Use of Trilateration Advantages of Trilateration Disadvantages of Trilateration Comparison of Triangulation and Trilateration Construction of Braced Quadrilaterals



234 234 234 235 235 236



xii



Contents



12-7 12-8 12-9 12-10 12-11 12-12 12-13 12-14 12-15



Network Design Reconnaissance Specifications and Trilateration Check Angles Zenith Angle Observations Trigonometric Leveling Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments Edmi Internal Errors Edmi External Errors 12-15-1 Refractive Index Correction 12-15-2 Temperature Measurement 12-15-3 Aspirator 12-15-4 Mast 12-15-5 Truck Mounting 12-15-6 Barometric Pressure Measurement 12-15-7 Humidity 12-15-8 Electronic Interference 12-15-9 Reflector Correction 12-16 Reflectors 12-17 Centering 12-18 Instrument Supports 12-19 Accessories 12-20 Distance Reduction and Trilateration Adjustments 12-21 Field Notes 13 Geodesy



238 238 239 241 246 247 247 247 253 253 253 256 256 256 256 257 258 258 258 259



260 261 265 265 271



Earl F. Burkholder 13-1 13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5



Introduction Definitions Goals of Geodesy History of Geodesy Geometrical Geodesy 13-5-1 Geometry of the Ellipsoid 13-5-2 The Two-Dimensional Ellipse 13-5-3 The Three-Dimensional Ellipsoid 13-5-4 Geodetic Position Computation 13-6 Geodetic Data Transformations 13-6-1 Use ofa Model 13-7 Geodetic Datums 13-7-1 Regional Geodetic Datums 13-7-2 Global Geodetic Datums 13-7-3 Parameters of Selected Regional Geodetic Datums 13-7-4 Parameters of Selected Global Geodetic Datums 13-8 Physical Geodesy 13-8-1 Gravity and Leveling



271 271 271 274 277 277 278 283 288



290 290 294 294 295 295 296 297 297



Contents



13-9 Satellite Geodesy 13-9-1 Geodetic Positioning 14 Inertial and Satellite SUlVeys



xiii



298 298 300



David F. Mezera and Larry D. Hothem 14-1 Introduction 14-1-1 Inertial Positioning 14-1-2 Satellite Positioning 14-2 Development of Inertial Surveying Systems 14-2-1 Military Initiatives 14-2-2 Commercial Development 14-3 Inertial Positioning Theory 14-4 Inertial System Configuration 14-4-1 Accelerometers 14-4-2 Gyroscopes 14-4-3 Inertial Measuring Unit 14-4-4 Control and Data-Handling Components 14-4-5 Survey Vehicle and Power Supply 14-5 Inertial Surveying Operations 14-5-1 System Calibration 14-5-2 Initial Orientation of the Inertial Platform 14-5-3 Compensation for Platform Movements 14-5-4 Position Measurements 14-6 Inertial Data Processing and Adjustments 14-6-1 Error Sources and Characteristics 14-6-2 Data Filtering 14-6-3 Horizontal and Vertical Positions 14-6-4 Data Adjustments 14-7 Inertial Survey Design and Typical Results 14-7-1 Logistics 14-7-2 Other Design Considerations 14-7-3 Typical Inertial Survey Results 14-8 Inertial Surveying Applications 14-8-1 Application Examples and Projections 14-8-2 Economic Considerations 14-9 Development of Satellite Positioning Systems 14-10 Satellite Orbits and Coordinate Systems 14-10-1 Satellite Orbits 14-10-2 Coordinate Systems 14-11 Navy Navigation Satellite System 14-12 Geodetic Doppler Receivers 14-13 Doppler Satellite Positioning Theory 14-14 Doppler Data-Reduction Methods 14-15 Global Positioning System 14-16 GPS Experience at the NGS 14-17 Conclusions



300 300 301 301 302 302 302 303 303 304 304 306 308 308 309 309 310 310 312 312 313 314 314 315 315 315 317 318 318 319 319 321 321 323 324 325 325 328 332 332 332



xiv



Contents



15 Global Positioning System Surveying



334



Bryant N. Sturgess and Ellis R. Veatch II



IS-1 IS-2 15-3 15-4



15-5



15-6 15-7



15-8



15-9 IS-1O



IS-II 16



Introduction GPS Basics Basic Network Design Reconnaissance 15-4-1 Public Contact Strategy 15-4-2 Site Selection 15-4-3 Monumentation 15-4-4 Recovery Notes 15-4-5 Station Notes 15-4-6 Polar Plot 15-4-7 Photos and Rubbings GPS Field Operations 15-S-1 Statistics IS-5-2 Rapid-Static IS-S-3 Pseudokinematics IS-5-4 Kinematics 15-5-5 GPS Survey Party Staffing 15-S-6 Vehicle Considerations Mission Planning IS-6-1 Premission Briefing Special Equipment 15-7-1 Tripods and Tribrachs 15-7-2 GPS Bipod-Tripod 15-7-3 Multiple GPS Rod Bubbles 15-7-4 GPS Rod Collimation Adjustment: A Shortcut Hazards to Successful Data Collection IS-8-1 Multipath 15-8-2 Electronic Interference IS-8-3 Traffic Sensor Devices IS-8-4 Two-Way Radios 15-8-5 Radio, Television, Microwave Antennas IS-8-6 Geomagnetic Disturbances 15-8-7 Power Source IS-8-8 Antenna Height Measurement Typical Problems Encountered Network Adjustment IS-1O-1 Statistical Indicators IS-1O-2 Network Adjustment Procedure IS-10-3 Dual Heights GPS and the Future



334 335 337 342 343 343 346 348 348 351 352 352 354 354 355 357 360



361 364 365 367 367 367 370



371 371 371 372 372 372 372 373 374 374 374 377 377 378 379 381



Survey Measurement Adjustments by Least Squares Paul. R. Wolf and Charles D. Ghilani



383



16-1 Introduction 16-2 The Fundamental Condition of Least Squares



383 384



Contents



16-3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation-Equation Method 16-4 Systematic Formulation of Normal Equation 16-5 Matrix Methods in Least-5quares Adjustment 16-6 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities 16-7 Adjustment of Leveling Circuits 16-8 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys 16-9 The Distance of Observation Equation 16-10 The Angle Observation Equation 16-11 Trilateration Adjustment 16-12 Triangulation Adjustment 16-12-1 Adjustment of Intersections 16-12-2 Adjustment of Resections 16-12-3 Adjustment of More Complex Triangulation Networks 16-13 Traverse Adjustment 16-14 Correlation and the Standard Error Ellipse 16-15 Summary 17 Field Astronomy for Azimuth Determinations Richard L. Elgin, David R. Knowles, and Joseph H. Senne



17-1 Introduction 17-2 Celestial Sphere and Definitions 17-3 Azimuth of a Line 17-4 Azimuth of a Celestial Body by the Hour-Angle Method 17-5 Azimuth of a Celestial Body by the Altitude Method 17-6 Sun Observations (Hour-Angle Method) 17-7 Example Sun Observation (Hour-Angle Method) 17-8 Sun Observations (Altitude Method) 17-9 Example Sun Calculation (Altitude Method) 17-10 Polaris Observations (Hour-Angle Method) 17-11 Example Polaris Calculation 17-12 Stars Other Than Polaris 17-13 Summary 18 Map Projections Porter W. McDonnell



18-1 Introduction 18-2 Projection 18-3 Scale 18-4 Scale Factor 18-5 Mathematics ofthe Sphere 18-6 Constant of the Cone 18-7 Standard Lines 18-8 Equidistant Projections 18-9 Azimuthal Projections 18-10 Equal-Area Projections 18-11 Conformal Projections



xv



385 386 387 389 390



394 394 395 397 401 401 405



405 407 411 413 414 414 414 416 417 420 421 424 427 428 429 431 433 434 435 435 436 438 439 439 442 444 444 444 444 444



xvi



Contents



18-12 Simple Equidistant Projections 18-13 Projections for Plane Coordinate Systems



19 Plane Coordinate Systems R. B. Buckner 19-1 Introduction to Plane Coordinate Systems 19-2 State Plane Coordinate Systems 19-2-1 Development of the State Plane Coordinate Systems 19-2-2 Applications and Advantages of SPCS 19-2-3 The Basics of State Plane Coordinate Systems 19-2-4 Referencing Surveys to the State Plane Coordinate System 19-2-5 Precision and Accuracy Needed in SPC Variables 19-2-6 Sample Traverse 19-2-7 Conversions Between Plane and Geodetic Coordinates 19-2-8 Transformations Between NAD27 and NAD83 Coordinates 19-2-9 Miscellaneous Problems Concerning State Plane Coordinates 19-3 The UTM-UPSS System 19-3-1 The 62 Zones 19-3-2 Principal Digits 19-3-3 Convergence



20 Photogrammetry Andrew Kellie and Wayne Valentine 20-1 Introduction 20-2 Photographs and Maps 20-3 The Photogrammetric Mapping Process 20-4 Aerial Cameras 20-5 Flight Planning 20-6 Ground Control for Photographic Mapping 20-7 Stereoplotting Instruments 20-8 Stereoplotter Operations 20-9 Mapping Accuracy Evaluation 20-10 Simple Photo Measurements 20-11 Special Products 20-12 Photo Interpretation 20-13 Close-Range Photogrammetry 20-14 Applications 20-15 Photogrammetric Systems 20-16 Camera Systems 20-17 Planning 20-18 Control 20-19 Photography 20-20 Summary



446 450 454 454 455 455 457 458 460 465 467 470



478 479 482 482 483 485



486 486



486 488 489 494 496



497



499 500 501 503 504 505 505 506 506 507 508 509 509



Contents



21



Compass Surveying



xvii



510



F. Henry Sipe 21-1 21-2 21-3 21-4 21-5 21-6 21-7



Introduction Compasses and Their Use Magnetic Declination How to Determine Declination Magnetic Variation Accessory Equipment Surveying with an Open-Sight Compass 21-7-1 The Vernier 21-8 Preliminary Procedures 21-9 The Trial or Random Line 21-9-1 If Starting Point Can Be Set Up On 21-9-2 If Starting Point Cannot Be Set Up On 21-9-3 If There is Magnetic Interference at Starting Point 21-9-4 Continuing the Line 21-9-5 Obstacles on Line 21-9-6 Backsight Control 21-9-7 Nearing End ofa Lne 21-9-8 Reference Objects 21-10 Correct Bearing Between Markers 21-11 Correct Distance Between Markers 21-12 When Second Marker is not Found 21-13 Correct Bearing and Distance of Final Lines 21-14 Surveying by True Bearings 21-15 Surveying Along Roads 21-16 Meandering Streams 21-17 Accuracy of the Work 21-18 Acreage ofthe Survey 21-19 Offsetting 21-19-1 If There Are No Recorded Offsets 21-19-2 If There Are Recorded Offsets 21-19-3 Offsetting 21-20 Marking Lines 21-20-1 Kinds of Marks 21-20-2 Field Procedures 21-21 Painting Lines 21-22 Monumentation 21-22-1 Trees 21-22-2 Stones 21-22-3 Other Objects 21-23 Description of Survey 21-24 Report of Survey



22 The Planetable: Instruments and Methods Robert J. Fish



22-1 Introduction 22-2 Practical Applications



510 511 512 512 515 517 518 518 518 519 519 520 520 520 520 521 522 523 523 523 524 524 525 525 525 526 526 527 528 528 528 529 529 529 530 530 530 530 530 531 531 533 533 533



Contents



xviii



22-3 22-4 22-5 22-6 22-7 22-8 22-9 22-10 22-11 22-12



Plane table Method Limitations and Disadvantages of the Methods Description of the Planetable and Alidade Tripod Board or Table Alidade Plane table Sheet Stadia Rods Ancillary Equipment and Expendable Supplies Adjustments of Instruments and Equipment, and Determination of Constants 22-13 Straight Edges 22-14 Tripod 22-15 Plane table Board 22-16 Leveling Device 22-17 Magnetic Compass 22-18 Striding Level 22-19 Parallax 22-20 Reticle 22-21 Control Level to the Vertical Arc 22-22 Determination of the Stadia Constant 22-23 Stadia Rods 22-24 Field Operations with the Planetable 22-25 Control 22-26 The Setup 22-27 Resection 22-28 Two-Point Problem 22-29 Organization and Qualifications of the Field Party 22-30 Mapping 22-31 Depiction of Ground Configuration, Topographic Features 22-32 Observing, Plotting, Notekeeping 22-33 Practical Suggestions: Avoiding Pitfalls 22-34 Planetable Approach, but Without a Planetable 22-35 More Practical Suggestions: Avoiding Pitfalls 22-36 Earthwork Volumes by Tacheometry 22-37 Plane table Use in Construction Work 22-38 Contoured Models



23 Control Surveys



533 534 535 535 536 536 537 538 539 539 539 540 540 540 541 541 541 541 542 542 543 543 543 544 544 548 549 552 552 553 554 557 558 559 561 562 563



Carlos Najera



23-1 23-2 23-3 23-4 23-5 23-6 23-7



Introduction Basic Control Networks Horizontal Control Surveys Reconnaissance Monumentation Instrumentation Length Measurements



563 563 565 569 569



570 570



Contents



23-8 Vertical Control Surveys 23-9 Summary



24 Construction Surveying



xix



571 573



578



Boyd L. Cardon and Edward C. Zimmerman



24-1 24-2 24-3 24-4 24-5 24-6



Introduction Project Control Surveys Grid Network for Construction Control Horizontal Construction Location Vertical Construction Location Pipeline Construction Stake Out 24-6-1 Gravity-Line Construction Layout 24-6-2 Pressure Pipelines 24-6-3 Use of Laser Beams 24-7 Buildings and Structures 24-7-1 Batter Boards 24-8 Highways and Streets 24-8-1 Clearing Stakes 24-8-2 Rough-Cut Stakes 24-8-3 Random Control Stationing 24-9 Slope Stakes 24-9-1 Slope-Stake Definitions 24-9-2 Slope-Staking Cuts and Fills 24-9-3 Slope-Staking Culverts 24-10 Earthwork Definitions 24-10-1 Cross-Section Method 24-10-2 Average-End-Area Formula 24-10-3 Prismoidal Formula 24-10-4 Borrow-Pit Method 24-10-5 Contour-Area Method 24-10-6 Mass Diagrams 24-10-7 Digital Elevation Models and Aerial Photographic Methods 24-10-8 Earthwork Computational Devices 24-10-9 Cost Estimation 24-11 Tunnel Surveys 24-11-1 Surface Survey 24-11-2 Control Monuments 24-11-3 Construction Control 24-11-4 Vertical Shaft Control 24-11-5 Vertical Alignment by Plumb Bob 24-11-6 Vertical Alignment by Optical Collimator 24-11-7 Vertical Alignment by Laser 24-11-8 Transfer of Elevation 24-11-9 Transferring Alignment in a Shaft 24-11-10 Transfer by Plumb Bobs 24-11-11 Transfer by Vertical Collimator



578 578 580 580 581 581 582 583 583 584 585 587 589 589 590 592 592 592 598 600 600 601 601 605 606 607



610 611 611 611 611 611 611 612 612 613 613 613 613 614 615



xx



Contents



24-11-12 Azimuth by Gyroscopic Theodolite 24-11-13 Use of Laser Beams in Tunnels 24-12 Bridges 24-13 Dams 24-14 As-Built Swveys



25 Route Surveys



615 617 617 620



622 624



David W. Gibson 25-1 25-2 25-3 25-4 25-5 25-6 25-7 25-8 25-9 25-10 25-11 25-12 25-13 25-14



Introduction The Route Coordinate System Horizontal Alignment Parts and Nomenclature Vertical Alignment Parts and Nomenclature Cross-Section Alignment Parts and Nomenclature Degree of Cwve Computing Curve Parts Layout of Horizontal Curves Layout of a Curve by Coordinates Transition Spirals Spiral Geometry Insertion of Spirals in An Alignment Layout of Spirals Exact Deflection Angles and Total Chords by Spiral Coordinates 25-15 Spiral Subchords 25-16 Spiral Deflection Angles by Geometry 25-17 Layout of Spirals from Curve Setups 25-1'8 Vertical Alignment 25-19 Vertical Curve Properties 25-20 Computing Curve Elevations by Formula 25-21 Cwve Elevation Offsets by Proportion 25-22 Unequal-Tangent Vertical Curves 25-23 High or Low Point of a Vertical Curve 25-24 Passing a Vertical Curve Through a Fixed Point



26 Hydrographic Surveying



624 624 625 628 628 628 630



632 633 635 636 638 640



641 641 641 642 644 644 646 647 648 648 649 651



Capt. Donald E. Nortrup 26-1 Introduction 26-2 Phases of Hydrographic Surveying 26-2-1 Preliminary Office Preparations 26-2-2 Preliminary Field Work 26-2-3 Sounding Operations 26-2-4 Data Presentation 26-3 Positioning Afloat 26-3-1 Positioning by Tagline 26-3-2 Three-Point Sextant Fix 26-3-3 Azimuth Intersection 26-3-4 Range lRange Electronic 26-3-5 Rangel Azimuth



651 651 651 653 654 656 656 657 658 660



661 664



Contents



26-5 Water-Level Monitoring



664 665 665 666



26-6 State of the Art



668



Boundary Surveys Donald A. Wilson



670



27-1 27-2 27-3 27-4 27-5



670 670 670



26-4 Depth Measurement 26-4-1 Direct Measurement 26-4-2 Indirect Measurement



27



xxi



Introduction Ownership, Rights and Interests in Land Transfer of Title Boundary Surveying Evidence 27-5-1 Collection of Evidence 27-5-2 Analysis and Evaluation of Evidence 27-5-3 Perpetuation of Evidence 27-6 Presumptions 27-7 Judicial Notice 27-8 Rules of Construction 27-8-1 In General 27-8-2 Sufficiency of Description 27-8-3 Intention of the Parties 27-8-4 Four Corners of the Instrument 27-8-5 Contemporaneous Instruments 27-8-6 Consideration of Entire Instrument 27-8-7 References Part of the Description 27-8-8 Specific Description Controls General Description 27-8-9 False Description May be Rejected 27-8-10 Construe Description Against Grantor, In Favor of Grantee 27-8-11 Meaning and Intending Clause 27-9 Relative Importance of Conflicting Elements 27-10 Rules of Survey 27-10-1 Footsteps of Surveyor 27-10-2 Straight-Line Presumption 27-10-3 Reversal of Calls 27-10-4 Magnetic North Presumption 27-10-5 Horizontal Versus Slope Measurement 27-10-6 Lines of Ancient Fences 27-10-7 Relocation of Lost Monument 27-10-8 Relocation of Lost Line 27-10-9 Conflicting Grants 27-10-10 Conflicting Surveys 27-11 Easements and Reversions 27-11-1 Creation of Easements 27-11-2 Termination of Easements 27-11-3 Reversion



671 672 672 673 674 674 674 675 675 675 676 676 676 676 676 676 677 677 677 677 679 679 679 679



680 680 680 680 680 680 680 680 681 682 682



xxii



Contents



27-12 Adverse Possession 27-12-1 Color of Title 27-12-2 Prescriptive Easements 27-12-3 Surveyor's Role 27-13 Unwritten Rights 27-13-1 Acquiescence 27-13-2 Estoppel 27-13-3 Parol Agreement 27-13-4 Practical Location 27-14 Apportionment of Excess and Deficiency 27-14-1 Sequential Conveyancing 27-14-2 Simultaneous Conveyancing 27-14-3 Combination 27-14-4 Remnant Rule 28 Boundary Location Along Waterways Roy Minnick



28-1 Introduction 28-2 Sovereign Lands and the Public Trust 28-2-1 Physical Character of the Land 28-2-2 Source of Title 28-2-3 Changes of the Character or Boundaries of the Land 28-3 Classifications of Lands Involved in Water Boundary Location 28-3-1 Tidelands 28-3-2 Submerged Lands 28-3-3 Navigable but Nontidal Waterbodies 28-3-4 Swamp and Overflowed Lands (Swamplands) 28-3-5 The Difference Between Swamplands and Sovereign Lands 28-4 Public Trust Lands Held by Private Persons 28-5 Nonnavigable Waterbodies 28-6 Determining Navigability 28-6-1 Riparian Rights 28-6-2 Federal and State Law Governing Navigability 28-6-3 Navigability by Statute 28-6-4 Navigability in Fact 28-6-5 Susceptibility to Navigation 28-7 Boundaries Along Tidal Waterbodies 28-8 Water Boundaries in Public Lands 28-9 Effect of Natural Shoreline Processes on Boundaries 28-10 Artificial Changes to Shorelines 28-11 Operative Words: Suddenly and Generally 28-12 When Artificial is Natural 28-13 Title: Extinguished Versus Reemergence 28-14 Ownership of Islands 28-15 Water Boundary Determination 28-15-1 Nontidal Waterbodies 28-16 Summary



683



683 684 684 684 685 685 685 685 685 686 686 687 687 691 691 691 692 692 693 693 693 693 693 693 694 694



695 695 695 696 696 696 696 697 698 698 699 699 699 699 699 700 700 701



Contents



29 Mining Surveys



xxiii



702



E. Franklin Hart and John S. Parrish 29-1



Underground 29-1-1 Mine Surveying Practice 29-1-2 Definitions 29-1-3 Deep-Mine Maps 29-1-4 Surface-Mine Maps 29-1-5 Horizontal and Vertical Control for Mine Surveys 29-1-6 Underground Surveying Equipment 29-1-7 Underground Traversing 29-1-8 Underground Leveling 29-1-9 Computer Usage in Underground Surveying and Mapping 29-1-10 Safety Considerations 29-2 Aboveground 29-2-1 Background 29-2-2 Historical Development of Mineral Surveying Procedures 29-2-3 Common Surveying Practices 29-2-4 Surveying for Patent 29-2-5 Intent: Parallelism, Discovery, Monumentation 29-2-6 Retracing the Patent 29-2-7 Conflicting Patent Locations 29-2-8 Restoration of Lost or Obiliterated Mineral Survey Corners 29-2-9 Gaps and Overlaps Not of Record 29-2-10 Summary



30 Public-Land Swveys



Roy Minnick and John S. Parrish 30-1 Original Surveys



702 702 703 704 706 706 707 708 710 710 710 711 711 712 713 714 714 716 717



720 724 725 729



30-1-1



Introduction



30-1-2



729 729



The Manual of Instructions for Survey of the Public Lands Development of the Manual Manual Supplements Distance Measurement Direction Measurement Establishing Direction The System of Rectangular Surveys Subdivision by Protraction Subdivision by Survey Subdivision of Sections into Quarter-Sections Subdivisions of Fractional Sections Subdivision of Fractional Quarter-Sections Meandering and Meander Corners Marking Lines Between Corners Identification of Existent Corners



732 733 734 734 735 735 735 743 745 746 746 746 747 749 749



30-1-3 30-1-4 30-1-5 30-1-6 30-1-7 30-1-8 30-1-9 30-1-10 30-1-11 30-1-12 30-1-13 30-1-14 30-1-15 30-1-16



xxiv



31



Contents



30-1-17 The Restoration of Lost Corners 30-1-18 Resurveys 30-1-19 Special Instructions 30-1-20 Special Surveys 30-1-21 Field Notes 30-1-22 Plats 30-1-23 Current Information About the Public Lands 30-2 Retracement Surveys 30-2-1 Introduction 30-2-2 Types of Land Surveys 30-2-3 Research 30-2-4 Retracement/Resurvey Techniques



753 761 765 765 765 768 768 770 770 771 771 772



Optical Tooling James P. Reilly



798



31-1 Introduction 31-2 Optics, Collimation, and Autocollimation 31-2-1 Refraction 31-2-2 Reflection 31-2-3 Collimation 31-2-4 Autocollimation 31-3 Instrumentation 31-3-1 Alignment 31-3-2 Leveling 31-3-3 Square 31-4 Coordinate Determination Instruments 31-5 Accessories 31-6 Applications 31-6-1 Checking the Parallelism of Rollers 31-6-2 Checking Levelness of a Table or Plate 31-6-3 Checking Flatness of a Rail 31-6-4 Transferring a Line to a Different Level 31-7 Summary



798 798 798 799 799 800 801 802 802 804 806 806 807 807 808 809 809 810



32 Land Descriptions



811



Dennis]. Mouland



32-1 32-2 32-3 32-4 32-5 32-6 32-7



Introduction Basic Description Structure Description Systems Metes-And-Bounds Descriptions Lot-And-Block Descriptions Portions of Another Parcel Descriptions Legal Subdivisions 32-7-1 PLSS Abbreviations 32-7-2 Irregularities in the PLSS 32-7-3 Independent Resurveys 32-7-4 Nonrectangular Units in the PLSS



811 811 813 813 815 816 819 821 821



823 826



Contents



32-8 Reference to a Map, Plat, or Deed 32-9 Coordinate Descriptions 32-10 Strip Descriptions 32-11 Combining Description Systems 32-12 32-13 32-14 32-15



Effect of State Laws Superiority of Calls Description Terminology Summary



33 The Role of the Land Surveyor in Land Litigation: Pretrial John Briscoe 33-1 33-2 33-3 33-4



Introduction Rules of Evidence Relevance Documentary Evidence 33-4-1 Authentication 33-4-2 Best Evidence or Original Document Rule 33-5 The Rule Against Hearsay or the Rules Permitting Hearsay 33-5-1 Admissions of a Party 33-5-2 Declarations Against Interest 33-5-3 Business Records 33-5-4 Certain Official Documents 33-5-5 Past Recollection Recorded 33-5-6 Reputation Concerning Land Boundaries and Land Customs 33-5-7 Statements of Deceased Persons 33-5-8 Ancient Documents 33-6 The Rule Requiring Personal Knowledge 33-7 Burden of Proof 33-8 Presumptions 33-9 Privileges 33-9-1 The Attorney-Client Privilege 33-9-2 The Privileges for an Attorney's Work Product: An Absolute and a Qualified Privilege 33-9-3 The Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 33-9-4 Other Privileges 33-10 Judicial Notice 33-11 The Opinion Rule 33-12 Expert Testimony 33-12-1 Expert Nonopinion Testimony 33-12-2 A Precondition: The Need for Expert Testimony 33-12-3 A Foundational Fact: The Expert's Qualifications 33-12-4 The Bases for an Expert's Opinion 33-12-5 Miscellaneous Observations on Expert Testimony 33-13 Pretrial: The Discovery Phase 33-13-1 Interrogatories 33-13-2 Depositions



xxv



827 828 828 831 832 833 834 835



836 836 837 837 838 838 839 841 842 842 843 843 844 844 845 845 846 847 848 850 850



851 852 852 852 854 855 855 855 856 856 857 858 858 859



xxvi



Contents



33-13-3 Requests for Admissions 33-13-4 Inspection of Land 34



861



862



Courtroom Techniques Walter G. Rnbillard



867



34-1 34-2 34-3 34-4 34-5 34-6 34-7 34-8 34-9 34-10 34-11 34-12 34-13 34-14



867 867 868 868 868 869 870 870 871 872 877 877 878 879



Introduction Pre trail Involvement In Rem Complaint Discovery Depositions The Trial Expert Categories Surveyor's Preparation The Surveyor on the Witness Stand Exhibits Used in Court Cross-Examination Payment for Services Checklist for the Expert Witness



35 Land and Geographic Infonnation Systems Grenville Barnes 35-1 Introduction 35-2 The Evolution of Land Information Systems 35-2-I Early Fiscal Cadastres 35-2-2 The Multipurpose Cadastre 35-2-3 Multipurpose LIS 35-2-4 LIS/GIS Networks 35-3 Fundamental Components of LIS 35-3-1 Geodetic Reference Framework 35-3-2 Cadastral Overlay 35-4 LIS Within the Land Administration Framework 35-4-1 Land Registration Systems 35-4-2 Registration of Deeds: Rudimentary Systems 35-4-3 Improved Registration of Deeds System 35-4-4 Registration of Title 35-4-5 The Role of Surveying in Land Registration 35-5 Geographic Information Systems 35-5-1 Raster-Based GIS 35-5-2 Vector-Based GIS 35-5-3 Geocoding 35-5-4 GIS Applications 35-6 Case Studies 35-6-1 Wyandotte County, KS 35-6-2 Franklin County, OH 35-6-3 Prince William County, VA 35-7 Summary



880 880 882 882 883 884 885 887 887 890 892 894 894 895 896 900 901 901 904 908 908 909 909 914



917 919



Contents



xxvii



Appendix 1 State Boards of Registration for Land Surveyors



923



Appendix 2 Major Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies



927



Appendix 3 Sources of Information About Surveying



930



Appendix 4 Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks



931



Index



961



Preface



The first edition of The Surveying Handbook, although a ground breaker, was widely accepted. However, surveying is a dynamic profession with each new development just one step ahead of the next, and updating became critical. In addition, the editors received constructive criticism about the first edition that needed to be addressed. So, while the objective of The Handbook remains intact, the logical evolution of the profession, along with the need to recognize constructive criticism, led to the second edition. New chapters have been added on water boundaries, boundary law, and geodetic positioning satellites. The chapter on land data systems was rewritten to provide a dramatic updating of information, thus broadening the coverage of The Handbook. The same may be said for the state plane coordinate chapter. The material on public lands and construction surveying was reorganized as well. Appendices were added to tabulate some information that was buried in the earlier edition in several places. Numerous other changes were incorporated to help the handbook retain its profession-wide scope, one step beyond the scope of an upper-division college textbook. Along with the most sophisticated techniques and equipment, the reader can find information on techniques once popular and still important. Four new authors are welcomed to the list of contributors: Grenville Barnes, R. B. Buckner, Donald A. Wilson, and Charles D. Ghilani. The editors and publisher feel confident that a second edition of The Surveying Handbook meets the objectives of broad, thorough coverage and current information, while recognizing the valuable advice and suggestions of first edition users. RUSSELL BRINKER



Roy MINNICK



February 25,1993



xxviii



Preface to the First Edition



THE SURVEYING HANDBOOK has been written to fill the need for a comprehensive volume on professional surveying. In the past, similar books have been filled primarily with tables more readily obtained from other sources, while several of the more recent versions concentrate on a single area of the profession and are published by the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, American Society of Photogrammetry, and American Society of Civil Engineers. The 36 chapters in this volume were prepared by 35 contributors, generally based on their special fields. Obviously, even the largest handbook could not cover every phase of surveying in complete depth. But sufficient material is given herein to provide surveyors and others with suitable information outside their specialty field. It can then be determined whether a full-sized special book on a subject area is needed. Some surveying equipment sales and repair shops stock a small number of textbooks. Customers have asked "Why can't I get just one volume to refresh and guide me instead of having to buy half a dozen books?" It is hoped this volume will eliminate that problem. Based on advance publication interest, surveyors, civil, agricultural and other engineers, foresters, architects, archeologists, geologists, small home builders, realtors, title companies, and lawyers will find useful information in THE SURVEYING HANDBOOK. Abundant figures and tables are included in this volume. References to textbooks, technical journals, and magazines will help readers find additional sources of specific information desired. Profuse footnotes have been used only in Chapter 31, The Role of the Surveyor in Land Litigation: Pretrial. At most chapter ends, superscript numbers refer to the list of References and Notes, thereby retaining a cleaner appearance and reducing awkward typesetting. THE SURVEYING HANDBOOK is written in an easy-to-read style that avoids word repetition and other excess verbiage. A handbook is supposed to be practical and that has been the goal of Contributors and Editors. Many Contributors have written their own textbooks or parts thereof, and nearly all are frequent authors of technical papers. Contacting Contributors residing in 19 different states by telephone and letters has been an unexpected challenge for the Editors who have been so heavily dependent upon the contributors' efforts and cooperation. Their expenditure of time and funds for the extremely small stipend paid handbook contributors by publishers is greatly appreciated. xxix



xxx



Preface to the First Edition



In addition to the typical textbook chapters, special ones on Survey Drafting; Mining Surveys; Optical Tooling (Industrial Applications); Land Descriptions; Pre-Trial Preparation; Courtroom Techniques; Survey Business Management; Surveying Charges, Contracts, Liability; Land Information Systems; and Surveying Profession, Registration, Associations, are included. years. Although basic principles of This handbook is the result of the labors over the last survey measurement remain the same, technology and sources of information may change. Recently, NGS has published portions of NAD-83, several states have adopted new state plane coordinate systems, and data storage and retrieval methods at primary survey information sources have been modernized. The surveying profession is not static, but is constantly changing in response to modern technology.



5t



RUSSELL BRINKER



Roy MINNICK



Contributors



GRENVILLE BARNES Assistant Professor Surveying and Mapping Program Civil Engineering Department University of Florida Gainesville, FL BRO. B. AUSTIN BARRY, F:S.C. Professor of Civil Engineering Manhattan College, Bronx, NY RUSSELL C. BRINKER, P.E. Adjunct Professor of Civil Engineering (Retired) New Mexico State University Las Cruces, NM JOHN BRISCOE Attorney at Law San Francisco, CA R B. BUCKNER, Ph.D., L.S. Surveying Program Chair East Tennessee State University johnson City, TN EARL F. BURKHOLDER, P.L.S., P.E. Consulting Geodetic Engineer Klamath Falls, OR



BOID L. CARDON, RL.S. Professor of Mathematics Ricks College, Rexburg, ID FRANK T. CAREY, L.S., RL.S. Boundary Officer California State Lands Commission Instructor, Sacramento City Colege KENNETH S. CURTIS, L.S. Professor Emeritus of Surveying and Mapping Purdue University West Lafayette, IN RICHARD L. ELGIN, Ph.D., L.S., P.E. Elgin, Knowles & Senne, Inc., Elgin Surveying & Engineering, Inc., Rolla, MO JACK B. EVETT, Ph.D., P.E., L.S. Professor of Civil Engineering The University of North Carolina at Charlotte Charlotte, NC ROBERT J. FISH, RL.S. Phoenix, AZ xxxi



xxxii



Contributors



CHARLES D. GHIlANI, Ph.D. Surveying Program Chair Pennsylvania State University DAVID W. GIBSON, L.S. Associate Professor Surveying and Mapping Program Civil Engineering Department University of Florida Gainsville, FL E. FRANKLIN HART, L.S., P.E. Professor of Civil Engineering Technology Bluefield State College Bluefield, WV LARRY D. HOTHEM Manager GPS Research and Applications Geometronics Standards Section USGS National Mapping Division Reston, VA ANDREW KELLIE, Ph.D., L.S. Associate Professor of Engineering Technology Murray State University Murray, KY DAVID R KNOWLES, Ph.D., L.S., P.E. Elgin, Knowles & Senne, Inc. Professor of Civil Engineering University of Arkansas Fayetteville, AR GERALD W. MAHUN Assistan t Professor of Civil Engineering University of Wisconsin, Platteville Platteville, WI PORTER W. MCDONNELL, P.E., L.S. Professor of Surveying Metropolitan State College Denver, CO



DAVID F. MEZERA, Ph.D., P.L.S., P.E. Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Wisconsin, Madison Madison, WI ROY MINNICK, L.S., RL.S. Tidelands and Waterways First American Title Company Santa Ana, CA DENNIS MOULAND, P.L.S. Cadastral Consultants, Inc. Glenwood, CO CARLOS NAJERA, L.S., R.L.S. Boundary Officer California State Lands Commission Instructor, Sacramento City College CAPTAIN DONALD E. NORTRUP National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Norfolk, VA JOHN S. PARRISH, L.S. Chief Branch of Cadastral Survey Bureau of Land Management Carson City, NV JAMES P. REILLY, Ph.D. Academic Department Head Surveying Department New Mexico State University Las Cruces, NM WALTER G. ROBILLARD, L.S., RL.S. Attorney at Law Atlanta, GA ROBERT J. SCHULTZ, P.E., P.L.S. Professor of Civil Engineering Oregon State University Corvallis, OR



Contributors



JOSEPH H. SENNE, Ph.D., P.E. Elgin, Knowles & Senne, Inc. Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering University of Missouri, Rolla Rolla, MO M. LOUIS SHAFER, L.S., RL.S. Chief of Surveys, District III California Department of Transportation Marysville, CA F. HENRY SIPE, L.L.S. #1 Consulting Land Surveyor Elkins, WV BRYANT N. STURGESS, L.S., R.c.E. Boundary Officer California State Lands Commission WAYNE VALENTINE, P.E., L.S. Geometronics Group Leader U.S. Forest Service Missoula, MT



ELLIS R VEATCH II, P.S. Senior Trainer Ashtech, Inc. Sunnyvale, CA DONALD A. WILSON, R.L.S., R.P.F. Land Boundary Consultant Newfields, NH PAUL R. WOLF, Ph.D. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Wisconsin, Madison Madison, WI EDWARD G. ZIMMERMAN, L.S., R.L.S. Senior Land Surveyor Supervisor of Survey Training and Professional Development California Department of Transportation Sacramento, CA



xxxiii



1 SUNeying Profession, Registration, and Associations Walter G. Robillard



1-1. INTRODUCTION This chapter provides information about the professional organizations and their role in professional surveying. Addresses of key organizations are included in that direct contact can be made to obtain further information.



1-2. OVERVIEW Prior to formation of the American Congress of Surveying and Mapping (ACSM) in the 1930s, surveying was an important part of civil engineering and had an appropriate number of courses in college civil engineering curricula. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) was the primary sponsor of surveying technical papers and continues to include them in the monthly civil engineering magazine and periodically in a journal of surveying engineering. Recently, an engineering surveying manual prepared by the Committee on Engineering Surveying of the Surveying Engineering Division has been published and is available for purchase from the ASCE. The ACSM, through its quarterly journal and bimonthly bulletins, provides excellent articles on all pertinent items that along with its semiannual national meetings make member-



ship essential. Other worthy publications include the Point of Beginning (P.O.B.) Magazine and Professional Surveyor. When civil engineering professional registration was first legislated in the early part of the 20th century, the civil engineering license included surveying privileges. Gradually, separate licensing of surveyors became the law in most parts of the United States.



1-3. THE FUTURE Challenges of the future-e.g., space exploration, oceanographic research, urban and land planning and development, ecology and the use and search for natural resources-are dependent on and interrelated to the fields of mapping, charting, geodesy, and surveying.



1-4. BACKGROUND OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING Records of land surveys date back to the Babylonian era, 3000 or more years ago. Boundary stones were used during those times to mark property in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.



2 Geological relics from about 3000 B.C. are moon landing. In the 1970s, exploration of still preserved, depicting certain physical fea- space by the United States continued with tures of ancient Babylonia. Town plans of orbiting surveys of Mars, and the spectacular Babylon survive that date back to 2000 B.C. landing of the space vehicle on that planet, In ancient Egypt, the valley of the Nile followed by transmission of both photos and River was flooded frequently, and boundary detailed data concerning the surface. S1,lrveystones were often shifted or washed away. The ors always have been closely identified with Egyptians developed a system of surveying exploration and the growth in complexity and through which they were able to perpetuate sophistication of the cultural development that the boundary and property lines of that rich follows exploration. area. Some surveys of ancient times relate to those of today. During the construction of the Aswan 1-5. THE SURVEYING PROFESSION Dam on the Nile River, surveyors established precise points for use as guides in cutting, Surveyors are licensed by each state, usually moving, and reassembling the statues at Abu under the authority of a board of registration. Simbel. This was necessary in order to pre- The addresses of the boards are listed in Apserve the beauty and harmony of the original pendix 1. design and construction, which in turn deLaws governing the practice of surveying pended significantly on measurements made are enacted at state level. With the exception by the surveying techniques of ancient times. of public-land surveys, there are almost no In the second century of the Christian era, federal laws regulating survey practice and no Ptolemy introduced and named the system of federal license or registration. latitude and longitude. The Vinland map, Qualifications for surveyors vary from state which is thought to have been made about A.D. to state, but generally a pattern of six years of 1440, delineated Iceland, Greenland, and a prescribed experience and a 16-hour written land mass called Vinland that represented the examination are the requirements for registraNorth American mainland. In 1594, Mercator tion. Many states use portions of examinations devised geometrically accurate map-projection prepared by the National Council of Engineersystems. ing Examiners supplemented by a portion preIn the United States, the public-land system pared by the state to test on specific state laws. of townships, ranges, and sections was developed in 1784. In 1803, Lewis and Clark explored and surveyed the country along the Missouri River and west to the Pacific Ocean. 1-6. SURVEYING LITERATURE Hassler and Blunt led the way in coastal charting in the 1850s; the Powell, Fremont, Hay- A substantial body of literature about surveyden, King, and Wheeler surveys of the 1860s ing exists. Booksellers specializing in surveying opened the development of the American are listed in Appendix 3. West. Significant developments in aerial photogrammetry, as applied to surveying and mapping, occurred in the 1920s and are still 1-7. SURVEYING EDUCATION going on. The 1960s brought the beginning of manned space exploration, climaxed by the Surveying degrees are offered by only a few landing on the moon. The Surveyor I through colleges in the United States. More common is VII series of satellites contributed much valu- the two-year program offered by community able data leading up to that highly successful colleges.



2 Surveying Field Notes, Data Collectors Russell C. Brinker



2-1.



INTRODUCTION



Surveying is defined in the 1978 ASCE Manual No. 34: Definitions of Surveying and Associated Terms prepared by a joint committee of the ASCE and ACSM as "(0 The science and art of making all essential measurements in space to determine the relative positions and points and/or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the earth's surface and to depict them in usable form, or to establish the position of points and/or details. Also, the actual making of a survey and recording and/or delineation of dimensions and details for subsequent use. (2) The acquiring and/or accumulation or qualitative information and quantitative data by observing, counting, classitying, and recording according to need."



Examples are traffic surveying and soil surveying. Manually or electronically made field notes are necessary to document surveying results. In this chapter, basic principles of good notekeeping will be discussed, detailed suggestions listed, and simple examples given. Many special noteforms have been designed to fit the specific requirements of various federal, state,



city, and county agencies, large companies, property surveyors, and other organizations. Some of these specialized noteforms are ineluded in later chapters. No single style is universally accepted and termed the "standard," even for a job as common as differential leveling. Diverse field conditions, equipment and personnel, and special needs cannot be served by rigid arrangements-e.g., property surveys often require recorders to improvise different noteforms. Tables of some surveying terms, abbreviations, and symbols used in noteforms are presented at the end of this chapter. A short list of surveying textbooks and other references is also provided.



2-2.



IMPORTANCE OF FIELD NOTES



Field notes are the only truly permanent and original records of work done on a project. Monuments and corners set or found may be moved or destroyed, and maps prepared from notes sometimes show incorrect distances, angles, and locations of details. Obviously, one notekeeping error can ruin the accuracy and credibility of the succeeding steps: computing and mapping. Written documents (deeds) can 3



4



Surveying Field Notes, Data ColiectfJTS



jumble numbers and directions, and computer made on recorded measurements. Also, the origioperators have been known to introduce their nally recorded material may later be found own mistakes. Original field notes are, there- useful and correct. A pencil line should be run fore, the court of last resort. through a wrong number without destroying A notekeeper's job is often the key assign- its legibility and the correct value placed above ment in a surveying field party; hence the or below the deleted number. Part or all of a party chief, who presumably is the most expe- page to be canceled should be voided by drawrienced and competent member, often as- ing diagonal lines across it, but without maksumes that responsibility. Numerical data must ing any part illegible, and prominently marked be recorded, sketches drawn, descriptions pre- VOID. Erasing a nonmeasured line for a pared, and mental calculations quickly made topographic sketch while in the field may be (as in first-order three-wire precise leveling), justified. while one or more people shout things as they move around. On property surveys, the party chief, while keeping notes, may roam along 2-3. ESSENTIALS OF SUPERIOR boundary lines to get information. In a twoNOTES member differential-leveling unit, the notekeeper is also the instrument operator. Five primary features are considered in evaluProperty survey notes introduced as key- ating field notes: exhibit evidence in court cases can be a critical factor in decisions affecting land transfers 1. Accural)'. This is the most important factor in all surveying procedures, including noteby future generations. Land values continue to keeping. increase, so accuracy and completeness of sur2. Composition. Noteforms suitable for each veys and notes are vital. The cross-referenced project, with column headings arranged in notes in a land surveyor's files become the order of readings and sufficient space prosaleable "good will" of the business. vided for sketches and descriptions without The investment worth of surveying notes crowding, promote accuracy, completeness, depends on the time and cost to reproduce and legibility. any field work, plus the loss caused by their 3. Completeness. A single omitted measurement unavailability if immediately needed. The or detail can nullity an entire set of notes name, address, and telephone number of the and delay computing or plotting. On projperson who prepared the notes and company ects far from the office, time and money are that owns the field book must be lettered in wasted when returning to the field for missIndia ink on the outside and inside cover. If a ing data. Before leaving the survey site, notes must be carefully reviewed for closure checks reward will be paid for return of the book if and possible overlooked items. lost, it should be stated. 4. Clarity. Planning logical field procedures beBecause of possible omissions and copying fore leaving the office enables a notekeeper errors, only original notes may be admitted in to record measurements, descriptions, and court cases, since they are the "best" evisketches without crowding. Mistakes and dence. Copies must always be clearly identified omissions become more obvious, which helps as such. Measurements not recorded at the to eliminate costly office errors in computtime they were made or entered later from ing and drafting. memory-which is even worse than copying 5. Legibility. Notes must be decipherable and from a scratch bit of paper-are definitely understandable by all users, including those unreliable. who have not visited the survey area. Neat, Since the time and date of erasures are efficient-appearing notes are more likely to always questionable and possible cause for rerepresent professional-quality measurements and inspire confidence in the field data. jection of the notes, erasures must not be



SuTtJe'jing Field Notes, Data Colkcturs



2-4. FIELD BOOKS Field books used in professional work contain



5



to guide surveying notekeepers. Preprinted noteforms for particular groups of surveys often use arrangements comparable to those



Yilluable information acquired at comidnable illumated in thi~ t~J(t.



Left- and right-hand field book pages are cost; they must survive rough usage and difficult weather conditions and last indefinitely. generally paired and share the same number. Various types are available, but bound books The left page is commonly ruled in six columns -the longtime standards with sewed binding, for tabulations, with notes and sketches on the hard stiff covers of leatherette, polyethylene, right-hand page. Column headings proceed or covered cardboard, and 80 leaves-are from left to right in the order readings are taken and minor calculations made. Figures generally selected. Stapled, sewed, and spiral-bound books are 2-1 and 2-2 are basic notes presented for illusnot suitable for most professional work. Dupli- trative purposes only to show two different cating field books may be convenient for jobs tabulation arrangements on the same page. 2 In Figure 2-1, distances between hubs are requiring progressive transfer of notes from field to office. The original sheet can be de- recorded between the hub letters, names, or tached while a copy is retained in the field numbers. Measurements to a hub, in stations, book. The loose-leaf original pages are filed in are placed apposite the hub. A sketch on the right-hand page may help but not be necesspecial binders. Loose-leaf books have both advantages and sary, so the notes could be tabulations only. disadvantages. The advantages include (1) a For a simple example of traverse distances, flat working surface; (2) the capacity to sepa- angles, and bearings, everything could be put rately file individual project notes, thereby fa- on a sketch along with other information if cilitating indexing and referencing, instead of only single angles are measured. Figure 2-2, a combination of type, demonwasting a partly filled book; (3) removable pages for shuttling between field and office; strates that it is easier to follow the "open" (4) easy insertion of preprinted noteforms, ta- style differential-leveling notes having a (+) bles, diagrams, formulas, and other useful ma- sight and height of instrument (HI) on one terial; (5) the ability to carry different rulings line, followed by the (-) sight and elevation in the same book; and (6) lower overall cost on the next one, rather than the "closed" because the ~over can be reused. Disadvan- type, which puts all four values on the same tages are possible loss of some loose sheets and line. This is especially helpful when a less having the project data divided between field experienced person uses a noteform to check something. and office. The project title can run across the tops of both pages or be confined to the left one. The 2-5. TYPES AND STYLES OF NOTES upper right corner of the right-hand page, away from descriptions and sketches, is a good Surveying field notes can be divided into four place for these standard items: date, weather, basic types: tabulations, sketches, descriptions, party, and equipment type with serial number. and combinations. The combination method is most common because it fits so many overall 1. Date, time of day (AM or PM), both starting needs. and finishing times are necessary for record One axiom applies to all four types: If purposes. The number of hours spent in the doubtful about the need for certain data, infield on a job may help to assess the precision attained, work delays, and other factors. clude them and make a sketch. A supplementary proverb, "One picture [sketch] is worth 2. Weather conditions ranging from extremely 10,000 words," might well have been written high to ultralow temperatures, sunshine, fog,



6



Surveying Field Notes, Data CoIkctors



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