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Time-Saver Standards for Building Types
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Urquhart
Time-Saver Standards for Building Types
Second Edition
Edited by JOSEPH De CHIARA and JOHN HANCOCK CALLENDER
TIME-SAVER STANDARDS FOR BUILDING TYPES second edition INTERNATIONAL EDITION Copyright © 1983 by McGraw-Hill Book Co-Singapore for manufacture and export . This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is consigned by McGraw-Hill . 2nd printing 1987 Copyright © 1980, 1973 by McGraw-Hill Inc . All rights reserved . No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher . When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-099076-X
Printed and bound in Singapore by Singapore National Printers Ltd
Contents Contributors Organizations Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition 1 . RESIDENTIAL .
xi xili xv xvii
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Dimensions of the Human Figure Living Areas Living Rooms Furniture Furniture Sizes Furniture Arrangements Furniture Sizes and Clearances Dining Areas Combined Living-Dining Spaces Combined Dining Area-Kitchen Bedrooms Combined Living-Sleeping Areas Kitchens Laundry Rooms Bathrooms Closets Apartments Housing Densities Housing for the Elderly Housing for the Handicapped Parking for the Handicapped Group Homes Senior Citizens' Center Mobile Homes and Parks Youth Hostels Site Planning
3 5 6 6 7 8 14 15 20 21 22 27 29 41 48 58 70 82 87 102 117 119 122 129 140 146
2 . EDUCATIONAL Nursery Schools Children's Center Child Care Centers Elementary and Secondary Schools General Site Selection Basing, Parking Recreation Facilities
163 167 168 169 169 173 174 175
Contents
176 178 185 188 190 195 197 200 200 205 206 210 211 212 218 229 231 233 233 234 236 240 241 242 255 257 274 285 293 296 298 300 303 314 320 323
Safety Kinds of Schools Administration Suites Learning Resource Centers Classrooms Multipurpose Rooms Student Lockers Language Laboratory Science Facilities Arts Music Industrial and Vocational Facilities Home Arts Food Service Physical Education Auditoriums Guidance Services College and University Facilities Classrooms Lecture Rooms Gymnasiums Physical Education and Sports Facilities Field House Dormitories Handicapped Students Libraries, Academic and Research Individual Study Carrels Student Unions Computation Centers Communications Centers Regional Education Center (Supplementary) Resource Facilities (Library) Large-Group Facilities Audiovisual Theater-Arts-Laboratory Teaching Station Programs and Programming 3. CULTURAL .
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Museums Small Museums Gallery Design Libraries Branch Libraries Space Requirements Service and Space Relationships Library location Branch Buildings Bookmobiles Bookstack Data Theaters Sight Lines Stage Space Community Theaters Amphitheaters Music Facilities 4. HEALTH
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Hospitals Surgical Suite
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327
329 336 339 341 343 344 347 348 350 350 351 352 362 365 371 377 380 .
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. 395 403
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393
Contents
Nursery Pediatric Nursing Units Diagnostic X-Ray Suite Pharmacy Teletherapy Units Electroencephalographic Suite Physical Therapy Department Occupational Therapy Department Laboratory Labor-Delivery Suite Radioisotope Facility Outpatient Activity Emergency Activity EDP Unit Rehabilitation Centers Mental Health Centers Nursing Homes Child Health Station Medical Schools Dental Schools Nursing Schools Youth Treatment Centers Multiphasic Health-Screening Centers 5. RELIGIOUS
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405 409 412 418 420 424 425 428 431 437 439 441 456 458 461 476 482 489 490 511 528 544 550
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Churches, General Churches, Lutheran Churches, United Methodist Temples and Synagogues Chapels Church Schools .
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City end Town Halls Courthouses Fire Stations Firehouses Police Stations Police Facility Jails and Prisons Incinerator Plants YMCA Buildings YWCA Buildings Boy's Clubs Recreation Centers Neighborhood Service Centers Embassies Post Offices Access Ramps for the Handicapped Public Toilet Rooms for the Handicapped .
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Regional Shopping Centers Retail Shops Show Windows Women's Weer
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557
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601
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711
559 564 570 582 589 592
6 . GOVERNMENTAL AND PUBLIC .
7 . COMMERCIAL .
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603 608 628 631 636 646 653 669 676 677 690 696 702 704 708 _ 709 710 .
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. 713 730 735 736
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Contents
Men's Wear Bookshops Gift Shops Jewelry Shops Barber Shop Tailor and Cleaner Beauty Shop Shoe-Repair Shop Florist Shops Drugstores Liquor Stores Shoe Stores Supermarkets Banks Bank Vaults Restaurants and Eating Places Restaurant Seating Food Bars Serving Units Liquor Bars Nondining Spaces Kitchens Offices, General Work Stations Private and Semiprivate Conference Rooms Layout Space Planning Clearances for Private Offices Clearances for General Offices Insurance Companies Medical Offices Radiological Offices Dental Offices Law Offices Ophthalmological Offices Parking Automobile Dimensions Car Classification Parking Garages Parking Lots Automobile Service Stations Automotive Shop Gas Filling and Service Stations Automobile Dealer Centers Truck Dealer and Service Facilities Radio Stations TV Stations Hotels Motels Computer (EDP) Facilities Photographic Laboratories Funeral Homes 8 . TRANSPORTATION
Airports and Terminals Airport Cargo Facilities Air Cargo Terminals
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739 740 740 741 743 743 744 744 744 745 746 748 751 753 754 755 759 763 764 765 766 768 780 782 788 790 791 792 793 798 798 800 801 806 807 810 814 817 817 822 824 835 839 843 844 845 854 858 865 870 899 912 915 916 .
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921 953 957
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919
Airport Service Equipment Buildings Aircraft Fire and Rescue Station Heliports STOL Ports Seaplane Terminals Bus Terminals Truck Terminals 9. INDUSTRIAL . Industrial Parks Industrial Buildings, General Industrial Plants Research Laboratories Warehouses Warehouses, Waterfront Airport Industrial Park Industrial Plants-Parking 10 . RECREATION AND ENTERTAINMENT Playlots and Playgrounds Badminton Basketball (AAU) Basketball (NCAA) Biddy Basketball Goal-Hi Basketball Boccie Ball Croquet One-Wall Handball Three- and Four-Wall Handball Hopscotch Horseshoes Ice Hockey Lawn Bowling Roque Shuffleboard Deck Tennis Platform Tennis Paddle Tennis Tennis Tetherball Volleyball Official Baseball Baseball Bronco League (9-12 yr) Pony League (13-14 yr) Colt League (15-16 yr) Little league (9-12 yr) Field Hockey Flickerball Football (NCAA) Touch and Flog Football Golf Driving Range Lacrosse Men's Women's Soccer Men's and Boys' Women's and Girls'
959 962 963 972 976 984 990
1001 1007 1020 1026 1038 1041 1045 1049
1055 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1095 1096 1097 1097 1098
Softball 12-Inch 16-Inch Speedball Team Handball %.-Mile Running Track Shot Put Hammer Throw Discus Throw Javelin Throw Long Jump and Triple Jump Pole Vauk High Jump Archery International Shooting Union Automatic Trap Fixed Nets and Posts Fence Enclosures Typical Grading and Drainage Details Typical Playing Surfaces Baseball and Softball Backstops Movie Theaters Handicapped Seating 500-Seat Movie Theater Drive-In Theaters Bowling Alleys Bowling Alleys with Billiard Rooms Swimming Pools Diving Pools Residential Swimming Pools 50-Meter Recreational Swimming Pool 25-Meter Recreational Swimming Pool 25- and 50-Meter Indoor Pools Locker Rooms Bathhouses Gymnasium Zoos Aquariums Indoor Tennis Building Sports Arenas Golf Courses and Clubhouses Rifle and Pistol Ranges Rifle and Carbine Ranges, Outdoor Shooting Ranges, Outdoor Trap Field Skeet Field Combination Skeet and Trop Field Marinas Swimming Docks Camps and Comp Facilities 11 . MISCELLANEOUS .
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Farmstands Farmstands Farms and Farm Buildings Animal Facility. Laboratary Greenhouses Horse Borns Horse Stables Riding Schools Kennels Nature Center
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1099 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1123 1125 1127 1129 1133 1138 1144 1146 1149 1150 1151 1153 1155 1157 1158 1168 1175 1176 1185 1193 1200 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1218 1219 .
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. 1241 1243 1247 1251 1252 1255 1261 1263 1265
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1239
Contributors Richard M . Adler, AIA Iris Alex, AIA Building Consultant YWCA Egmont Arens IndustrialDesigner James W. AtZ Associate Curator, theAmerican Museum of Natural History Geoffrey Baker Architect Herbert Behrend, P.E. Richard M. Bennett, AIA Frederick Bentel, AIA Maria Banta[, AIA Chester Arthur Berry, Ed.D. Glenn H . Bayer Housing Research Center, Cornell University Charles M. Bolden Conrad Associates William N. Breger, AIA Gladys L. Brown Health, Physical Education, and Recreation Consultant C . William Brubaker, AIA The Perkins & will Corporation Harold Burris-Mayor Charles A. Chaney Alonso W. Clark, AIA Harold Cliffer, AIA F. G. Cole Walter L. Cook William J. Cronin, Jr. Laurence Curtis Marvin Cutler, AID T. P.Deis Architect Clyde H. Dorsett, AIA Lathrop Douglass, FAIA Max Fengler Architect W. R. Ferguson A. Peter Florio Designer-Consultant
John J. Fruin, Ph .D. Bruno FunarO Architect Richard U . Gambrill Francis W. Gencorelli, AIA Noyce L. Griffin, E.E. John J. Grosfeld, AIA
Victor Gruen, AIA J . L. Gruzen, AIA Gruzen and Partners Don Halamka Morton Hartman, AIA The Perkins &Will Corporation Ernest J. Hasch Keith 1. Hibner AIA August Hoenack U.S. Public Health Service Joseph Horowitz, P.E. Manager, Facilities Engineering Dept., Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc . George A. Hutchinson, AIA The Perkins &will Corporation Emmet Ingram, AIA The Perkins & WiliCorporation David Jones Aaron N. Kiff Architect Alexander Kira Housing Research Center, Cornell University Joseph Kleinman Architect Robert L. Knapp, AIA Charles Luckmen Associates A. Frederick Kolflat, AIA The Perkins & Will Corporation J. J . Koster Architect, Gruzen and Partners Lendal H . Kotschevar Alan Lapidus, AIA Morris Lapidus, AIA Betsy Laslett Fred Lawson Stanton Leggett EducationelConsultant Ronald Mace, AIA
Contributors
James Mackenzie Francis Joseph McCarthy, FAIA William McCoy, AIA The Perkins & WillCorporation Gordon P. McMaster Architect Frank Memoli Architect Emmanuel Mesagna Architect Keyes D. Metcalf Jo Mielziner Stage Designer William A. Mllls Architectural Consultant Maurice Mogulescu Bruno Molajoli George Muramoto Architect Richard Muther Clifford E. Nelson, M.D. Oscar Newman Architect Raymond C . Ovresat, AIA The Perkins & Will Corporation James A. Paddock Dober Paddock, Upton and Associates, Inc . Julius Penero Architect and Urban Planning Consultant W. Russel Parker Architect Robert Perlman Frank Harrison Randolph, P.E. Professor ofHotel Engineering, Cornell University Kenneth Ricci Architect Scott Turner Ritenour Herbert ROSS IndustrialDesigner
Richard F. Roti Christine F. Salmon, AIA F. Cuthbert Salmon, AIA Maurice R. Sala, AIA Consulting Architect to the Lutheran Church in America Ben Schlanger Architect and Theater Consultant Myron E . Schoen, F .T.A . Director, Commission on Synagogue Administration Max B. Schreiber Architect Walter E. Schultz Architectural Consultant Samuel Selden Peter C . Smith Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects R. Jackson Smith, AIA
Bernard Spero William Staniar, M.E. Wilbur R. Taylor Architect Margaret E. Terrell James G . Terrill, Jr. George H. Tryon Howard P. Vermilya, AIA Joshua H. Vogel, AIA Mildred C. Widber Philip Will, Jr., AIA The Perkins &Will Corporation Richard M. Williams Director, National Building Consultation and Supply Services, Boys"Clubs of America Mary Worthen Architect
Organizations American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation American Association of Port Authorities American Association for State and Local History American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums American Bar Association American Library Association American Medical Association American Psychiatric Association American Trucking Associations, Inc . American Youth Hostels, Inc. Association of College Unions-International The Athletic Institute Boy Scouts of America Boys' Clubs of America Brunswick Corp. Canadian Museum Association Center for Architectural Research, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Conference Board of Mathematical Sciences Civil Aeronautics Administration Educational Facilities Laboratories Eno Foundation Federal Aviation Administration Federal Housing Administration General Motors Corporation General Services Administration Housing and Home Finance Agency Housing Research Center, Cornell University Humble Oil & Refining Co. Institute of Outdoor Drama, University of North Carolina Institute of Traffic Engineers International Association of Chiefs of Police International City Managers Association International Youth Hostel Federation Michigan State Housing Development Authority
Mobile Homes Manufacturers Association Mosler Safe Co. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the U .S ., Inc . Music Educators National Conference National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers, Inc . National Association of Home Builders National Council of the Young Men's Christian Association of U .S.A. National Council on the Aging National Crushed Stone Association National Education Association National Fire Protection-International National Fisheries Center and Aquariums National Institute of Mental Health National Golf Association National Office Products Association National Recreation and Park Association National Rifle Association National Swimming Pool Institute New York City Housing Authority New York State University Construction Fund Philadelphia Housing Association Texas A & M University, School of Architecture United Methodist Church, Board of Global Ministries U .S . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now called U.S . Department of Health and Human Services) U .S . Department of Housing and Urban Development U .S . Department of the Navy U .S . Public Health Service University of California University of Oregon University of Washington, Bureau of Government Research and Services Urban Land Institute
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of TIME-SAVER STANDARDS FOR BUILDING TYPES was a unique and significant publication . It established for the first time a comprehensive source of reference material dealing with the functional analysis and standards of all major types of buildings . It contained in a single source an extensive amount of essential planning data for the architectural designer and related professionals. This was accomplished by contributions from many individuals and by researching and consolidating a wide range of literature . As much as possible, the criteria were presented in graphic form for easier reference and use. In a span of a few short years, the first edition has established itself as a useful and popular reference source to both professionals and students . In order to maintain its effectiveness and meet this need, the book requires periodic review and revision to incorporate new developments and thinking . As a result, the second edition has been published . The new edition has been expanded by over two hundred pages and approximately twenty-five percent of the original book has been revised. Obsolete pages have been eliminated and more current materials have been added. Also, several new building types have been included . The authors wish to emphasize to the user of this handbook that the material presented is primarily offered to give basic or general data for a particular building type . This material is not intended to give definitive schematics, rigid formulas, or final design solutions that will automatically provide the solution to the particular design problem at hand . Rather, these standards and criteria should be the starting point for further analysis, study, and review of the functional relationships of each building type . Primarily, the material in this handbook is intended to be used by the architect, designer, student, or related design professionals in the following manner : 1 . to assist in developing building programs and establishing preliminary space allocations . 2 . to analyze specific client needs and to quantify them 3. to study general and specific functional relationships 4. to assist in the preparations of preliminary architectural designs
The authors strongly believe in the principle that "form follows function" and that before a building can succeed aesthetically it must perform its function efficiently. All the material presented in this handbook deals with the function of a building rather than its form . There is absolutely no attempt to dictate or even suggest aesthetic or definitive design solutions to any
building type . The architectural designer must have complete freedom to exercise his or her creative abilities. With the handbook's solid functional basis, this goal can be achieved more successfully . JOSEPH De CHIARA
Preface to the first Edition
TIME-SAVER STANDARDS FOR BUILDING TYPES is a natural outgrowth of the present fourth edition of Time-Saver Standards, A Handbook of Architectural Design Data. Over the years, as Time-Saver Standards became more popular and comprehensive, it also became larger in size and more cumbersome to use . In addition to containing architectural design data, the fourth edition also had some design material dealing with specific types of buildings . When the book was ready for a fifth revision, it became apparent that changes had to be made in the content and format of the book . In order to be able to include new design data in a comprehensive manner, it was decided to remove the material dealing with building types from the fifth edition and use this material as a core for the new book : Time-Saver Standards for Building Types . The original material has been revised, greatly expanded, and reorganized to cover all of the major building types . The result has been a completely new handbook for the architectural profession . It evolved from and follows the tradition of the first four editions of Time-Saver Standards . Time-Saver Standards for Building Types and Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data, 5th edition, are closely related but, in fact, are separate and independent books . Time-Saver Standards for Building Types is intended primarily to meet the needs of those who are involved in the conceiving, planning, programming, or design of buildings . It is intended to give basic design criteria for each major type of building . It will give those unfamiliar with a specific type of building a talking or working knowledge of its functions, organization, and major com-
ponents . This material is intended to act as a guide or reference point from which the specific design solutions can be established . Absolutely no attempt is made in this book to present the final design solution for any building type, nor does it try to establish or influence the final aesthetic expression of the building . It is hoped that the designer or architect, by having at his disposal the widest range of information concerning a building type, will be able to design more functional, more meaningful, and more exciting buildings . The editors wish to take this opportunity to express their gratitude and sincere thankstothemany individuals, architects, libraries, and many varied organizations who have generously contributed their expertise to this new creation, Time-Saver Standards for Building Types . JOSEPH De CHIARA JOHN HANCOCK CALLENDER
Residential DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
3
LIVING AREAS
5
LIVING ROOMS
6
Furniture Furniture Sizes Furniture Arrangements Furniture Sizes and Clearances
6 7 8 14
DINING AREAS
15
COMBINED LIVING-DINING SPACES
20
COMBINED DINING AREA-KITCHEN
21
BEDROOMS
22
COMBINED LIVING-SLEEPING AREAS
27
KITCHENS
29
LAUNDRY ROOMS
41 48
BATHROOMS CLOSETS
58
APARTMENTS
70
HOUSING DENSITIES
82 87
HOUSING FOR THE ELDERLY HOUSING FOR THE HANDICAPPED
102
PARKING FOR THE HANDICAPPED
117
GROUP HOMES
119
SENIOR CITIZENS' CENTER
122
MOBILE HOMES AND PARKS YOUTH HOSTELS SITE PLANNING
129 140 146
Residential DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
DIMENSIONS OF ADULTS The dimensions and clearances shown for the average adult (Fig . 2) represent minimum requirements for use in planning building layouts and furnishings . If possible, clearances should be increased to allow comfortable accommodations for persons larger than average. The height of tabletops shown on the next page is 2 ft 5 in; some authorities prefer 2 ft 6 in, or sometimes 2 ft 61/2 in . Since doorways and passageways must normally be dimensioned to permit the movement
of furniture, they should seldom be designed merely on the needs of the average adult. (See section of this book relating to furniture sizes.) DIMENSIONS OF CHILDREN Children do not have the same physical proportions as adults, especially during their early years, and their heights vary greatly, but their space requirements can be approximated from the following table and from Fig. 1 . (For heights of children's furniture and equipment, see section on "Schools .")
O
Average Height of Children Age
Height, in
Age
Height, in
5 6 7 8 9 10
44 46 48 50 52 54
11 12 13 14 15 16
56 58 60 62 64 66
.-.IDi6Qli
1/4 H
~I ,I _~ I I till 1111 ,H ed ., F. W. Dodge Corp ., New York, 1946 . Fig. 1 Dimensions and clearances for children . Source: "Time-Saver Standards," 1st
1st ed ., F. W. Dodge Corp ., New York, 1946. Fig. 2 Dimensions and clearances for adults . Source: "Time-Saver Standards,"
Residential DIMENSIONS OF THE HUMAN FIGURE
4
Residential LIVING AREAS
LIVING AREAS
Planning Considerations
To sleeping area and main entrance
" Through traffic should be separated from activity centers. " Openings should be located so as to give enough wall space for various furniture arrangements. " Convenient access should be provided to doors, windows, electric outlets, thermostats, and supply grills . Furniture Clearances
To assure adequate space for convenient use of furniture in the living area, not less than the following clearances should be observed . 60 in between facing seating 24 in where circulation occurs between furniture 30 in for use of desk 36 in for main traffic 60 in between television set and seating Seating arranged around a 10-ft diameter circle (Fig . 1) makes a comfortable grouping for conversation . Figure 2 indicates clearances, circulation, and conversation areas.
Fig. 2 Minimum clearances, circulation and conversation areas for living rooms.
`vtnmutnr~
r
30'' to use desk
s~É
10' diam . conversation area
3 â Nu1pI11111RINfl1111~N11111/IWII Fig. 1 Plan. Source: "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U.S . Dept . of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
To dining and kitchen area
FURNITURE GENERAL Typical furniture-group units While the typical furniture arrangements presented in the following pages by no means cover the entire range of possibilities, they do cover the fundamental uses to which living, dining, and sleeping spaces are put. From the suggested schemes furniture arrangements can be developed to suit any particular problem or set of problems
with which a designer may be confronted . Furniture sizes may vary slightly ; those indicated are the averages commonly met with in upper middle-class homes, and are little affected by changes in style or similar matters of individual preference .
between tall objects, hip height or over : 2 ft to 2 ft 6 in . i s the minimum. 3. General traffic lane : 3 ft 4 in . i s the practical minimum. As rooms increase in size, this minimum increases, in order to preserve the space scale of the room . The traffic lane between an entrance door and a major group unit is preferably generous in width . It is desirable to place doors so that the central portions of rooms do not become major traffic ways between different parts of the house. 4. Seating areas, confined (for instance, between a desk and a wall): 3 ft is a minimum tolerance, which permits one person to pass back of an occupied chair. This minimum does not constitute a major traffic lane .
Specific space allowances In studying furniture groupings, it becomes obvious that certain clearances are required . Spaces, lanes, or paths of different types develop naturally between furniture-group units . Minimum distances for comfort have been established by numerous planners . These, and in some cases, maximum distances based upon requirements for human intercourse, have been incorporated in the diagrams . A listing of those generally applicable to all rooms follows: 1 . Single passage between low objects, coffee table: 18 in . i s 2. Single passage
(not a traffic lane) such as a sofa and the minimum. (not a traffic lane)
LIVING ROOM Typical furniture groups in the living room are as follows : 1 . Primary conversation group: chairs and sofa normally grouped around the fireplace 2. Secondary conversation group: chairs and love seat at end of room or in corner 3. Reading group or groups : chair, ottoman, lamp, table 4. Writing or study group : desk, lamp, one or two chairs, bookcases
5. Music group: piano, bench, storage space
6. Game group: game table and four chairs 7. Television group: television set and seating for several people According to the price of a house and the cubage allotted to the living room, two or three or all of the furniture-group units may be included . The fireplace is so closely associated with living room furniture that it has been included in all schemes. Clearances Traffic tolerances in living rooms are important, since numbers of people use the room, and narrow lanes between furnituregroup units are uncomfortable. An adequate traffic lane between the main entrance and the major seating group is 3 ft 4 in . wide ; 4 ft 6 in . i s preferred . The minimum clearance between facing pieces of furniture in a fireplace group is 4 ft 8 in . for a fireplace 3 ft wide . For every inch added to the size of the fireplace, 1 in . is
added to the minimum clearance space. If a wide sofa is placed directly opposite the fireplace, this group is often spread . A 6-ft tolerance is usually considered the maximum because it is difficult to carry on a conversation over a greater distance. A considerable flexibility in location of doors and windows is possible, and all wall pieces can be shifted. Doors flanking a fireplace are to be avoided in order that the furniture group may be concentrated around the fireplace opening.
Residential FURNITURE SIZES SOFAS
LOVE SEATS
"SHERATON" TYPE LENGTH 6'-0" DEPTH 2.-6" HEIGHT 3'-0"
LARGE L 4'-6" D 2'-6", H 3'-d
"CHIPPENDALE" TYPE L . 6=6" D' 2'-6" H 3'-0"
CHAIRS
CLUB LENGTH DEPTH HEIGHT
OCCASIONAL L 2'- 3" D 2-6 H 3'- 0"
2'-6" 3'-0" 3'-O"
SIDE OR DESK L l'-6" D I'-6" H 2-6"
WING L 2'-6" D 2'- 6" H 3'-0"
UPHOLSTERED ARMLESS , L 2 -0" D 2'-6" H 2- -6"
BRIDGE ARM L 2'-0" D 2' -0" H 2-6"
UPHOLSTERED CORNER CHAIR L 3'-0" D 3'-0"
BRIDGE ARM LESS L l'-6" D l'-6" H 2'-6"
DESKS
FLAT TOP... SMALL LENGTH 4'-0" DEPTH 2' -0" HEIGHT 2'-6"
FLAT TOP L 5'-0" D 2'-6" H 2' - 6"
I
AkGE
GOVERNOR WINTHROP L 3'-0" D 2'-0" H 5-6"
FLAT TOP....VERY LARGE L 6'-0" D 3'-0" H 2'-6"
BREAKFRONT BOOK CASES
SECRETARY L 3'-0" D 2'-0" H 7'- O"
TABLES
20 SMALL LENGTH 4' - 0" DEPTH D 1'-6" HEIGHT 6' -6"
END L 2'-0 0 l'--0,. 3" H 2'
LARGE L 5'-0" D l'-6" H 7'-0"
LOWBOYS
H 2'-0"
HIGHBOYS
S AVERAGE LENGTH 2'-6" DEPTH 1' - 6" HEIGHT 2'-6"
CONSOLE L 3'- 0" D 1'-6" H 2'-6"
END L I1 , '-8" -8
CIRCULAR
H
SWAN TOP L 3'-0" D l' - 6" H 7'-0"
N - 2"
PIANOS
L
37. CONCERT ,. GRAND L 9'-0 D 5'-0" H 3'-4"
40. BABY GRAND L 5 ,_ 6
38 . MUSIC ROOM GRAND L 7 '_ 0 D 5'-0" H 3'-4
41 . CONSOLE L 5'-0 . D 2'-0 H 4'-3
39.PARLOR GRAND 6 ' -0" L
42 .MINATURE 4 ,_ 8
D H
5'-0" V _4
PIECES
FLAT TOP L 3'-0D l'-6" H 5-0"
D H
HO
5'-O" 3'-4"
l'-7" 3'-0
LOW COFFEE TABLE DRUM TABLE DIAM 3' -0" DIAM 3'-0" HEIGHT 1'6" H 2'-6"
DUMBWAITER LARGEST DIAM . 2' - 0" H 2'-6"
TABLE DIAMP 2O H. 2 -6
PIECRUST TABLE DIAM. 3'-0" H 2 -6"
STAND, DIAM . I' - 0" H 2-6"
ROUNDABOUT SEAT DEPTH 0F DIAM . 4'-0"
Residential FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
1 . In all living rooms shown, main conversation group centered about fireplace is dark gray . Bay or picture windows may be used as focal points, instead of fireplaces .
2. Clearance between low coffee table (23) and easy chairs (6) ought to be maintained at 3'-4" even though table is low, because the aisle here constitutes a major traffic way.
3 . For larger families, or for those who entertain often, seating for 7 to S persons in the primary group is a reasonable design limitation . Off-center location of game group provides for a corner entrance door .
4. Minimum length for a room which must contain a baby grand piano is approximately 20'. If minimum clearances of l' between piano and wall, and 3' between desk (15) and wall, are to be maintained, room length must be increased .
5. If sofa opposite fireplace is omitted, primary group can be brought closer together . In schemes I to 4, note that wide groups permit conversation without twisting to see speakers seated on sofa ; here this restriction is removed .
6. Here, presumably, doors at ends of room indicate use of one side of room as a traffic route. Primary furniture is grouped closely about fireplace ; wall pieces are all that can be used on opposite side .
Residential FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
7. Grouping for door locations at both ends of room ; ideally, 1-ft clearance is desirable between piano and wall . Chairs (6) are smaller than those previously listed, 2`-6" x 3'-0".
8 . If living room has a "dead end" (no doors), primary unit may be spread to include entire end of room . Inclusion of music or game group would demand more area .
9. Primary group shown is one of most popular arrangements. Unit placing suggests entrance at left end. Secondary conversation unit often becomes music or game group.
10. Writing or study group at left, music or game group at right, and center primary group, need minimum passages only when room is narrow .
11 . Ten persons can be comfortably seated in this type of arrangement, in which primary and secondary conversation groupings almost merge into one .
12 . Arrangement designed to permit door locations on side walls rather than ends. Angled chairs (6) are small size noted in Fig. 7, and often used in other arrangements .
Residential FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
z
13 . Previous diagrams have shown schemes arranged symmetrically about centered fireplaces ; on this and the following page are schemes for cases when foci cannot be centered .
14 . Off-center rooms often divide naturally into two parts: primary group, and other groups combined . Clearance no greater than 2' will not accommodate a major traffic lane .
15 . If primary, music, and game groups are all to be contained in a small area, one must be curtailed. Here game group consists of table and only two chairs .
16 . In this case the primary conversation group is curtailed to permit inclusion of a grand piano; use of corner bench for game group may result in some loss of comfort.
17 . Two smaller upholstered chairs (6), each 2'-6" x 3'-0" might be accommodated at the right of the fireplace in this room with only a slight increase in room width.
18 . In a room with only one door the minimum traffic lane of 3'-4" needs to be increased to at least 4'-10", which will accommodate two persons side by side, without crowding .
Residential FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
19 . Another example of wide entrance lanes. Placement of doors so that at least 10" is allowed between room corners and door trim will permit installation of "built-in" bookcases.
20. Several doors may be accommodated with this type of furniture-group unit arrangement. A traffic lane is assumed to exist at the left end of the room .
21 . Notice that a game-table group occupies almost the same floor area as a baby grand piano. Placement at an angle is intended for informal rooms.
22 . Larger rooms may contain four or more furniture-group units; it may be desirable to increase clearances . Use of chairs set at angles requires increased areas.
23 . Fireplace chairs set 3'-6" back from center line of fireplace permit occupants to gaze at the fire comfortably. General traffic cannot be accommodated in a 2°-ft lane .
24 . By using love seats instead of pairs of chairs at sides of fireplace, considerable space can be saved even though seats are not placed the minimum distance apart.
Residential FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
r;
12
25 . In rooms with fireplaces in end walls, as in the schemes immediately preceding, furniture arrangements often fall naturally into two distinct groups .
26 . One of the two groups may be adapted for dining, eliminating need for a separate dining room . Minimum clearance around dining table should be 3'-0".
27 . In this scheme, by placing the sofa on the long axis opposite the fireplace, furniture is held together as a single unit. There are two obvious positions for an entrance door . If is possible to back the sofa against a group of windows.
28 . Backing the primary-group furniture against walls eliminates passage behind them and reduces room width to a minimum.
29 . Here the left side and end opposite the fireplace are available for doors. Piano should, if possible, be placed against an inside wall .
30. Placing the sofa against one side of the room tends to open up the primary groupin effect, to merge with it the secon dary conversation group furniture.
Residential FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS
32 . Here the placing of the desk group (14) allies it closely with the fireplace unit . Four units are included .
31 . The entire area may be treated as a single unit, all furniture being brought into the principal group.
33 . By interchanging the positions of the fireplace furniture in Fig . 32, a grand piano can be accomi modated.
35 . Type of sofa shown is becoming increasingly popular. Chairs (6) may be units which can be added to sofa, if desired.
34 . Completely symmetrical arrangement in comparatively small space; music group might replace items 14 and 25 .
is'-
5"t
36 . "Unit" types of sofas are particularly suited to corner groupings . Scheme shown contains three group units. 13
Residential LIVING ROOM-FURNITURE SIZES AND CLEARANCES SPACE w the small house for general living activities must often serve a wide variety of functions . Thus, furniture can add greatly to the usefulness of living area if it is adaptable in type and size to a number of different purposes . Accompanying data give a working basis for providing sufficient space for general living activities. Dimensional information includes only a few of many available sizes and types of furniture . Dimensions of groups refer to clearances necessary for comfortable and convenient use. Necessary planning considerations include: provision of adequate floor and wall space for furniture groupings; segregation of trafficways from centers of activities; ease of access ; and a maximum of flexibility . Doors in constant use should be placed so that traffic between them will not interfere with furniture groups . Flexibility implies the varying uses to which space may be put. The lounging group of the right, for instance, requires approximately the same floor space as the card-playing group; the sofa, below, may be a convertible bed. Thus, functions of other areas-such as recreation, sleeping, dining and even storage-may be applicable equally to living rooms .
Sofa Sizes (B) : 2'-8" to 3'-6" deep 6'-0" to 7'-2" long Love Seats: 2'-0" to 2'-10" deep 3'-6" to 4'- 6" long End Tables (A) : 10" to l'-2" wide l'-6" to 3'-0" long Occasional Tables (C) : 2'-0" to 2'-4" square, round, oval, drawtop, etc .
Card Tables : 2'-6" to 3'-0" square ; folding type 1i/2" thick folded )average) Side Chairs : 1'-6" to 2'-0" wide l'-6" to l'-10" deep
Desks, Sloping 3'-0" to 3'-B" l'-6" to 2'-0" Writing Desks: 2'-8" to 3'-6" l'-6" to 2'-6" Secretaries: 3'-0" to 5'-0" l'-6" to 2'-8"
Convertible Sofa-Beds (G) : 2'-9" to 3'-3" deep, 6'-2" to 6'-8" long Living Room Tables (F) : l'-8" to 3'-0" wide, 3'-6" to 10'-0" long Easy Chairs : Wing, 2'-4" to 2'-10" square ; Club, 2'-4" to 3'-3", 3'-9" square Book Cases (D) : 2'-6" to 3'-0" wide, 10" to 12" deep s. .- -..-- .. -,
Double Bed Studio Couch
Top: wide deep wide deep wide deep
H . BEYER AND ALEXANDER KIRA, Housing Research Center, Cornell University
By GLENN
PASSAGE
DINING ROOM The
principal
factors
to
be
considered
in planning the dining area are as follows :
The
(1)
Number
(2)
Space
of
persons
used
for chairs
at
the
for
and
to table ;
passage
for china, glassware, silver, and Recommended
space
Space
mum of 5 in . must
OF
The
PLACE
width
place setting is
21
29 in .
of up to freedom of usually
based
for
desirable
movement . this
A
for
25-in .
permits
wide
china,
to
is
silver,
and
elbow
Table
4
ex-
tension (See Fig . 1) .
for
pushing
back
the
60
54
6
79
8
104
10
129
12
154
84
156
Width, in .
8
each
forks,
knives,
soupspoons ;
12
teaspoons,
6 tablespoons, 4 serving pieces 20 12 each forks, knives, salad forks or others, butter spreaders, soupspoons; 18 teaspoons, 6 tablespoons, 3-piece carving set, 3 serving pieces 12
forks, knives, soupspoons, salad forks or butter spreaders ; 24 teaspoons, 6 tablespoons,
each
11
Depth, in . 181/.-,
17
Height, in . 2: 3
14 1 . ,
19/'
2V4
6 serving pieces
Table 2 .
Dimensions of stacks of folded table linens
Adapted from Storage Space Requirements for Household Textiles, A . Woolriclr, :11. :11 . While, aid .11. A. Richards, Agricultural Rescarrh Rullefin 62--:;, U.S . L)eparfnzent of Agriculhzre, WaNhirrglon, D .C . 119551 . Dinlen.~ions gives are frond- la -b ack, ., id e-to-side, acrd heigld . Space 16 in . deep
Space 20 in . deep Maximum, in .
Minimum, in .
Maximum, in .
14xl9x3
14x36x2
19x14x3
19x28x2
15xl9xl
13x28xl
19x10xl
18x28x1
4 small tablecloths, everyday use
14100
14x2Bxl
10x14x3
15xl4x2
3 small tablecloths,
14x10x2
14x28xl
10xl4x2
15xl4x2
7x10x3
7x10x3
10x 5x3
10x 9x2
8x10x2
8x10x2
10x 6x2
10x10x1
13xl9xl
13xl9xl
19xl3xl
19xl3xl
13x21 x3
13x21x3
13x21x3
13x21x3
Item 2
large
tablecloths,
guest use 2 medium tablecloths, everyday
use
guest use 12 small
napkins
(2 stacks of 6) 12 large napkins (2 stacks of 6) 6 place
mats, everyday
use 1
table pad
Minimum, in .
ap-
With
the
same
conditions
noted
above
space for pason all sides of a 42-in .-wide table,
and with sage
on
ample 42-in .
required sizes are as follows : W X L
= Area
ft
sq ft
4
101=2x12
6 8
101 " x14
126
10
10 1 =x18
=
12
10 1 :x20
= 210
=
101=,x16
147 168 189
If no one is to be seated at either end of the table, the length may be reduced by
Storage space
132
Adapted front Indoor Dining Areas for Rural Homes in the Western Region, Report 118, 1'ainersity of Arizona Agricidfural E.rprroneof Staboir, Trcr.soa (June 19551 . Item
the
2 ft (21 sq ft) .
108
Inside dimensions of drawers for storage of silverware
1.
of by
Space for total dining area
is 36
Recommended, in .
be reduced
proximately 4 in .
Persons width recommended
Minimum, in .
Persons
19
be
glassware,
provided
ommended table lengths are as follows :
placed 6 in . apart . The minimum depth for a place setting is 14 1 (, space for in . These dimensions allow in .
be
vided and if one person is seated at each end of the table, then minimum and rec-
greater width
satis-
passage
at either end
table, the length may
in .; a satisfactory width is 36 to 44 in . If 25-in .-wide place settings are pro-
each
chairs
If
plus the depth of the chair
The minimum
in . ; however, a width
is
adequate ;
needed
in . ; a
25 in .
Size of table
SETTING
minimum
is 22
to
for
chair when leaving the table (See Fig . 3) .
on recent research, are provided below . SIZE
chairs
recommended
behind the chairs is not required, a mini-
linen .
dimensions,
behind
If no one is seated
CHAIRS
space
factory range is 22
(5) Size and Storage space
Seating
type
(3)
minimum
passage
seated ;
behind them ;
arrangement; of furniture ; and (6)
(4)
be
BEHIND
Linear feet of shelf space required for medium-income families, for both moderate and liberal supplies of dishes and glassware,
for
and
everyday
guest
use,
is
as
follows : 12-in . shelves,
20-in . shelves,
ft--in .
ft
Moderate
21-0
2
Liberal
36-9
2
Drawer space for storage of silver is shown in Table 1 . Space for storage of table linens is shown in Table 2 .
Residential DINING AREAS must accommodate furniture-either portable or built-in-for eating, sitting, serving and possible storage . Equipment for these dining functions may also be adapted to meet other possible requirements for this space-as studying, gameplaying, etc. Table space requirements per person are as follows: for crowded seating, l'-10" on the table's perimeter; for comfort, 2'-0" . Adequate clearances for use are indicated on diagrams . DINING AREAS
Furniture Sizes :
Portable Tables, round (A)2'-7" to 5'-10" diam .
Portable Tables, rectangular (C) : 2'-6" to 4'-0" by 3'-6" to 8'-0" ; or 2',-0" to 4'-0" square Dining Chairs, portable : l'-6" to 2'-0" by l'-6" to l'-10" Serving Table (B) : 2'-6" to 3'-6" by 1'-2" to l'-q" Sideboard or Buffet (B) : 4'-0" to 6'-6" by l'-5" to 2'-I" China Cabinet (B) : 2'-8" to 3'-8" by l'-2" to l'-9"
16
Residential DINING AREAS Furniture Clearances To assure adequate space for convenient use of the dining area, not less than the following clearances from the edge of the dining table should be observed . 32 in for chairs plus access thereto 38 in for chairs plus access and passage 42 in for serving from behind chair 24 in for passage only 48 in from table to base cabinet (in diningkitchen) Figures 4, 5, and b illustrate proper clearances . Various arrangements appear on the next page .
Fig . 6 Minimum clearances for dining areas . (a) one end of table against wall; (b) serving from one end and one side of table . Source : "Housing for the Elderly Development Process, " Michigan State Housing Development Authority, 1974 .
* From "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S . Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
17
Residential DINING AREAS
18
1 . Minimum requires 2-ft buffe+ space on one side only ; 3' more length is needed for extension table.
2. Typical dining-room suite, as used in East and on West Coast, requires furniture space on two sides of room .
3 . Long narrow area with some waste space results when wall pieces are at ends, and end entrance is needed .
4. Solid lines indicate minimum room with corner cupboards, no wall furniture . Dotted lines indicate added space for 3' breakfast table.
5. Table-and-passage unit in one corner permits use of minimum space for multiple activities ; piano may be replaced by desk, love seat, etc.
6. Spaces smaller than the usual minimum can be utilized if built-in seats are included ; seating and tableservice comfort are sacrificed .
7 . The same set of clearances applies to the seldom used round table as to the more popular oblong table.
8. Arrangement of typical suite in larger-than-minimum space, when a screen is used at serving door .
9. Dining rooms with fireplaces have to be larger than minimum for the comfort of those seated a+ table.
Residential DINING AREAS
Fig. 7 Dining room furniture. Source: "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S. Dept . of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
19
Residential COMBINED LIVING-DINING SPACES COMBINED SPACES Often several compatible living functions can be combined advantageously in a single room . Some of the benefits of such arrangements are that less space is used but it is used more intensively, its functions can be changed making it more flexible and serviceable space, it is adaptable to varied furniture arrangements, while visually it can be made more interesting and seem more gener-
Fig . 8
20
ous than if the same functions were dispersed into separate rooms . For adjacent spaces to be considered a combined room, the clear opening between them should permit common use of the spaces . This usually necessitates an opening of at least 8 ft . Figures S and 9 show combined living-dining rooms .
Combined living-dining room .'
Residential COMBINED DINING AREA-KITCHEN A combination dining area-kitchen is preferred by some occupants of small houses and apartments . This arrangement minimizes housekeeping
chores and provides space which can be used as the family's day-to-day meeting place .
21" sink counter combined with 21" range counter
Fig . 10 Combined dining area-kitchen, 2-bedroom living unit . Source: "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S . Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
One of the primary functions of the kitchen has been to provide a place for informal or family eating . This is different than guest or formal dining in a separate dining room or area . The informal dining generally consists of breakfast, lunch,
snacks, or just serving coffee to a neighbor . This eating area should be clearly defined as a separate functional area . A frequent and desirable arrangement is the combined kitchen-dining area . The following
sketches (Fig . 11) show the various possible arrangements . Another arrangement is the kitchenfamily room .
Fig. 11 Minimum clearances for dining area in kitchen . Source : "Housing for the Elderly Development Process," Michigan State Housing Development Authority, 1974 .
21
Residential BEDROOMS CHESTS
Fig. 1
22
Typical average furniture sizes .
Residential BEDROOMS
BEDROOM indicate minimum clearances that should be provided for use of the bedroom furniture shown, dimensions for which are listed below. Many types and sizes of furniture are available; but those listed are most common and can serve as a basis for bedroom design . At least 2 in should be allowed as clearance between walls and furniture ; 3 in between furniture units . DIAGRAMS
Beds: Single (C), 3'-0" to 3'-3" wide; 6'-10" long . Twin (F), 3'-3" wide ; 6'-10" long . Three-quarter (E), 4'-0" wide ; 6'-10" long Three-quarter (B), large, 4'-2" to 4'-6" wide ; 6'-10" long Double, 4'-6" wide, 6'-10" long . Roll-away beds, (A): 2'-0" by 5'-0" on edge, 3" clearance on all sides Bed Tables (G): 1'-2" to 2'-0" by l'-0" to 2'-0" Bedroom Chairs (H): Small, l'-8" by l'-8"; larger, 2'-6" to 2'-10" by 2'-8" to 3'-2" Dressers (3-drawer) (D): 3'-0" to 4'-0" by l'-6" to l'-10" Chest of Drawers (4-drawer) (D): 2'-8" to 3'-4" by l'-6" to l'-10" Chaise Longue: 2'-0" to 2'-4" by 4'-0" to 5'-6" Day Bed: 2'-9" to 3'-3" by 6'-2" to 6'-8" Dressing Table: l'-3" to l'-10" by 3'-0" to 4'-2"
23
Residential BEDROOMS
Fig . 2
(a), (b) Primary bedroom, (c) primary bedroom without crib.*
FURNITURE CLEARANCES To assure adequate space for convenient use of furniture in the bedroom, not less than the following clearances should be observed (Figs . 2 and 3) . 42 in at one side or foot of bed for dressing 6 in between side of bed and side of dresser or chest
36 in in front of dresser, closet, and chest of drawers 24 in for major circulation path (door to closet, etc .) 22 in on one side of bed for circulation 12 in on least used side of double bed . The least-used side of a single or twin bed can
be placed against the wall except in bedrooms for the elderly (Fig . 4) .
* From "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S . Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
FURNITURE ARRANGEMENTS The location of doors and windows should permit alternate furniture arrangements.
Fig . 3
24
(a) Single-occupancy bedroom ; (b) double-occupancy bedroom .*
Residential BEDROOMS
Fig . 4 Single-occupancy bedroom for elderly ; there is a 12-in allowance to make the bed .*
Where at least two other sleeping spaces are provided, a dormitory is sometimes preferred by larger families (Fig . S) .*
* From "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S . Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
Fig. 5
Dormitory bedroom .
25
Residential BEDROOMS TYPICAL UNIT
ARRANGEMENTS
1 . For comfort, 2 night tables are desirable with a double bed. A minimum double-bed unit arrangement may be achieved by omitting arm chair and one side chair, and reducing to 3'-6" the traffic lane at foot of bed.
4. Minimum twin-bed group (2 night tables) needs 9'-6" wall .
2. Use of small chairs and chest makes possible the addition of conversation or lounging furniture (2 chairs and table) to a typical suite, without increasing square footage . Use of 3-ft passages eliminates crowding .
5 . Increased requirements for addition of dressing table and boudoir chair.
7. Variations on this plan may be developed by replacing the chair between the beds with a dressing table which serves also as a night table . This would free other walls for twin ches+s . shown doffed .
26
3 . Other types of arrangements beyond the minimum include addition of a chaise longue (shown dotted above), which is usually placed at an angle to walls, requires a table, and necessitates ample passages .
6. Twin beds with single night table require 8' of wall space.
8. Twin beds heading toward a common corner may require less space than is indicated if dressing table and boudoir chair are omitted.
Residential COMBINED LIVING-SLEEPING AREAS
11 . Unusual but satisfactory arrangement or long, narrow space; if units E and F are reduced 2'-0" in length, room length may be decreased 2'-0".
12 . Minimum for couch or single bed placed sideways to wall .
13 . If position of chest is changed room width may be reduced b" .
14 . Door-swings may require increased clearance at foot of bed.
15 . Slightly more comfortable than Fig. 14, but bed making is difficult.
COMBINED SPACES A bed alcove with natural light and ventilation and which can be screened from the living area is desirable in a 0-bedroom living unit (Figs . 1 and 2) .
Fig . 2 15'' sink counter and 21'' mixing counter combined Fig . 1
0-Bedroom living unit.'
15'' range and refrigerator counters combined
0-bedroom living unit with sleeping alcove.`
From "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S . Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
27
Residential COMBINED LIVING-SLEEPING AREAS
In housing for the elderly and handicapped, the units suitable for wheelchair users often can be placed advantageously on the ground floor (Fig . 3) .
Night light outlet
Fig . 3
0-Bedroom living unit for wheelchair user.*
Omission of an easy chair is acceptable to give more space for occupant's wheelchair (Fig . 4) .
* From "Manual of Acceptable Practices," Vol . 4, U .S . Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1973 .
28
Fig . 4
0-Bedroom living unit for wheelchair user .*
Residential KITCHENS By GLENN
H . BEYER AND ALEXANDER KIRA,
KITCHENS The
Housing
Research Center, Cornell University
Storage
kitchen
is
not
a
specialized
work-
room, for it has many uses . It is used for
with
Kitchen the
design
sense
of
should
be
minimizing
in
functional reaching
and
a
minimum
daylight room
or
storage of food and utensils, and also, in many cases, for eating, laundering, enter-
feet
flat
sufficient space to store items so that they may be easily seen, reached, grasped,
Ventilation
and
taken
with an
taining, uses
of
and
her
meals,
child
own
food
care .
preservation,
In
it
a
labor and also
woman
makes
full
use of electric power, tap water, and manufactured
or
bottled
frigerators, toasters,
stoves,
and
gas ;
she
uses
dishwashers,
garbage-disposal
re-
mixers, units,
as
well as various kinds of storage compartments and work surfaces . Since
more
quently
time
spent in the
other area of the
and
effort
kitchen
house,
are
fre-
in
any
than
careful planning
on
floor .
the
down
and
There
put
should
back
be
without
excessive
strain . With proper planning, stored items can be located close to where
they are first used, and can
be
kept
out
unattractive items
of sight .
Storage
adjustment to varying amounts, sizes, and supplies, and Shelving should be adjustable . kinds
of
utensils .
food,
ful
selection
units and area .
of
appliances
convenient
Some
general
and
storage
of the guides are
planning
It the
large
should bility
"living"
be of
given,
if the type . one
is
of
to
the
person
there . The arrangement will
possi-
working
vary accord-
ing to the size and shape of space available, but we should always keep in mind relationships among functions in
different
areas of the kitchen .
kitchen
such as working at the sink . Conlines and surfaces permit ease of keep clean .
Consideration of
servicing
be avoided . Arrange the and access to the
should
and
be
given
replacement
to of
ease
service entrance
basement so that traffic
to food preparation,
service,
or storage can by-pass the area .
well
ventilated,
remove objection-
Safety Burns, scalds, falls, and explosions should out" of the kitchen . Sharp
be "designed corners, knobs
exposed on
handles,
kitchen and
there
control
and
equipment
should
should
be
be
safety
and bathroom . Decoration and
decoration
an
should
atmosphere that
attractive, cheerful, and restful .
is
KITCHEN
ACTIVITIES
Nonworking areas and
finishes
that
minimize
maintenance and cleaning should be
used,
pleasant work atmosphere .
Nonworking areas should be segregated from working areas . Avoid interruption of work areas by breakfast nooks, general storage closets, rest areas, and other areas not essential
to
normal
food
preparation
activities .
Lighting Good lighting
helps to prevent fatigue,
as well as promoting safety and a pleasant atmosphere .
texture,
used to create
OTHER
Materials Materials
Color, be
major
appliances, especially built-in units .
to create a
Traffic lanes through work areas should
not essential
Servicing and replacement of appliances
and they should be sufficiently light in color
Traffic lanes
be
There should be easy access to front and back doors, laundry area, telephone,
Consideration
however,
more than
kitchen
should
exhaust fan to
Accessibility
movement, and are easier to even
kitchen
posture . The worker should be able to sit,
tinuous
compact,
the
able kitchen odors .
is important to keep the basic work
area
makes
faces should permit a comfortable working
tasks,
Arrangement
lighting
exploratory activities of young children .
The height of counters and working sur-
if she wishes, while doing certain FOOD PREPARATION
artificial
catches on doors and drawers to limit the Counters and working surfaces
arrangement
as follows :
The
avoided,
is especially important . This requires care-
be
a dark or poorly lighted room .
space
should be sufficiently flexible to permit its
should
shadows,
more agreeable and attractive than
stooping . Storage facilities should be no higher than a woman can reach with both
preparation
of
planned throughout the kitchen . Adequate
Comfortable
levels
of
light,
Eating facilities Most
families want to eat some meals Provision should be made
in the kitchen . for this,
if
possible,
even
if
a
separate
dining room is also provided . Child's play In
younger
families,
especially,
there
is likely to be one or more children who want to be near their mother . Provision should be made for a play area out from underfoot, but where adequate supervision is possible . Storage space should vided for toys and games .
be
pro-
Infant care It
is
a
well-known
kitchens are
used
for
fact care
that of
many
infants .
If
provision is not made in the bathroom for infant care
and
related
supplies, then
it
should be made in the kitchen . Grooming Washing Fig. I
Vertical and horizontal limits of reach .
grooming
hands frequently
and take
some place
personal in
the 29
Residential KITCHENS kitchen, especially if there is not ready access to the bathroom . A mirror is desirable.
CRITICAL
DIMENSIONS
The "critical dimensions" for working space are illustrated in Figs . 1-4. These
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
30
Minimum counter-width dimensions.
Comfortable working heights.
dimensions are recommended on the basis of research and do not necessarily coincide with either current practice or currently available cabinets and equipment. Width requirements for counter space, in particu-
lot, are based on research covering operations at individual work centers. Overlapping is permissible if work at adjacent centers is not being carried on simultaneously .
Residential KITCHENS
Minimum clearances-horizontal and vertical .
Fig . 4
BASIC
WORK
AREAS
The work center concept, favorably supported by a
great deal of research data
from many sources, emphasizes the planning of the kitchen in terms of its major centers
of
activity .
These
work
centers,
Table
Equipment and food supplies stored at range center
1.
in
uent
parts,
their
ideal
The
actual
their
proper
functions,
relationships, one design
of
the
to
Side
Item
centers
will vary with the size and shape of space
to Limited
available in each project . Four work centers serve. In addition, there is the refrigerator functions
as
a
closely
related
storage center) and the oven, if it is not an integral part of the range . Each
work
components :
center (1)
have
three
storage
space
should
Adequate
for the various items used there ; (2) Adequate counter space accomplished ;
for the
and
(3)
and facilities, such
as
heat at the
work to
Necessary
be
utilities
Potato masher_
Knives, forks, spoons Frying pan, 10!"y-in . Frying pan, 9-in .
1
3
3
dimensions required for equipment and food supplies commonly stored
13 171j
1
9!=
16
6
12
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HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity
Health
HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity Equipment Legend for Fig . 9 Nonmedical Equipment-Fixed AA SC BD CA
Board, bulletin Bookcase
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Medical Equipment 132 140
Basal metabolism, apparatus Bed, hospital
168 192 228 280 316 320 384 404 416 604 660 680 688 720 744 756 760 816
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Health
HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity
Health
HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity
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HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity
Health
HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity Equipment Legend for Fig. 11 Nonmedical Equipment-Fixed AA AB BA CA CB CH CK CL CO CP CO CR CS
CT CU DB EA ES FA JA JC JE JF KB LA
Board, bulletin Board, chalk Bookcase, built-in, open shelving Cabinet, filing Cabinet, storage Counter Counter Counter Counter with inset sink Counter with inset sink Counter Counter
Counter Counter Desk Lavatory Locker Minor Rock, apron and glove Rack, clothes Rack, magazine Screen, projection Shelving, supply Receptor, floor
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F-93 F-96 H-16 H-32 M-12 M-18 M-28
M-32 M-37 M-56 M-66 0-32 0-36
Table, utility Table, work Bucket, mopping Hamper, linen Basket, waste Bench Cabinet, film filing
Cabinet, cart Cabinet, storage Range, oven Refrigerator Cabinet, filing Cabinet, filing
Medical Equipment 106 108 140 168 182 184 208 212 216 236 248 252 264 268 276 280 308 316 320 3,10 416 420 472 504 533 568
Analyzer, blood, gas and pH Audiometer Bed, hospital Blood pressure device Cabinet, dental Cart, orthopedic supply Chair, examining Chair, dental Chair, ophthalmic Clinical analyzer, automatic Compressed gas cylinder carrier Cuspidor unit Dental unit Developer, film, automatic Processing tank Diagnostic set Electrocardiograph Electrocardiograph Electroencephalograph, complete with cabinet Emergency drug cabinet
Light, examining Light, dental Ophthalmic instrument stand Perimeter Projector, acuity complete with slides Recorder, physiological
581 585 588 604 632 648 660 668 680 684 688 720 732 746 768 816 820 900 912 914 915 917 925 926 927 929
Refractor, acuity Recorder, pulmonary function Respirometer Scale lamp, slit Spirometer Stand, Mayo Step assembly Stool, foot Stool, high support unit Stool, operator Table, examining Table, fracture Table, instrument, adjustable, ocular Table, X-ray Viewer, X-ray Viewer, X-ray Tube, X-ray Chest unit, X-ray, automatic X-ray, dental Film, hanger, dental X-ray Rack, film dryer Generator, control, X-ray Transformer, X-ray Power module, X-ray Tank, replenisher
Health
HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity
Health
HOSPITALS Outpatient Activity Equipment Legend for Fig . 12 Nonmedkol Equipieiant-fisted
Nonmedical Equipment-Movable
AA BC CB CD CE CF CJ CW
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Board, bulletin Bookcase Cabinet, storage Counter, check-in stations Counter, stand-up Counter Counter, issue Counter, work Drinking fountain Rack, magazine Screen, projection Shelf, supply Shelf, supply
Medical Equipment 180 708 844
Cabinet, filing, patient medication Stretcher Wheelchair
0-28 0-32 0 .36
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Health HOSPITALS Emergency Activity Nonmedical Equipment-Fixed AA
Board, bulletin Bookcase, built-in open shelving Cabinet, storage Counter Counter, stand-up Counter Counter Counter Counter with inset sink Counter Counter Drinking fountain Locker Rack, clothes Rack, magazine Shelving Shelving, supply Receptor, floor
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Bench Cabinet, storage Cabinet, storage Hot plate Vending machine, cold beverage Vending machine, hot beverage Vending machine, candy, assorted Cabinet, filing
Medical Equipment 168 Blood pressure device 184 Cart, orthopedic supply 280 Diagnostic set 308 Electrocardiograph 332 Electrosurgical unit 336 Cart, emergency 338 Cart, emergency 384 Bucket, kick 388 Basin, kick 408 Light, examining 410 Light, examining 416 Light, examining 444 Medication station, including narcotic locker 468 Nourishment station 620 Sink, clinical 637 Sink, surgeon's scrub-up 656 Stand, leg support 660 Stand, Mayo 662 Basin, double 680 Stool, foot 704 Stretcher, adjustable 708 Stretcher 712 Suction machine 716 Table, examining and treatment 720 Table, examining 732 Table, fracture 740 Table, instrument 744 Table, operating, minor 812 Ventilator machine, IPPB 816 Viewer, X-ray 820 Viewer, X-ray 848 Wheelchair, standard 920 X-ray, mobile
Health HOSPITALS
Emergency Activity EMERGENCY
ACTIVITY
In planning the Emergency Activity, particular attention must be paid to movements of people (patients and staff) and material (equipment and supplies) . The first priority, of course, must be the movement of those patients who require immediate or urgent medical attention and the responding members of the medical staff . The time factor in terms of minutes can make the difference between life and death . All necessary equipment and lifesaving apparatus must be located in designated spaces so as not to impede the movement of staff yet be readily accessible when needed . According to the pro forma example (Fig. 1), the Emergency Activity is intended to be a casualty center offering services 24 hours per day . Medical, surgical, and nursing services as well as first aid are provided . A main premise is that dignity of patients and their families will be respected and protected at all times . During the early years, about 35,000 visits annually are expected which will rise to 50,000 in about ten years . Supportive services such as laboratory, diagnostic x-ray, electrocardiographic and pulmonary function facilities will be located at the boundary between the Emergency and Outpatient Activities, assuring easy access to both . The Emergency Activity should be located on the ground floor to ensure easy access for patients arriving by ambulance or auto. A separate entry for walk-in patients is required . These entrances, which are separate from the Outpatient Activity, must be easily identifiable, protected from inclement weather, and accessible to handicapped patients. The emergency facility also must be easily accessible from the hospital to patients and to the house staff performing their routine duties or being summoned for consultation or emergency action.
Figure 2 is a graphic interpretation showing space relationships . As stated earlier, the first priority is the movement of patients requiring immediate medical attention . The patient brought by ambulance is conveyed on the ambulance stretcher directly to either a treatment cubicle or to a critical care room . An alcove holds stretchers and wheelchairs for patients arriving by vehicles . If the situation requires use of an operating room, the patient is admitted administratively to the Emergency Activity and conveyed through the door by the critical care room to the surgical suite . Sector Area The admitting procedure is accomplished at the control center either by a family member or another individual accompanying the patient . The walk-in patient enters through the vestibule left of the control center and registers for admission at the center . Afterwards he may be asked to wait until called in public waiting space with his escort or family member . Admitting personnel exercise their medical judgments in each case as to the degree of medical urgency Public
and, if necessary, request a physician to make a disposition . In some cases, the patient may be referred to the adjacent Outpatient Activity . The control center is placed strategically to provide visual control of all incoming traffic and observation of the public waiting area so personnel may be aware of any medical emergency that may arise there . Near the entrance, the control center has an external window so an approaching ambulance may be observed . Vestibules to eliminate drafts at the entrances provide a certain amount of comfort for control center personnel . The center could be enclosed with a glazed partition but, although transparent, it is perceived by patients as a physical barrier . The counter at the control center also serves as a barrier against cold drafts . It must be emphasized that the response the patient receives at admission leaves lasting impressions . Thus, special attention should be given to provide an atmosphere of professional competency . The radio room, incorporated with the control center, serves as a communication link with ambulance crews or rescue units in the community . The
Intradepartmental Relationships Since they share some supportive facilities, the emergency and outpatient facilities are adjacent to each other. Good planning practice requires that the Emergency Activity be easily accessible to the hospital's surgical suite, coronary intensive care unit, and the primary radiological facilities . (See Fig . 1 .) The relationships within any Emergency Activity may be arranged according to individual preference and needs . The following should be considered for any complete emergency activity : Public Sector Areas . Entrance for patients arriving by ambulance, other modes of transportation, or conveyances . Entrance for walk-in patients . Control station . Public waiting space with appropriate public amenities Treatment Facilities . Patients' observation room . Treatment cubicles . Examination rooms . Cast room . Critical care rooms An Emergency Activity may also include a patient's security room and areas providing supportive services and staff accommodations . Guidelines to functional Programing, Equipping, and Designing Hospital Outpatient 8 Emergency Activitier, DHEW Publication No . (HRAl 77-4002, U .S . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D .C., 1977 .
EMERLENLY ALTIVITY INTRADEPARTMENTAL IZELATIOASI41F
SGUEME
Health HOSPITALS
Emergency Activity ; EDP Unit police room may also be used by reporters and attorneys . Immediate members of the family may retire to the family room pending the outcome of medical intervention involving a life-threatening situation of a patient; here, doctors and clergymen may converse with the family . Waiting in an Emergency Activity is a particularly difficult time for every patient since each perceives his medical urgency as unique . A state of anxiety predominates . The environment, obviously, should not only cater to physical needs and comfort but should also instill a feeling of confidence and relieve anxiety or fear . Toilets for both sexes adequately screened from the public view, telephones ensuring privacy, vending machines with beverages or snacks, comfortable seating arrangements (not benches) all contribute to physical comfort . The general design of the waiting space (including color, texture, decor, acoustical control) all contribute to the welfare of waiting patients. The public waiting area should be screened visually from incoming ambulances discharging patients . A daylight window to the outside is often desirable but care should be taken to avoid location that will focus attention of the patients on ambulance arrivals . Treatment Facilities Patients are treated in spaces surrounding the nursing station, the hub of all activities. This station is backed up by the medical preparation room and the office of the chief nurse who supervises all operations . Therefore, a glazed partition is provided which ensures acoustical privacy and affords visual control . Staff amenities include toilets, lounge, and locker room for female staff . Lounge and sleeping accommodations are provided for three full-time physicians and resident medical staff who often work long hours and, although not continuously, are on call . The chief physician's office is located in close proximity to that of the chief nurse since they often communicate face to face. Emergency equipment, to be readily accessible in case of urgent need, is deliberately placed in an alcove in front of the nursing station . The patient's security room, with an unbreakable view window for observation, is placed close to the nursing station . Curtains may be installed outside the room, if necessary, to eliminate a view from the room itself . The door to the room and to its toilet must open outward to prevent the patient from locking himself [herself] in . To prevent self-injury, the room should be devoid of any sharp-edged appurtenances, and the light fixture, preferably tamperproof, should be flush with mounting surface. Surfaces should be smooth without any crevices with caved wall bases to facilitate easy cleaning in case of gross soiling by a disturbed patient . It is important to emphasize that this is not a prison cell or a dry-up tank for an alcoholic . The patient confined in this security room is there for medical treatment although he may be under police control or may be mentally unstable . Physical design that provides a pleasant atmosphere is of paramount significance. Treatment cubicles have curtains for privacy, if necessary, and are equipped to handle examinations and minor treatments . More severe iniuries are treated in critical care rooms which are of two sizes. For a coronary patient, the emergency team may consist of a number of specialists using numerous kinds of portable equipment: therefore, larger space is required to accommodate both . Conductive flooring must be provided if explosive anesthetic gases are used and all
safety regulations must be observed . Each critical care room is provided with a scrub sink . Special attention should be given to the scrub sink area because of the hazards of infection and a slippery floor . The cast room, used for closed reduction of fractures, is equipped similarly to a treatment cubicle with the addition of a plaster sink and trap. All supplies, splints, and fracture frames are kept in the room . The door must allow passage of a patient on a stretcher who, after treatment, may be immobilized by means of orthopedic accessories and attachments to the stretcher . The patient's observation room must be in full view of the nursing station . Privacy between patients may be achieved by a cubicle curtain . Toilets for both sexes are provided. Nurses' work counters are at each end of the room . The entire Emergency Activity is easily accessible from the hospital and the x-ray and laboratory facilities which, located between the two activities, are shared with the Outpatient Activity .
methods for computer usage in the various areas of hospital operation, such as financial management, material management, admitting, medical records, clinical pathology, outpatient service, and others . He [she] works with the management engineering unit personnel to improve operating methods and systems which provide for more efficient interdepartmental operation . After determining the exact nature of the data processing problem, he [she] defines, analyzes, and structures it in a logical manner so that a system to solve the problem and obtain the desired results can be developed . He [she] obtains all the data needed and defines exactly the way it is to be processed . He [she] prepares charts, tables, and diagrams and describes the processing system and the steps necessary to make it operate . He [she] may recommend the type of equipment to be used, prepare instructions for programmers, and interpret final results and translate them into terms understandable to management. When working with systems already in use, the systems analyst is also concerned with improving and adapting the system to handle additional or different types of data . In 500-bed hospitals, one of the senior systems analysts is designated "Chief ." Occupancy Systems analyst and seating for three visitors in each office . Adjacent Areas Shared terminal service system : E .D .P. secretarial office, E .D .P . directors office, and data entry and transmission room . Medium system : E .D .P . secretarial office, E .D,P . directors office, and E .D .P . programing area . Convenient communication with the E .D .P . supervisor's office and E .D .P . machine room essential .
Data Entry and Transmission Room (Shared Terminal Service System) Function This area accommodates equipment and personnel necessary for encoding source data onto computer compatible magnetic tape, transmitting the encoded data to outside computer facilities for processing, and receiving the processed data in conventional printed copy form . Occupancy Two tape entry operators, one tape transmission operator, and occasionally the progromer-analyst . E.D .P. Secretarial Office Function This area provides facilities for reception and secretarial service to the E .D .P . director and systems onalyst(s) . Occupancy tors .
Secretary and waiting for three visi-
Adjacent Amon E .D .P . director's office, systems analyst's office(s), and administrative corridor . Systems Analyst's Office(s) Function Each subject office area or work station (one is assumed for the shared terminal service E .D .P . unit and two for the medium system E .D .P . unit) provides for a systems analyst who is responsible for planning, scheduling, and coordinating activities required to develop systems for processing data and obtaining solutions to complex problems . He [she] is concerned with developing Administrative Services and Facilities for Hospitals: Guide HEW Pub . No . IHSM) 72-4035 . U .S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 1972 . A Planning
E.D .P . Programer's Office(s) Function This area provides for the E .D.P. programers who prepare step-by-step instructions that tell the computer exactly what to do . Three programers, each with a separate work office or cubicle within this area, are assumed for the medium system E .D.P. unit . Every problem processed in a computer must be carefully analyzed so that exact and logical steps for its solution can be worked out. This preliminary work is generally the responsibility of the systems analyst . When it has been completed, the program or detailed instructions for processing the data can be prepared by the programer . Exactly how he [she] does this depends not only on the type of computer hardware available but on the nature of the problem . These determine what programing techniques will be used . Still other techniques are required in writing aids which reduce the amount of detail associated with programing . The programer usually starts an assignment by determining exactly what information must be used to prepare assigned documents and their exact final format . He [she] then makes a flow chart or diagram that shows the order in which the computer must perform each operation and for each operation prepares detailed instructions . These when relayed to the computer's control unit, instruct the machine exactly what to do with each piece of information to produce the documents anticipated . The programer also prepares an instruction sheet for the console operator to follow when the program is run on the computer . The final step in programing is debugging or checking on whether the instructions have been correctly written and will produce the desired re-
Health HOSPITALS EDP Unit
ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING UNIT (Medium System .)
Work surface, roll top Work surface, roll top, wall hanging Work surface, typewriter 4 . Work surface, wall hanging 5. Work surface, sloped top 6. Bin, file 7. Shelf 8. Clerical swivel chair 9. Arm chair, .hell type 10 . Table, end I1 . Managetsent chair 1. 2.
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suits. A program is debugged in two steps . First the programer takes a sample of the data to be processed and reviews step-by-step exactly what will happen as the computer follows the series of instructions which make up the program . Then, after revising the instructions to take care of any difficulties that have appeared, the programer completes the test by making a trial run in the computer . The console operator sometimes helps with the latter part of the debugging process . A simple program can be made for a computer within a few days ; a complex problem may re-
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locker with drawers and shelves on truck Processing unit Console -,k-shelf and printer 1 drive dl ac storage 2 drive disc storage Power unit Tape control unit Magnetic tape facility card read punch Printer control unit Tape storage units Disc pack storage Built in desk and book case vi[ h 1 lockable drawn Work c under coeplaca with base units Desk unit Wall cab storage unit Tool and test equlp~ent cart Shelf units Burster cueplete with table I decollator (eobile) 6-ply Counter top
quire many months . To improve efficiency, existing programs must be updated to keep pace with administrative changes . Introduction of larger or newer model computers often requires that many programs be rewritten . Information to be processed by a computer is encoded first onto some type of medium which is compatible with the computer such as magnetic tape, paper tape, or punchcards. Most computers are designed to accept data in punchcard form . Occupancy One E .D .P . programer and seating for one visitor per office or work station . A total
of three offices or work stations is assumed for the medium system E .D.P . programing area . Adjacent Areas E .D .P. secretarial office, systems analysts' offices, E .D .P . machine room, and E .D .P . supervisor's office . Convenient communication with the E .D .P . director's office, conference room, E .D .P . supply storage room, and data entry room is essential . Conference Room Function This area provides for private discussions, inservice education, and meetings.
Health HOSPITALS
EDP Unit
Occupancy
Eight persons .
AdjacentAreas E .D .P . directors office, analysts' offices, programers' offices, and resource center . Resource Center Function This area provides for a library of programs, computer literature, related files, and software required to facilitate an efficient operation . A resource center should provide work surfaces for analysts and programers in order to minimize the amount of material stored in individual work stations . Occupancy
None .
Adjacent Areas E .D .P. directors office, analysts' offices, programers' offices, and conference room . E .O.P. Director's Office Function This area provides for the E .D .P . director who with the concurrence of the hospital administrator is responsible for the total activity of the E .D .P . service system, including formulation, development, and implementation of overall policies, programs, plans, and procedures for control of the system in general and the E .D .P . unit in particular . The director reviews and analyzes the various inter and infra workflow activities and methods of oil hospital operating programs in relation to the total E .D .P . function . O n the basis of these analyses, he [she] formulates and institutes management controls designed to improve the efficiency of the programs through the application of E .D .P . techniques with due consideration for quality requirements, optimum use of personnel and/or other resources, and time and cost limitations . He [she] establishes training programs to orient hospital personnel in the potentials of the E .D .P . services and to teach them the methods and techniques which will enable them to fully utilize these services in their areas. He also institutes research activities to improve E .D .P . uses in the hospital and maintains a technical library of materials relative to all elements of data processing . He [she] maintains statistical records as a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the service and the improvement of the hospital's operation through the use of E.D .P . He [she] provides advice and exchange of information, resolves problems, and participates in meetings and conferences with key staff members and department heads to discuss present and expected work and to develop broad plans. Occupancy
E .D .P. director and three visitors .
Adjacent Areas Shared terminal service system: E .D.P. secretarial office, systems analyst's office, and data entry and transmission room .
Medium system : E .D .P. secretarial office and systems analysts' offices . Convenient communication with the programing area and E .D .P . supervisor's office essential . Data Entry Room (Medium System) Function This area accommodates equipment and personnel necessary for encoding information onto computer compatible media for electronic data processing application . It also accommodates limited facilities for occasional card punching relative to programing . Occupancy Three data entry operators and occasionally one programer for a short period of time . Computer Room Function This area accommodates most basic electronic equipment or hardware required for the electronic data processing activities program. Limited expansion and access space are essential. Occupancy
One operator for each shift .
In laying out a computer room, the manufacturers specifications regarding maximum lengths for the control cables which interconnect the various machines and the minimum service clearances for the machines should not be exceeded. Another important layout consideration is adequate working area for operating personnel and space for auxiliary equipment such as worktables, cabinets, and utility trucks . E .D .P . Supervisor's Office Function This area accommodates the supervisor responsible for the physical production aspects of the E .D .P . operation, for quality controls, and some cooperative functions relative to programing . Occupancy
E .D .P . supervisor and two visitors .
Adjacent Areas E .D .P . machine room, data entry room, and data delivery and pickup area . Convenient communication with the E .D .P. director's office, E .D .P . programing area, and E .D .P. supply storage room is essential .
Adjacent Areas E .D .P . supervisors office . E.D .P. service engineers' workroom, programing area, data entry room, and data delivery and pickup area. Convenient communication with the E.D .P . director's office, the systems analysts offices, and the E .D .P . supply storage room .
Data Delivery and Pickup Area Function This area serves as a receiving station for unprocessed data and also as a pickup point for processed data. Decollating, bursting, collating, and binding of data forms and documents prior to pickup are done in this area .
Comment The raised floor of this area allows future layout changes with minimum alteration cost, protects interconnecting cables and power receptacles, provides personnel safety, and permits the space between the two floors to be used for air supply ducts or as a plenum where necessary. The environment for this room area should be maintained at 75 ° F . and 50 percent relative humidity . The air should be supplied through a filter of at least 90 percent efficiency based on the National Bureau of Standards discoloration test using atmospheric dust . Use of the space beneath the raised floor as a plenum will depend upon the recommendations of the electronic equipment manufacturer and the design engineer . Pressurization to minimize dust infiltration from adjacent areas is on important consideration . To function properly, magnetic tapes require the same temperature and relative humidity levels as the electronic hardware . Because of this, and also for their easy retrieval, those tapes in frequent use are generally stored in cabinets and shelf tables within the computer room . Sometimes a separate storage room remotely located is provided for extra protection of vital records . These include master tapes which would be irreplaceable or those which would be needed immediately after a fire or could not be quickly reproduced . If an approved data safe is provided for storage of vital records, it can be located within the computer room .
Occupancy
One person .
Adjacent Areas Data entry room, E.D .P . machine room, and administrative corridor . This area should be visible and easily accessible from the E .D.P. supervisor's office . E.D .P . Service Engineer's Room Function This area facilitates the maintenance and service engineering activities essential to the continuing operation of the E .D .P . equipment. Adjacent Areas Occupancy
E .D .P . machine room .
One person .
E .D.P. Supply Storage Room Function This area provides readily available holding space for short-term inventories of standard and special machine-mated paper forms. It also provides holding for a small reserve of new magnetic tapes, and in the case of the medium system E .D .P . unit, a small reserve also of blank cards . A one-week supply of forms is generally preferred holding . Occupancy
No permanent personnel .
Adjacent Areas Data delivery and pickup area to be easily accessible to the data entry room, the E .D .P . machine or transmission room, and the administrative corridor .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
By F . CUTHBERT SALMON, AIA, and CHRISTINE F . SALMON, AIA
Planning means thinking in terms of spatial and human interrelationships . The interrelationships between the several areas of activities are varied and complex ; add to these the problems of site selection, considerations of finance, and provision for future expansion, and it becomes apparent that sound planning requires rigor and thoroughness . (See Fig . 1 .) One of the most basic planning principles is organization : the best organization for the purpose intended . When that purpose is rehabilitation, one must take into account the limited mobility and acute sensitivity to physical environment of those for whom the building is intended . With limited mobility, the wheelchair becomes a basic unit or module of design. The range of the dimensions of a standard wheelchair must be borne in mind . Design is governed not only by these basic dimensions, but also by the dimensions of the paths of action of the chair . Variations in disability permit variable limits of maneuverability, and the relationship of the wheelchair to basic equip-
ment must also be recognized in the development of the planning data . MEDICAL The medical area of a rehabilitation center provides the following services : medical evaluation, performed by the physician and his staff ; physical therapy, including hydrotherapy ; occupational therapy ; speech and hearing therapy . It also furnishes the services of a prosthetic and/or orthetic appliance shop . The detailed character of the medical area will vary with the program of the center itself . The emphases in the medical program will be determined by the needs of the patients and by already existent community medical facilities . The medical area provides the basis for the patients' total program at the center . It must be accessible to all other areas and be well integrated with the administration and admissions services . (See Fig . 2 .) This section will contain much specialized examination, treatment, and therapy equip-
ment . Some of this will be heavy, requiring a floor designed to accommodate such concentrated loads ; the electrical service to these machines is important . Patients will be wearing lightweight examination or treatment gowns here, and the heating system will have to compensate for this . The records for all sections of this area are extensive ; therefore, adequate storage for them is mandatory . Conferences with patients and staff make further demands on the available space . Many different kinds of activities will be housed here and the space needs to be adjustable accordingly . Accessibility to all other areas is also essential for the medical area of activity . Physician Medical diagnosis is the basis for development of the patient's successful rehabilitation program . On admission, a medical examination is essential, whether the patient is prescribed a program in one or several of the center's areas of activity : physical medicine, social adjustment, or vocational rehabilitation . A nurse is usually present during the examination . Complete evaluation of the patient may require the services of consulting medical specialists, staff specialists in the several medical therapies, psychologists, social workers, and vocational counselors . A total integrated program is developed for the patient, with medical considerations as the initial frame of reference . Location Within Building As all patients receive medical evaluation, the physician's unit should be near the center's main entrance . For purposes of admission, and for the keeping of records, location of the unit near the administrative department is desirable . If an in-patient nursing unit is included, the physician should have, if possible, convenient access to the nursing unit . In smaller centers, the main waiting room for the building may serve as the waiting area for the physician's unit . Place the unit in a quiet zone . Staff-Patient Ratios The physician-patient ratio will depend entirely on the nature of the program . Centers accommodating in-patients will necessarily need a greater amount of physician service per patient than the out-patient type of center . Physician-patient ratios can be established only on an individual basis .
Iatertelations of main elements of space of e rehabilitation center. Activities may be grouped according to Fig. f relative noise levels .
Organization of Space The physician's unit should form a self-contained area, with access to the consultation room and the medical examination room by means of a subcorridor, if possible. To make full use of the physician's time, there should be two examination rooms for each consultation room . Recommended for the area is a toilet designed for wheelchair occupancy, accessible from the examination room .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS Although a clinical scale is essential equipment for the examination room, a wheelchair patient's scale constructed from a modified platform scale is very desirable . These scales should be conveniently accessible from the other parts of the building and may be placed in the physician's unit, or near the physical therapy exercise room or gymnasium .
Waiting Room
Arrange the furniture to allow space for wheelchair patients . Also, include coat hanging facilities .
Secretary
Include in the furnishings a secretary's desk, writing table, and letter size file cabinets . As certain records must be available to department heads in other areas of the center, placement of such files in the central records room of the administrative area is the usual practice . However, some centers prefer to keep medical records in the physician's unit. A physician's records are traditionally privileged communications, and, if kept in the central records room, should be made available only to the responsible professional personnel .
Consultation Room
include in the furnishings for the physician's office and consultation room an executive desk and chair, bookshelves, and film illuminator . Allow space for two visitors' chairs and a wheelchair . Provide a convenient coat closet . (See Fig . 3 .)
Examination Room Include in the furnishings for this room an examination table with clearance on all sides, an examination light, a lavatory and mirror, clinical scales, a film illuminator, an instrument and supply closet, a small electric pressure sterilizer (if no lab-utility room is provided), and a chair . Standing bars are optional equipment . Lab-Utility Room if a lab-utility room is provided, equip it with a pressure sterilizer, sink, plaster cart, work counter, and storage cabinets . Radiology Radiology is usually provided for rehabilitation centers by x-ray departments of hospitals, clinics, and other institutions . If radiology is to form a part of the center's services, standard practice in the design and construction of the department should be followed . (See Fig . 4 .) Physical Therapy Physical therapy is administered under medical supervision and performed by graduates of a school or course approved by the Council on Medical Education and Hospitals of the American Medical Association . The objectives of physical therapy are to correct or alleviate bone and joint or neuromuscular disabilities . This entails a concern with all types of physical disabilities, such as neurological diseases, arthritis, amputation, paralysis, spasticity, structural and postural malalignments, crippling accidents, postsurgical conditions, etc . Measures are used to retain or reestablish circulation, muscle tone, coordination, joint motion lending to mobility, ambuletion, end activities of daily living . In carrying out his aim, the therapist will make use of heat, cold, water, light, end electricity as well as the training effects of active, passive, resistive, and reeducation exercises .
Organization of Space There should be two major treatment areas, dry and wet . The dry area includes the exercise room or gym and treatment
cubicles ; whereas the wet area includes all hydrotherapy treatment, tanks, pools, and related facilities . Hydrotherapy equipment should be grouped in one area, separate from, but adjacent and accessible to other treatment areas . Space considerations for a physical therapy department must take into account circulation areas for patients and staff . Situate the equipment for efficient and safe use, and provide storage space for equipment and supplies. Flexibility and expansion of facilities should be considered in basic planning to meet changes in requirements . It is advisable to consult with the chief physical therapist, the center's director, and the center's physician to determine equipment needs and the program of activity for this department .
Location Within Building
The place for physical
and occupational therapy, as well as for activities of daily living, should be in close proximity, as many patients will receive treatment and training in all three areas . Arrange the areas so that scheduled patients may proceed directly to physical therapy without interfering with circulation to other departments. As physical therapy may take advantage of certain outdoor activity, place the exercise room or gym near the outdoors . As physical therapy involves some noisy activity, this area should be removed from quiet zones, such as the place where speech and hearing therapy is administered, or the nursing unit . (See Fig . 5 .) The area should be convenient to the center's physician and the nursing unit (if provided) .
Staff-Patient Ratios One physical therapist can treat an average of 10 to 15 patients per day .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
Group services may increase this to 20 a day . If the physical therapist is assisted by nonprofessionals and if the work space and scheduling are well planned, a maximum staff-patient ratio may be achieved . Nonprofessional assistants, paid or volunteer, can be trained to prepare patients for treatments, attend to equipment, and transport patients, if necessary . There are many variables involved in staffpatient ratios . Treatment Cubicles Divide the cubicles with curtain tracks for easy access by wheelchair and stretcher patients and for flexibility in use of space, as for instructional activity or gait training . Curtains should not extend to the ceiling or floor, so that when drawn, they may not interfere with ventilation . (See Fig . 6 .) Equip cubicles with a treatment table with adequate work space on each side and at the head . Treatment tables with drawers or shelving provide convenient storage space for sheets and other requirements . Provide in the cubicles a place for the patient's outer clothing, such as hooks or lockers . Provide a lavatory convenient for the therapist's use .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
Equipment for this department may include infrared and ultraviolet lamps, diathermy, hot pack and electrical stimulation apparatus, ultrasonic equipment, suspension apparatus (Guthrie-Smith), electrical diagnostic apparatus, moist heat equipment, sand bags, powder boards, powder, oil or lotion, alcohol, and linen . In many cases patients will be lying on their lighting backs during treatments . Ceiling should be indirect or semi-direct to avoid glare . Therapists making tests or examinations require shaded or nonglare spotlights .
Waiting Area
Provide space for wheelchair and ambulant patients ; and if there is a nursing unit, space also for a stretcher . Place the therapist's office near the waiting area for control . From the waiting area, the patient should be able to go to the exercise room, hydrotherapy, or treatment cubicles with a minimum interference of activities .
Therapist's Office
There should be staff office space for interviewing patients and attending to administrative duties, as well as space for
files, and a desk with a dictating machine . Partition the office so that interviews may have acoustical privacy . Situate it near the patients' entrance to the physical therapy department and design it to provide maximum supervision of activities . A patient scheduling board and writing surface are recommended . Locate them conveniently for all physical therapists . Staff lockers and dressing rooms (separate from patients) should be near this department.
Examining Room
The room should be convenient to the entrance of the physical therapy department. Equip it with an examination table, lavatory, and space for examination equipment . Provide floor-to-ceiling partitions for privacy . The room may be used for special tests and measurements, or for treatment when privacy is desirable . Scales for weighing patients (including patients in wheelchairs) are sometimes provided in this room .
Exercise Area This area should be a flexible, clear space for individual and group exercise activities . (See Fig . 7 .)
The most frequently used items of equipment are : exercise mats (sometimes raised 24 in . off the floor for the convenience of therapists and wheelchair or crutch patients-if area is of sufficient size, mats may remain in place), shoulder wheel, shoulder overhead and wall weights, shoulder ladder, steps, curbs, ramps, stall bars, parallel bars, posture mirror, stationary bicycle, counterbalanced and individual weights, sand bags, and paraffin bath . Some of this equipment may be made by a skilled carpenter rather than purchased. Purchased equipment should be accompanied by satisfactory repair and maintenance service . Certain equipment relationships should be maintained . Place the posture mirror 4 ft from the end of the parallel bars . When mats and other movable equipment are removed, there should be sufficient space for gait training, also related to a posture mirror . Doors to the exercise area should be wide enough to accommodate not only patients but also equipment . Double doors, each 3 ft wide, are recommended . The layout shown suggests a minimum exercise area for a physical therapy department with one therapist and an aid . For an expansion
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
of the exercise area see "Gymnasium" in this section . The exercise area may be divided by open partitions which allow for the attachment of equipment and subdividing of activities, yet which permit circulation of air and easy supervision of the total area . An observation cubicle with one-way vision glass may sometimes be used to advantage in order that visitors will not interfere with patients' activities . Reinforce the walls for installation of exercise equipment, such as stall bars . Provide storage for equipment not in use . Toilets should be accessible to the patients and designed for those who are confined to wheelchairs . A wall clock in the room for timing exercises is recommended . Vinyl wall covering to a minimum height of 5 ft will protect walls and ease maintenance . There should be adequate ventilation . Fresh air without drafts in the exercise and treatment cubicles is very important . Air conditioning of this area is highly desirable . Windows or room exposure should be designed to provide privacy within the exercise room . Gymnasium In larger centers or centers with inpatients, a gymnasium is recommended . It
serves a variety of uses, such as individual and group exercises, recreational programs, and meetings. The gymnasium will augment the program of the physical therapy exercise room, permitting the therapist to conduct group wheelchair and mat classes . The room should be furnished with parallel bars, wall bars, stairs, curbs, gradients, wall mirrors, etc ., for individual instruction. The room will also be used for recreational activity such as group volleyball, basketball, moving pictures, and wheelchair square dancing . A minimum clear ceiling height of 14 ft is recommended . If the gymnasium meets standard space requirements, rental of its use to community athletic organizations will be facilitated . Providing a recreational program is particularly important where inpatients are involved . The gymnasium will also be used by the social group worker in the social adjustment program of some patients . As the gymnasium is a multipurpose room, equipment and furniture within the area should be movable . Provision for its storage is essential . As a meeting room to be used by selected groups within the community, this facility provides an excellent opportunity to acquaint the public with the problems of rehabilitation
and to arouse interest in the center's program . For this purpose, the gymnasium should be easily accessible to the public . To make maximum use of this multipurpose room, it is important that activities be controlled to avoid conflicting schedules . Hydrotherapy The space for hydrotherapy is frequently the most expensive area of the center ; consequently, it should be planned with considerable selectivity . Whirlpool tanks for arm, foot, hip, and leg immersion are considered inadequate by many centers serving multiple disabilities unless augmented with facilities for complete body immersion . (See Fig . 8 .) Almost all exercises and treatments can be conducted with a Hubbard tank and a wading pool and tank . Combinations of Hubbard tanks with wading facilities are available where space is limited . Therapeutic pools are expensive to construct ; consequently, they are usually considered only for larger centers . All hydrotherapy activities require linen and towel storage . Also provide a wringer and dryer for bathing suits and a storage apace for wet and dry bathing suits of both staff and patients . Tank and pool areas require storage space for wheelchairs and stretchers, adequate
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
dressing cubicles, or dressing rooms to permit maximum use of pool, showers, and toilet facilities . As hydrotherapy is a moderately noisy activity, it should be removed from areas requiring sound control . Floors should be of unglazed ceramic tile with drains for spilled water and tank overflow . As equipment is heavy when filled with water, a structure must be designed for these additional loads . Overhead monorails with lift mechanism are essential for efficient use of Hubbard tanks end waders. Ceilings should be a minimum of 9 ft 6 in . The location of the monorail with proper relationship to equipment is essential . All pipes for hydrotherapy should be accessible but concealed . Waste lines should be adequate for rapid changes of water . All hydrotherapy equipment should have thermostatically controlled mixing valves . Adequate pressure and an ample source of 160' F . water are essential . Humidity reduction is a major concern in planning the hydrotherapy department . Adequate air conditioning is essential for the comfort of patients and staff .
Whirlpools
This includes equipment for the treatment of arms, hips, and legs . Some models are available as movable units, in which case a
sink or lavatory is required in the cubicle for drainage of the unit . Provide space for chair, table, and a stool of adjustable height . In small centers where hydrotherapy equipment consists only of whirlpool tanks, place them near treatment cubicles and near the exercise room for easy supervision by the therapist.
Tank Room
A treatment table with storage space is an essential requirement . Allow space for wheel stretchers and provide 44-in .-wide doors . (A 56-in .-wide opening is necessary to install combination treatment and wading tank .) Allow space for stretcher and wheelchair storage .
Showers and Dressing Rooms
Directly related to the efficient use of a hydrotherapy pool is the provision of adequate dressing room facilities . Dressing facilities do not necessarily have a size relationship to the pool indicated . For example, some programs will require several dressing tables in order to accommodate the patients .
Hydrotherapy Pool
Many variations in size are possible . The depth of the pool should be graduated. Variations of depth in 5-in . increments are
recommended . For children the shallow end should be 2 ft deep, for adults, 3 ft . The deep end of the pool should be 5 ft . There should be a continuous gutter around the pool for the use of the patients and for the purpose of attaching plinths . A portion of the floor surrounding the pool may be depressed to form an observation area for the therapist .
Occupational Therapy Occupational therapy is administered under medical supervision and performed by graduates of schools of occupational therapy approved by the Council on Medical Education and Hospitals of the American Medical Association . The objectives of occupational therapists are to assist in the mental and physical restoration of the disabled person, enabling him to adjust to his disability, increase his work capacity, and to want to become a productive member of his community . In addition, the occupational therapist is concerned with the training of patients in the activities of daily living . To achieve these goals, occupational therapy utilizes, on an individual basis, remedial activities which are found in creative skills and manual arts . (See Fig . 9 .)
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS Location Within Building occupational therapy should be adjacent to the physical therapy department, since many patients will use both areas . Locate the area so that scheduled patients may proceed directly to occupational therapy without interfering with the circulation of other departments . As some phases of occupational therapy involve noisy activity, this area should be removed from quiet zones in the building, or provision should be made for acoustic control .
Certain occupational therapy activities, such as those characteristic of daily living, may be conducted out of doors in favorable weather . It is recommended that, if possible, access to an outdoor area be provided . The area should be accessible to the center's physician, the social adjustment area, and the vocational counseling area . As occupational therapy involves coordination with the nursing unit (for dressing and toileting particularly), the occupational therapy department should be conveniently related to it .
Staff-Patient Ratios one occupational therapist can treat eight to fifteen patients per day . The number of patients depends upon types of disabilities and the severity of the cases . Where highly individual treatments are required, the daily load will decrease . Also, if the therapist is relieved of administrative responsibilities and assisted by nonprofessional persons, the daily load will increase. For orthopedic patients, special equipment must frequently be devised under close supervision of the occupational therapist . There are many variables applicable to staffpatient ratios . Otganj2atian of Space The activity area may be so planned that each activity has a separate unit, or it may be planned to separate quiet from noisy and dusty from clean activity . The unit system facilitates assignment of special instructors to special activities and is also a more orderly arrangement of the space. However, this method increases the number of staff, makes supervision more difficult, and can be considered only in larger departments . The activities of daily living (ADL) area, which is used to teach the patient how to live self-sufficiently in his home environment, should be closely related to the main occupational therapy treatment room . As the occupational therapist works closely with the social adjustment staff and the vocational counselors, his office should be near their areas . Activities of Daily Living The activities which are indicated include most situations found in the home (see Fig . 10) . Some training, particularly bathroom and
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS bedroom activities, will require cooperation with physical therapists . Consequently, the ADL area should be easily accessible from the physical therapy department . A gadget board containing numerous items of hardware, light switches, faucets, and other items frequently used should be included . The board should be adjustable in height . The bathroom should be arranged to accommodate wheelchair patients (see "Inpatients") . The kitchen plan may include, in addition to the type illustrated for wheelchair use, standard counter and cabinet arrangements to test the patient's ability to cope with "normal" situations . Counters of adjustable height may be used to advantage in training patients . A front loading washer and dryer, as illustrated, is desirable for wheelchair patients . Controls at the front of the range are recommended . However, the purpose of this training is to show the patient how he may use, if possible, appliances that are standard in his community . A standard clothes closet is recommended as a part of the training in dressing . A broom closet, vacuum cleaner, and adjustable ironing board should also be included . Table space should be provided for training in eating and for use as a writing surface . A rug can also be used to test the patient's ability to cope with that type of floor covering .
Speech and Hearing The speech and hearing unit serves those with disabilities of deafness, stuttering, or delayed speech and voice disorders which may result from various basic abnormalities, diseases, or injuries . A wide variety of programs is possible . Some provide for treatment of postoperative disorders resulting from tonsillectomies and ear operations, cerebral palsy, meningitis, cleft palate, hemiplegia, vocal cord anomalies . Services may range from testing and treating of all conditions to emphasis on disorders associated with certain specific disabilities . The center may include speech therapy only or audiological testing as well . The program may serve adults or children, or both . The center may include a teaching and research program in speech and hearing .
Staff-Patient Ratios Although ratios vary widely with different patients, an approximation of staff-patient ratios is as follows : 1 . For audiometric screening : one audiometric technician may screen one patient every five to eight minutes . 2 . For audiometric testing : the audiologist may test four to eight patients per day during the initial screening process . For a complete test for hearing aid evaluation, three hours is needed per patient, and the test is usually conducted in two visits . 3 . For individual therapy : one therapist for six to ten patients per day (one half-hour to one-hour periods) . The audiologist may also act as therapist . 4 . For group therapy : five to eight persons per therapist ; one therapist for twenty-four patients per day . Organization of Space
Patients' toilet facilities and coat racks should be accessible from the waiting room . It is recommended that the sound control room, test room, and audiometric testing rooms be located on a subcorridor off the waiting room in order to reduce noise . In a children's program, a play and ex-
amination room near the test room is recommended .
Testing The audiometric testing room (or, in some cases, booths) is a facility for pure-tone threshold testing and short form hearing screening tests (see Fig . 11 ) . Space should be provided for the audiologist's desk with an audiometer and one patient's chair or wheel chair . Furniture should be arranged so that the audiologist may face the patient and operate the audiometer. Provide storage and shelving . The room should be treated acoustically for an overall residual noise level of not more than 40 decibels as measured on the "C" scale . This involves the treatment of walls, ceilings, and floors . (See Fig . 12 .) Audiometric
Control Room and Test Room
This facility is essential for an audiology program . It is preferable to place these rooms off the subcorridor or hall, and to control the activity in surrounding rooms in order that extraneous noises be eliminated . For a children's program it is highly desirable that, outside the test room, a play and examination room be provided to accustom the child to his environment and to make the transition to the test room as easy as possible . This room should be equipped with children's furniture and toys . Equipment for the control room will include a work surface for the audiometer, earphones and microphone, tape recorder, and tape and record storage, and may include other equipment such as a Bekesy audiometer. If hearing aid evaluation is part of the program, provide storage space for hearing aids either in the test room or the control room . The control room should be treated acoustically to achieve an overall residual noise level of not more than 40 decibels on the "C" scale . An observation window approximately 18 by 20 in . i s required . For adequate control of sound transmission, three pieces of glass of different thicknesses and nonparallel in construction are recommended . One-way vision glass in the control room is optional . Equipment for the test room includes a speaker, microphone, and headphone . Microphone and headphone jacks should be located near the patient's chair . Additional auxiliary wall- or ceiling-mounted speakers are sometimes provided, particularly for the testing of children . These speakers should be separately switched . All this equipment is wired to the audiometer . Additional spare jacks in both the control and the test room are recommended
for other items of equipment . Conduits between the jacks should be installed in a manner that avoids sound transmission . For complete diagnostic service, a galvanic skin response audiometer may be used in the test room . For diagnostic testing, delayed auditory feedback equipment may be used . For a children's program, children's furniture and toys should be part of the test room . The test rooms should be acoustically treated to achieve an overall residual noise level of not more than 30 decibels on the "C" scale . This requires carefully supervised construction of a "floating room ." In new construction the subfloor may be depressed to eliminate the high step or ramp at the entrance to the test room . If built on grade, the floating slab for the room may be placed on a sand bed . To achieve this degree of acoustic control, it is essential that the floating room have adequate "mass" and that all necessary precautions are taken to avoid the conduction of sound . Proper air circulation is a frequent problem .
Orthetic and/or Prosthetic Appliance Shop Orthetic appliances are medically prescribed for the support of weakened parts of the body and to increase or control their function . Prosthetic appliances are medically prescribed artificial substitutes for a missing body part . Such devices are constructed by orthetists and prosthetists in cooperation with the physician, the physical therapist, and the occupational therapist . (See Fig . 13 .) The type of facility for orthetic and prosthetic services will vary widely with rehabilitation centers and is dictated at times by the availability of commercial services . Frequently, arrangements are made for a representative of a commercial firm to visit the center . For this purpose a fitting room is recommended as a minimum facility, although an office or treatment cubicle is sometimes used and minor adjustments and repairs to appliances are made in the occupational therapy department . However, a small shop (as illustrated) within the center provides close liaison between the patient, the medical team, and the orthetist or prosthatist . In such a shop, small devices such as feeders and page turners may be fabricated and adjustments and repairs made to wheelchairs, braces, limbs, and crutches . If a minimum facility is established, consideration should be given to its future expansion, not only in terms of space, but with respect to electrical services, ventilation, gas supply, etc .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
The fabrication of major appliances requires much heavy and noisy equipment . Isolation of such a shop is essential to the control of noise and reduction of the fire hazard . Location Within Building As the orthetic and/or prosthetic appliance shop will serve outpatients requiring minor adjustments or repairs to their devices, the unit should be easily accessible to entrances . The unit should be located in a noisy zone, and, if possible, near the gymnasium, so that the patient may try out his prostheses or braces . The fitting room, however, may be made sufficiently large for this purpose .
SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT Social adjustment requires psychiatric and social services for the treatment of social and emotional problems .
Psychiatric Service= Frequently the psychiatrist is employed on a part-time basis and is primarily called upon to provide the following services : 1 . Psychiatric screening to diagnose emotional problems 2 . Staff consultations on how these problems should be managed in relation to the patient's total rehabilitation program 3 . In-service staff training for the purpose of developing greater understanding of the psychological factors in disability Psychological Services include : 1 . Psychological evaluation, accomplished by means of various psychological testing procedures and interviews which evaluate the patient's intelligence and personality 2 . Interpretation of clinical findings to members of the staff 3 . Counseling (therapy) on either an individual or a group basis, usually carried out with the psychiatrist and social service staff
4 . In-service training of psychologists and participation in psychological research . The minimum recommended psychological facilities would include a psychologist's counseling room and test room . Social Services include the following : 1 . Social study and evaluation, including the collection of relevant information from the patient, his family, and other agencies, and the appraisal of such information with respect to the patient's rehabilitation potential 2 . Social casework, where the social worker (medical social worker or psychiatric social worker) works with the patient to improve attitudes toward self-support and motivation toward treatment and work 3 . Social group work, including the correction of abnormal living patterns by using planned group activities, recreational in nature but therapeutic in value . It may include hobby activities, group discussions, and activities of an adult education nature .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS Location Within Building The services should be administered in a quiet area of the building . As most incoming patients will receive some services in this area, it should be readily accessible from the main entrance of the building . If the program involves large numbers of children, the psychological therapy room for children should be in the children's treatmenttraining unit . (See Fig . 14 .) Organization of Space The flow pattern for patients within this area will vary considerably . A typical pattern for the evaluation of a new patient would have the sequence of receptionist, waiting room, social worker (for case history of patient), medical evaluation (for all incoming patients), psychological testing, and psychiatric screening . The two latter services are not needed by all patients . Vocational counseling, and appraisal of the patient's employment potential in the vocational evaluation unit may also be included in the initial evaluation . Also for this purpose, audiometric screening and speech evaluation are often helpful . Staff-Patient Ratios As psychiatric screening and psychological therapy will vary widely with individual patients, no approximation of staffpatient ratios is possible . For psychological testing a recommended average is two patients a day per psychologist for brief psychological evaluations . This includes the time required for interpretation and writing reports . Extensive psychological evaluation requires one work day per patient, including time for preparation of the report . Other activities such as training, research, and therapy will detract from these averages . This does not provide for evaluation of vocational skills, aptitudes, and interests, which is a function of vocational services . For social caseworkers, the number of cases per worker will vary with the number of intake studies and the number receiving continuing service . Where there is a balance between these two types of service, an individual caseworker may handle a caseload of from 25 to 35 patients . Waiting Room if the program is of sufficient scope, provide a separate waiting area with a receptionist for the psychological-social unit . In smaller centers, this facility may be incorporated in the main waiting room for the center . The receptionist schedules patient interviews with the psychological-social staff . Access to interview and test rooms by means of a subcorridor will provide privacy and reduce extraneous noise from the rest of the building . Psychological Training and Research Programs For a training program, provide observation facilities in the children's play therapy and activity group rooms, such as observation cubicles with one-way vision glass or, preferably, television cameras with screens in a central viewing room . (See Fig . 15 .) Provide a separate office for each psychological trainee . Research programs are of a wide variety . Some involve much equipment ; others, no equipment . Provide a separate area for this facility . VOCATIONAL
The vocational area of a rehabilitation center provides the following services : counseling,
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS evaluation, training, and placement ; the sheltered workshop (or rehabilitation workshop) is part of this area, and in some cases, certain aspects of special education will be included . The vocational program is determined by the needs of the patients and the needs and opportunities of business and industry in the community served by the center . This program is a most important part of the patient's total rehabilitation process . (See Fig .16 .) This area has the responsibility of acquainting the patient with situations in industry or in business and of preparing him for job competition . Realistically designed workshops and offices will be required to create a job situation atmosphere for the patient . This area should present to the patient a very wide range of job possibilities . Few centers will contain an extensive number of job situations ; some may have none if this need has been satisfied through the cooperation of a trade school or some other agency . Patients should not be trained for jobs which they cannot obtain later . Changing types and techniques in industry make it essential that this area have maximum flexibility, especially in heating, ventilating, electrical installations, plumbing, lighting, and equipment placement . The vocational area must offer training in small segments of a job operation and present advanced types of vocational opportunities . Vocational counseling provides an opportunity for the patient to obtain an understanding of his vocational abilities and potential, and to learn the scope of their possible application . The center may choose to work with cooperating counselors already established in the community, if it does not provide this service within the center . Sometimes counselors are loaned to centers by the State Vocational Rehabilitation Agency and conduct their work at the center . Vocational evaluation is the process of collecting and appraising data on the patient's interests, aptitudes, and ability in work situations. This section needs to be quite broad in scope in order to find the vocation best suited and most satisfying to the disabled person . This section of the center's program is frequently referred to as a prevocational
unit . Vocational training provides the discipline necessary for the patient to attain his job potential established in vocational evaluation . Vocational training requires carefully supervised instruction in vocations best serving the patient's needs with full regard to employment
possibilities . Sheltered workshop provides employment for disabled persons within the center . This is productive work for which wages are paid ; the work is usually obtained on contract or subcontract basis . In this area, further vocational evaluation and training are possible. Special education will be found in this area when enough patients have difficulties with certain areas of academic or vocational achievement . If children need this service, it may be located in their area . Frequently, this is provided through cooperation with the public schools . Placement service is to be offered when the number of job placements and contacts warrants it ; otherwise this service is performed by other agencies. In smaller centers placements may be handled by the vocational cournselor . Placement may mean the patient's return to his former job, full employment by selective placement or partial or special employment either at home or in the sheltered workshop .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS Supervisors will be in charge of the separate units of this area and will be responsible for integrating their unit with the total vocational effort. The director will be in charge of the total vocational area and responsible for integrating this area with the rest of the rehabilitation center program . Vocational Training Vocational training is prescribed after evaluation of the patient's abilities, interests, and job training has begun . The vocational training unit provides opportunity for growth in ability and assurance in actual job situations or experiences as close to reality as possible . During this period of training, the patient may continue to receive services from the medical unit, the social adjustment unit, or any other part of the rehabilitation center . (See Fig . 17 .) Differences in disabilities and the nature of the community will dictate differences in the kind of training program to be employed . In addition to working with local industry, the local training resources will supplement the center's training programs whenever practicable and suitable . Trade schools may accept only the more capable candidates who do not have emotional or medical problems, and in some cases, they may not be able to give the personal attention needed . The rehabilitation center deals with complex problems and disabilities ; therefore, its vocational training unit will need to give greater emphasis to limited training objectives which are often more suitable to the restricted educational and cultural backgrounds of many of its patients . Training in a range of vocations should be offered to accommodate several levels of abilities, skills, and interests . In addition, the changing personnel needs of industry make a representative range important .
There follows a sampling of some of the vocational training fields that the architect may be called upon to plan for : 1 . Commercial 2 . Tailoring 3 . Drafting 4 . Watch repair 5 . Shoe repair 6 . Furniture repair and upholstering 7 . Machine shop operation 8 . Radio, television, and appliance repair (See Fig . 18 .) Sheltered Workshop The sheltered workshop provides additional opportunities for further evaluation, training, and eventual employment of the handicapped individual . The sheltered workshop was once thought of as a place for terminal employment of those who could not benefit from further training . Today this concept has changed, and it is established as one of the steps in the rehabilitation process . There will, perhaps, always be some patients who, because of extensive or complicated disabilities, require the environment of the sheltered workshop as the only means of permanent employment . The sheltered workshop is never an isolated unit in terms of program, but is part of the total vocational area which in turn is an integral part of the center . For selected patients, it is the best means of developing work tolerance, work habits, confidence, and skill . It also provides a means for the development of industrial quantity standards . The added incentive of pay for work done is often the motivation needed to help the disabled person carry through his rehabilitation program . This work is most frequently secured from industry or other sources on subcontract basis . This work must be done within the most businesslike atmosphere and framework, yet without undue pressures of time ; however, it
must meet the standards of quality and guarantee delivery of the required quantities on time schedules . It must provide payment for services rendered and rewards in terms of individual growth and development . Location Within Building The sheltered workshop should be conveniently related to the other areas of vocational services . It may be a detached or semidetached unit with a separate patient entrance, as patients engaged in the shop usually work an eight-hour-day program end no longer require the intensive services of the medical department. Depending upon its closeness to the medical department of the center, the shop may require a first-aid room . In the larger workshop a fulltime nurse may be required . As work within the shop may be noisy, separation from quiet areas in the center is recommended . For delivery and shipment of goods, it is essential that the unit be adjacent to a loading area . Organization Of Space This area will closely resemble industrial space end will house industrial operations . The heating, ventilating, and dust collection systems will need to be planned accordingly, with floors designed for adequate loads and an electrical system to meet many different kinds of demands . The type of work carried out in the shop will be subject to frequent change . Flexibility in organizing the space is, therefore, essential : the area should have a high ceiling and be free of columns . Floors should be designed to take heavy loads of equipment and stacked materials . Much of the work under contract in the shop will be of an assembly line nature . However, the products may merely require work surfaces for their assembly or they may require special equipment (frequently supplied to the center by the contracting firm if it is for a particular job) . In laying out equipment in the shop, it is advisable to obtain expert industrial advice in order to assure efficient flow patterns and simplified handling and storage of materials and products . Some work surfaces should be adjustable in height and all should be designed for the use of wheelchair patients . Electrical power outlets should be frequently spotted along bench walls and/or the ceiling grid . Floor outlets for power tool use in the central area of the shop are recommended . Wiring should be sized to take a varying power demand . Adequate general illumination should be provided with increased intensity al work stations as dictated by the task . A time clock for the patients' use is sometimes provided in the workshop to encourage punctuality and to determine the patients' production rate . All necessary safety precautions should be taken to protect the patient from power tool hazards, fire hazards, falls, and other mishaps . A potential hazard exists when there is insufficient space for the storage of materials and products . Ample storage space should be provided for the orderly, safe arrangement of bulky items . A sprinkler system installed in the shop will reduce fire risk . Storage is a major problem and is related to the volume of items handled . The space for storage will vary from 15 percent to 50 percent of the work area . Receiving, shipping, and handling of bulk items require additional space . This space
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
I . Commercial i) typists; ii) secretaries; iii) bookkeepers ; iv) telephone operators ; v) cashiers ; vi) business machine operato vii) copy readers ;
Skilled and Semiskilled B . Drafting : i) electrical draftsmen ; ii) automotive draftsmen ; iii) architectural draftsmen ; iv) mechanical draftsmen .
Skilled and Semiskilled E . Repairmen : i) business machines; ii) watch repairing; iii) assemblers; iv) tool sharpening ; v) camera repairing ; vi) shoe repairing .
viii) ix) x) xi) xii) xiii)
bank tellers ; ticket agents; receptionists ; shipping and receiving clerks ; file clerks ; sales clerks .
C . Commercial Art : i) layout men ; ii) illustrators ; iii) letterers ; iv) window display artists ; v) show card layout.
F . Electric Light, Power, and Electronics: i) meter readers ; ii) meter men; iii) assemblers; iv) inspectors and testers; v) radio, television, electronic machine repairmen .
11 . Skilled and Semiskilled A . Sewing and Tailoring i) spreaders ; vii) ii) markers; viii) iii) cutter; ix) iv) trimmers ; x) v) pattern makers ; xi) vi) pattern graders ; xii)
Skilled and Semiskilled D . Arts and Crafts: i) ceramics; ii) leather; iii) metal work ;
Skilled and Semiskilled G . Building Trades : i) carpenters; ii) painters ; iii) plumbers ; iv) masons; v) electricians.
tailors; pressers ; hand sewers ; sewing machine operators; weave-bac specialists ; chair cover makers .
iv) weaving ; v) jewelry; vi) electroplating.
. Woodwork Trades : i) patternmakers; ii) cabinet makers ; iii) furniture repairmen . Plastics Production : i) bench grinders ; ii) hand filers; iii) drill press operators ; iv) assemblers .
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS
Health REHABILITATION CENTERS program, facilities for snacks-refrigerator, hot plate, and sink-are indicated . Or locate this facility within the children's treatment and training area to serve the nursery as well as the occupational therapy room . Exterior circulation involves both vehicular and pedestrian traffic . Buses, taxis, automobiles, and service trucks must be considered . Parking spaces should be located so that neither patients nor visitors need cross driveways to enter the building . Separate areas of the parking space should be designated for patient, staff, and visitor use . Appropriate directional signs should be considered for the efficient control of traffic. In some centers where many outpatients drive their own cars, a carport designed for wheelchair patients is a considerable convenience. (See Fig . 20 .) All centers will require a service area for the delivery of equipment, supplies, and fuel . However, centers with kitchen facilities, vocational training programs, and a sheltered workshop will have a greatly increased service problem ; and the service area and its relation to other traffic must be studied accordingly . Adequate maintenance shop facilities are essential . The shop not only will serve general maintenance purposes, but frequently will be used for the repair, modification, or fabrication of furniture and equipment used in the center .
should be related to e loading dock and truck service area . The service area should be planned so that it does not interfere with other vehicular or pedestrian circulation . As patients working in the shop will usually work an eight-hour day, facilities for their comfort should not be overlooked . If the center has no dining facilities, a lunchroom convenient to the shop is recommended, as some patients will bring their lunches with them . Provision of a cafeteria is also considered a desirable facility where the number of patients warrants it . Most states have specific requirements for rest areas for men and women . These requirements should be checked carefully before planning lounges, toilet facilities, and lockers for the patients in the workshop . A small office for the workshop supervisor should be provided, and so designed that there is maximum supervision of the shop activity from the office . Additional office space will be required for records, cost accounting, end estimating . The size of this area will be determined essentially by the volume of work and number of contracts handled by the workshop . Physical Therapy Exercise Room The requirements here are similar to those needed in the exercise room for adults, except that the equipment is selected for the child's size and interests . (See Fig . 19 .) The space indicates a minimum exercise area staffed by one therapist .
Treatment cubicle requirements are the same for children as adults ; equip them with treatmirrors ment tables and ceiling-mounted above . Relate the area to outdoor therapy for outdoor exercises . Provide a sink for the therapist's and children's use . Toilet facilities for children should be immediately convenient to the exercise room and outdoor therapy . Special equipment may have to be designed for individual cases . Figure 19 illustrates a movable stall bar and parallel bars adjustable in height and width for children of varying ages .
Occupational Therapy Equipment should be selected for the child's physical and mental age level . The plan indicates an area staffed by one therapist. Place toilet facilities convenient to the therapy room . Relate the room to the outdoors so that some activities may be conducted outside . Although special equipment may be required for individual cases, equipment indicated includes standing tables, typing tables, work tables (all with adjustable heights), loom, easel, and workbench . Provide a sink within the room for the children's and therapist's use . As training in eating may form a part of the
Health MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS
The Physical Plant The physical plant shall provide a safe and sanitary environment with adequate diagnostic and therapeutic resources . The design and construction of the physical plant should be appropriate to the type of services it houses, to the staffing and organizational pattern of the facility, and to local geography and style . It will, therefore, be unique for each facility, but it must be safe and must make a positive contribution to the efficient attainment of the facility's goals . It must satisfy the physiological as well as the psychological needs of patients and staff . Sleeping units for patients are designed to promote comfort end dignity and to ensure privacy consistent with the patients' welfare . In the absence of other state or local requirements, there is a minimum of 90 sq ft of floor space in single rooms and 70 sq ft of floor space per person in multiple patient rooms . It is desirable that multiple patient rooms be designed to accommodate no more than six patients, but preferably four . There may be a need for appropriate security measures incorporated into the physical design of some wards . There is a minimum of one lavatory for each six patients, one toilet for each eight patients, one tub or shower for each fifteen patients, and one drinking fountain on each ward . A lavatory is installed in each toilet area . Appropriate provisions are made to ensure privacy in toilet and bathing areas . Since psychiatric patients are generally ambulatory and need to associate with other patients and with staff, there is provision for day rooms and recreational areas . At least 40 sq ft of floor space per patient is required for dayrooms . There are also usually solaria, a dining room or cafeteria where many patients take their meals, a vistors' room, a gymnasium, an exercise area in the building or perhaps on the grounds, and rooms for special treatment, interviewing of patients, group and individual therapy, etc . Other facilities for patients might include a locker room or individual lockers in the sleeping units, a small laundry room, a snack kitchen on each ward, and a coffee shop, clothing shop, and cosmetic shop for patients as well as employees . Offices are provided for physicians, psychologists, social workers, nursing administrators, dietitian, and other staff members, and these are conveniently located to encourage effective communication with patients and other staff . Nurses' stations should be centrally located to permit full view of recreation areas and immediate access to patients and to treatment areas . Appropriate conference rooms are also provided, and there are suitable arrangements for clerical staff for each department or unit .
v
Standards for Psychiatric Facilities, The American Psychiatric Association, Washington, D C ., 199
SIX TYPES OF PSYCHIATRIC FACILITIES Community Mental Health Centers The community mental health center represents the formal reflection of the professional objectives of providing comprehensive services and continuity of care for the prevention, early detection, treatment, and follow-up care of mental disorder within a designated population . The comprehensive center is essentially a program rather then a building complex ; it is a program that seeks to plan and coordinate the range of mental health services required to meet the mental health needs of a population . It is a combination of services either under a single administration in a discrete physical entity, under a single administration in multiple physical facilities, or under various administrations which, by contracts end/or agreements, are organized to provide the continuity of services noted above . A center may be under governmental, philanthropic, or private auspices, or it may be supported by a combination of resources . If it is to be an effective agency, however, the community served by the center should participate in establishing the major needs, goals, end priorities of the mental health center . The community and the staff of the mental health center must define the goals and establish a priority system for the attainment of these goals . The community is ultimately responsible for identifying resources end needs, obtaining sufficient financial support to assure adequate numbers of competent personnel, adequately paid end given an adequate physical plant to implement the programs to achieve the stated goals . As a minimum, the center must provide outpatient, inpatient, partial hospitalization (including day care) services, community consultation and professional education for other than the staff of the center, and clinical diagnosis and treatment on an emergency basis . It is also desirable that it participate in public education to promote or conserve mental health research to increase the body of knowledge about mental illness and the effectiveness of services utilized, home care and follow-up, nursing home care, vocational rehabilitation, guidance for the families of emotionally disturbed persons, and otherwise contribute to maintaining the optimal functioning of individuals with residual sequelse or complications of mental disorders . Services of the center should be easily accessible and widely publicized to the community served . To provide comprehensive services and continuity of care, the community mental health center should have easy relationships with other "people-serving" agencies, and particularly with the public psychiatric hospital serving the area . Patient care must be coordinated between the center and other agencies, end patients must move from one element of service to another within the center with ease, as treatment needs indicate . For example, in mental health centers that are part of or closely related to general hospitals, the necessary inpatient, dietetic, laboratory, pharmacy, medi-
cal, end surgical services might be provided by the general hospital . Arrangements need only be made to ensure availability end ready accessibility for patients in the mental health center . To be truly comprehensive, the mental health center must be responsible for the adequacy of services provided to persons with special problem mental disorders or to populations facing unusually chronic and severe emotional stress and who are alienated from their community or the broader community's supportive social systems. It may not be feasible for the center to provide all of the clinical services necessary in managing the difficult biological and social problems presented by drug dependency, alcoholism, aging, delinquency, mental retardation, or the many other special problems included among the mental disorders or in which mental disorder is suspected of playing a significant part . The center should, however, identify the population at risk for each of the special problems and plan a program to provide preventive, diagnostic, therapeutic, rehabilitstivk, or supportive services for each of these populations . It should identify the community's most likely agents for early intervention to assist or support individuals in each of these populations or identify agents who are providing therapeutic and rehabilitative care . The program should indicate the ways in which the center would be most useful to these community agents . The responsibility for the mental health needs of a population implies that the mental health center should help various social systems of the community function in ways that develop and sustain effectiveness of individuals participating in these systems . The center should aid these systems in their support of persons with mental disorder. The implications for prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation are obvious ; the recipient of mental health services includes the patient but the services extend to his family and to a variety of social systems . Consultation and education in the community are important functions of any center . In these ways the center responds to the community's need for interlocking, strengthening, and expansion of all its resources that have a bearing on mental health . Community consultation and education offer possibilities for influencing mental health beyond the confines of hospitals and offices and thus contribute to the prevention of mental disorder . To deliver this broad range of services, a flexible organization with a multidisciplinary staff is required . In addition to the usual professional staff of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, and activity therapists, there may be a variety of nonprofessional personnel, volunteers, and social scientists to add new perspectives to the center . Staff may be organized by services (prevention, diagnosis, intensive treatment, extended treatment, rehabilitation, etc.), by programs for specific population groups (children, adolescents, the aged, alcoholics, mentally retarded, etc .), or by geographic areas of the community served . Regardless of the organization, there
Health MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS
must be adequate qualified leadership, administrative and clinical, to assure thoughtful supervision, planning, evaluation, and coordination required to blend the array of available talents and resources into an effective center of services . Responsibility and commensurate authority should be delegated to ensure optimal utilization of each person's skills, respecting principles of ultimate legal and clinical responsibility . As stated elsewhere by the APA, "The need for cooperatively defining the area of activity and responsibility for professionals who participate in the care of patients requires that physicians or their designees be recognized as having the ultimate responsibility for patient care . They, and they alone, are trained to assume this responsibility . In the public interest, other professionals or nonprofessionals, when contributing to patient care, must recognize and respect this ultimate responsibility .'
Psychiatric Outpatient Clinics In a psychiatric outpatient clinic, a psychiatrist assumes responsibility for providing diagnostic, consulting, and therapeutic services for outpatients with the help of a professional staff that includes at least the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, and social work . This staff nucleus may be supplemented as needed by representatives of related disciplines, such as pediatrics, internal medicine, neurology, mental health nursing, speech therapy, remedial techniques, physical and occupational therapy, and rehabilitation . Members of the various disciplines not only work on the staff but also function on the team in daily practice, coordinating their skills to meet the needs of patients . The psychiatrist who serves as director sees that this coordination is effective . He assumes responsibility for all clinical functions and is on duty sufficient time, on a regularly scheduled basis, to adequately discharge his responsibility . He assures adequate evaluation of all new patients, supervision of the staff, and sustained direction of the total program of services . The psychiatrist-in-charge retains overall authority, but may delegate administrative, as distinct from clinical, responsibility to a nonmedical executive or administrator . In addition to diagnosing and treating patients, the clinic provides training for professional psychiatric personnel and those of other disciplines as well as education for the public ; it participates in various community endeavors related to the mentally ill and carries out research . The methods of implementation and the proportionate emphasis given to the various functions differ according to local circumstances, community needs, and clinic policy . The clinic may serve patients for whom appropriate psychiatric assistance in a convenient outpatient clinic may prevent more prolonged illness, those recovering from a stage of illness that required hospitalization and who may need further outpatient care as they resume a regular way of life, those who are referred far prehospitalization evaluation, and those who can benefit from temporary therapeutic intervention to overcome a life crisis .
' Principles Underlying Interdisciplinary Relations Between the Professions of Psychiatry and Psychology-A Position Statement by the Council of the American Psychiatric Association, February 1964 .
Admission policies for outpatient clinics vary . Many clinics have an "open door," or "walk-in," policy, indicating that they accept both self-referrals and referrals from community agents . Others accept only those cases that have been referred by another professional source . Some clinics specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of children, adults, or special populations, such as people with alcohol problems . Each clinic has a written plan indicating the scope of its admission policy and referral plan, and the plan is well known to all referring sources . The services of a clinic may be offered on either a full- or part-time basis, according to local circumstances . Whatever its arrangement, the clinic should be accessible to the members of the community it serves . For example, a clinic serving an area where many working people are paid by the day or hour with little or no provision for sick leave should be open some evenings or weekends so as not to discourage or penalize those who would have to take a loss in pay to begin or continue treatment . The clinic's participation in community service plans is an important responsibility . Some individuals may have a problem that can best be removed or alleviated by another agency, and the clinic cooperates with other community resources wherever possible . Some patients need help from several sources, and the professionals involved must clarify the needs and outline areas in which each can be most effective . Working relationships with surrounding inpatient facilities are maintained to achieve easy flow of patients in and out of inpatient services and to avoid administrative delays and failure of communication about patients . The clinic may be affiliated with a medical school, hospital, welfare or public health department, or other appropriate professional organizations for the exchange of services, scientific advancement, and professional and administrative support . If not, it achieves these aims through the use of qualified consultants or by establishing a professional advisory board of appropriately qualified persons . The psychiatric outpatient clinic is often asked to furnish an evaluative report regarding a patient . The content of a report is determined by the purposes of the agency for which it is prepared and it is in keeping with ethical practice .
Psychiatric Services in General Hospitals All general hospitals should have a wellknown plan for receiving, management, and disposition of psychiatric patients . If the general hospital has a psychiatric service or department, there must he a qualified psychiatrist in charge, with appropriate allied personnel, particularly nursing personnel who have had training in the management of psychiatric patients . Every general hospital must think through its responsibilities for the person presenting himself with psychiatric symptoms, in order either to admit the patient or to assist in quickly referring him to the nearest treatment resource capable of providing prompt diagnosis and treatment for the particular case . The feasibility of establishing a psychiatric service in a general hospital as a part of the network of the total community health program will depend upon many factors, including local needs, the availability of other facilities, the availability of staff, and the orientation of the medical professional in the hospital and community .
Whether a separate psychiatric service can or cannot be provided, it is frequently possible to use some general medical, minimal care, or other beds for psychiatric patients and to secure the services of a consultant psychiatrist . All good general hospitals have a plan for handling psychiatric emergencies, such as acute toxic reactions, suicide attempts, and acute behavioral disturbances . Small hospitals may have two or more rooms for such patients, pending their transfer to a hospital where special psychiatric facilities are available . It is advisable that no patient with suicidal tendencies be released without psychiatric consultation if a psychiatrist is available . When the general hospital has a psychiatric service, the service provides for the care and treatment of patients admitted for psychiatric disorders and also for those patients who, in the course of hospitalization for another reason, experience a psychiatric illness . Most patients are admitted voluntarily, although occasionally the hospital seeks legal authority for detaining one who is very disturbed . Any limitations on admissions, such as those imposed by the physical construction of the unit or by the training and experience of its staff, are clearly stated in the plan of the hospital . Because of the small size of the psychiatric unit in most general hospitals, the unit usually focuses on intensive short-term therapy and diagnostic services . Some general hospitals have, however, found it possible to develop suitable facilities and staffing to admit end treat psychiatric patients who are expected to remain over 30 days . Some hospitals also have provision for partial hospitalization, in addition to round-the-clock services, and for outpatient services to former patients and others who do not need full-time hospitalization . Experience has indicated that, expressed as a percentage of the bed capacity of the hospital, the number of psychiatric beds required will vary from 3 to 15 percent, the most usual figure being about 10 percent of the total beds. A capacity of 20 to 26 beds in one nursing unit seems to be most efficient . When a hospital is capable of supporting more than this number of beds, they are usually provided in two or more nursing units . Experience has shown that men and women may be treated in one unit if adequate facilities are available . Since the psychiatric service operates as an integral part of the hospital, many of its functional services are provided by the hospital administration . These might include most of the general professional services : i .e ., medical, surgical, and dental ; dietetic, laboratory, x-ray, pharmacy, library, chaplaincy, and medical records ; and administrative and maintenance services .
Private Psychiatric Hospitals Private psychiatric hospitals are nongovernmental specialty hospitals . Like general hospitals, they may be operated on either a nonprofit or for-profit basis . They have the responsibility of providing treatment programs with definitive goals for the welfare of the patient, with the realization that the period of hospitalization may be only a segment of the total treatment plan . The medical staff should make use of the opportunity provided by a high ratio of medical staff to patients to regulate the therapeutic program and to observe the processes of illness and the response to therapy . The most advanced approaches to treatment, and individualization of program to meet each patient's
Health MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS needs, should be employed . The hospital should take advantage of around-the-clock observations by many trained observers, and multidisciplinary views in conference, in the evaluation of therapy and the integration of theory and practice . There should be a periodic evaluation of the effectiveness of the hospital therapeutic program . Although the primary function of the hospital is to maintain excellence in psychiatric treatment, the professional and administrative staff should be encouraged to utilize the unique opportunities for education and research . Most private psychiatric hospitals serve their geographic communities-local, state, and regional-although a number of them, because of their special or unique treatment programs for specific categories of patients, receive referrals from wherever in the world these patients come . Private psychiatric hospitals, therefore, very greatly . Each follows the program determined by its medical staff, its approach to treatment and its goals . Each private psychiatric hospital must have established written procedures by which it will either admit a patient or quickly refer him to the nearest, most appropriate, treatment facility . A qualified psychiatrist must be responsible for the treatment of the patient, and there must be other mental health professionals, including nursing personnel with training in psychiatric nursing . The length of stay in a private psychiatric hospital should be commensurate with the goals of therapy and the patient's illness . In keeping with the current concepts that early and effective intervention may result in the return of the patient to his community after a very short period of hospitalization, the average length of stay is less than 60 days in threefourths of the private psychiatric hospitals . To meet the ultimate needs of the patient, many hospitals maintain medium- or long-term intensive treatment programs as well . The primary goal of hospital treatment is not the shortest possible stay but the most effective therapy . Within the limits of therapeutic goals, the hospital should provide the type and amount of treatment that will result in the patient's resumption of healthy functioning .
Public Psychiatric Hospitals A public psychiatric hospital is defined as an institution provided by the communitywhether city, county, state, provincial, or federal government-for the diagnosis, treatment, and care of patients with psychiatric and neurological disorders . Most hospitals in this group are state or provincial hospitals . They provide both short-term and long-term treatment and admit patients both voluntarily and by legal commitment . While it is recognized that variations in the usual type of state hospital organization are suitable in certain localities, the essential professional, diagnostic, treatment, and administrative and maintenance services described in the preceding section on general standards can be applied to all public hospitals by individual interpretation . Each public hospital has an important function to perform in providing necessary psychiatric services to its community and in promoting psychiatric education and research . Recognizing the advantages of affiliation with medical schools and other medical centers in their areas, many public hospitals have established formal programs of participation in cooperative educational and research efforts . Whether the total treatment program of the
hospital is separated into discrete units depends upon its size, its type of organization, and the medical administrative philosophy . However, patients have individual and differing needs, and the treatment program, however administratively organized, seeks to serve these various needs . The hospital should be large enough to meet the community's needs for psychiatric services, but not so large as to compromise its ability to meet the needs of each patient for individual treatment . Optimal size might be described as the most efficient and effective balance between the facility's ability to meet the unique needs of the community and its ability to meet the unique needs of each patient . One method that has been devised to achieve this balance is the unit system . Larger hospitals may operate under this system, with several semiautonomous patient care units making up the complex . The treatment programs are organized into separate units of similar size, staffing, and types of patients . Regardless of how long he stays, each patient is admitted, treated, end discharged within the same unit . His treatment is the responsibility of the same group of staff members from admission to discharge and aftercare . In some instances, the units represent specific geographical areas ; this enables the professional staff to work closely and continuously with professional and lay community agencies from that region . Other facilities do not find this geographic admission plan practical and prefer to admit patients to each unit in rotation . Regardless of how admissions are handled, the goal of each unit is appropriate treatment for each patient at the most appropriate site . The treatment program may include separate wards for certain types of patients with special treatment, educational, and rehabilitation needs, such as children, adolescents, alcoholics, patients with tuberculosis, and others who require intensive medical treatment in addition to psychiatric care . Increasingly, public hospitals are following the mental health center concepts of comprehensiveness of service and continuity of care . They are, therefore, developing a range of services, including programs of varying degrees of partial hospitalization, outpatient services, rehabilitation, vocational guidance, and aftercare in addition to the intensive inpatient treatment programs . A proper balance of these other programs allows for the more efficient use of the inpatient services . The concept of the "open door" has been applied to the majority of wards in most psychiatric hospitals . The open hospital encourages early treatment by emphasizing the voluntary nature of hospitalization and the expressed confidence of the staff that the patient can accept responsibility for his own management . Freedom of movement enables patients to do many things for themselves that might have to be done by staff members under other conditions, and thus allows more staff time available for the promotion of active treatment . It is necessary for some facilities to maintain a closed ward or wards, however, for those patients who may be likely to endanger the safety and welfare of themselves and/or others . Confidence in the facility can best be maintained if appropriate precautions are taken to protect the community from the exceptional patient who has in the pest caused it concern . The hospital encourages and participates in community planning for the development of appropriate alternative resources and facilities to deal with social problems that have in the
past often been assigned to the public psychiatric hospital due to the lack of available alternatives . The most appropriate and efficient use of scarce psychiatric resources requires that all possibilities for securing the best treatment and care for each individual patient be explored by the patient's family, the family physician, and community social agencies, and that a broad range of resources be available in the community to meet the multiplicity of needs . The hospital encourages community provision for diagnostic, treatment, rehabilitation, and educational and preventive mental hygiene services for former patients, and for those for whom hospitalization may be averted, to ensure a comprehensive network of mental health care services . Within this network some services may be provided by the hospital's mental health clinic, which functions on a regular, scheduled basis, either in a fixed location or on a traveling basis . The clinic assists in the rehabilitation of former hospital patients, advises those about to enter the hospital, offers treatment to those who do not need hospitalization, end diagnoses and/or treats children with behavioral or educational problems . The staff of the clinic includes as a minimuni a psychiatrist, a social worker, and a psychologist, and, if the hospital has adopted the unit system, the same team follows the patient from preadmission interview to discharge and follow-up care . The services of the clinic also include follow-up counseling, evaluation of adjustment after discharge, and medical supervision of drug dosage .
Services for the Mentally Retarded The past ten years or more have brought about a dramatic change of basic concepts regarding the care and treatment of persons with the mental retardation syndrome . Consequently, requirements of care and treatment have shifted to an extent that the newly developed or developing facilities can no longer be considered as one compatible group of "hospitals and schools for mental defectives" as was the case in earlier years . First of all, the care, treatment, education and training of mentally retarded persons in the low borderline and educable range have shifted significantly from residential facilities to day schools . Trained or qualified educators along with other specialists (medicine, audiology, speech, and physical therapy) provide meaningful and adequate services within the public school system or in schools operated by affiliates of the National Association for Retarded Children . Secondly, the care, treatment, and training for more severely retarded children (trainables) are being provided in many communities in a manner similar to that in which these services are rendered for the youngsters who are educable . As a third observation, it must be acknowledged that, for some years now, there has been an observable trend for those persons who suffer from the rather severe to severest degrees of retardation (decerebration syndrome) to outnumber either the educable or the trainable retardates in state institutions . Their demand upon the availability of total lifelong care has become a dominant factor . Thus, it is no longer possible to establish meaningful standards based upon traditional concepts . A new approach is indicated that takes into consideration factual changes and continued transition . The complexities of needed services can beat
Health MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS be dealt with by projecting various life-span requirements as known to us . However, we shall not attempt to make specific recommendations for those services that are nonmedical in nature . The Infant and Small Child Most mentally retarded children are retarded at birth (prenatal and paranatal retardation), although it may not be evident at the time . They require diagnostic, prognostic, and treatment services . The pre-school-age medical clinic may operate as an independent agency, a part of a general hospital, or a part of the state hospitaltraining school system . In any event, utilization of existing services and efforts at integration in regional areas will be made and standards must be established and maintained to meet existing needs . It is desirable that the director of the clinic be a well-qualified pediatrician . He will have medical consultants on his staff (neurologist, child psychiatrist, ophthalmologist, dentist, physistrist, nutritionists, public health nurses, and others as needed) . Essential are full-time or part-time qualified social workers, clinical or developmental psychologists, audiologists, speech, occupational, end physical therapists and medical secretaries . The number of staff employed must correspond to the needs of the patients referred to the clinic . The clinic must have adequate space to function . It must have available all diagnostic tools and procedures that are necessary to establish an inclusive and comprehensive diagnosis, such as roentgenology, clinical and anatomic pathology, biochemistry, genetics, and electroencephalography . All personnel must meet licensing and/or certification requirements of their respective professions . The clinic, if it is eligible, must meet the standards of the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals . The Younger School-Age Child Mentally retarded children, once properly diagnosed, will re-
quire a broad range of varying services : Children who are ambulatory and without significant adjustment problems are, generally, entered into nursery schools with subsequent promotion into subprimary and appropriate grades of the public school system . State licensing procedures establish necessary standards for personnel and facilities . Children who are not ambulatory or who have major adjustment problems that cannot be dealt with in the public school system or the private home may require in-residence facilities that provide special orthopedic or psychiatric services or services to the blind, deaf, or others . All children in this category will be given the required additional diagnostic, treatment, rehabilitative, and educational services that are needed to assist them to develop their optimal potential . Such programs must be multidisciplinary, under qualified medical direction . Thus, they must meet the requirements of the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals . As the process of treatment and rehabilitation progresses, a differentiation of each child's long-range needs will become evident . It may lead to discharge into the community and referral to a child guidance clinic and to the public special school system . It may require prolonged hospitalization because of specific medical requirements . Or, it may result in providing lifelong protective care in an accredited institution for the chronically ill (extended care unit), a licensed nursing home, or a licensed boarding home . In any event, local, state, end/ or federal licensing requirements must be met and the facility should be accredited by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals if it is eligible . The Progressing Preadolescents and Adolescents Most of the mentally retarded youngsters in the educational and training programs will reach the limit of their academic potential before the age of sixteen . Therefore, it is necessary that meaningful and adequate prevoca-
tional programs be available at the appropriate time . Whether such a program is part of a public school system or an integral part of a private or public residential care facility, it must meet the licensing and certification requirements of the state and/or federal government . Under the current legal definition, a mentally retarded youngster capable of rehabilitation, as interpreted by the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation, qualifies at age sixteen to participate in this program . Adequate day care programs and/or domiciliary facilities must meet the program needs of the clients . Also, they must meet licensing or certification requirements of each licensing body (department of health, department of labor, department of education, the fire marshal, department of insurance, etc .) . The Young Adult and the Adult By the time a retarded person is eighteen years of age, his future role in our society can be assessed fairly accurately, in most instances . The need may range from living more or less independently in the community or in a supervised groupliving program (hostel, sheltered workshop) to residence in a licensed boarding home, a licensed nursing home, or in an institution for chronically disabled or ill persons . Correspondingly, he may be economically independent, partially self-supporting, or receive public support through Medicare, Medicaid, Social Security, or aid to the permanently and totally disabled . In any event, adequate legal and social provisions must be made to protect the person with the mental retardation syndrome against physical, emotional, social, or economic exploitation and abuse . Also, regardless of where the retarded adult lives, he must have adequate access to all community resources that he may need at any given time in his life span . This will require programmed supervisory services that can be included in an adequate protective mechanism (Guardianship Act) .
Health MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS SPATIAL NEEDS OF PROGRAM ELEMENTS NOTE : Design of all spaces should be noninstitu-
tional . The following are suggestions for consideration in all program element needs indicated below: Openers in space-planning Live plants Design for groupings of 4 to 8 persons Comfortable light level (natural light, desk lamps, incandescents instead of neon, etc.) Freedom for hanging pictures Warm surface finishes in natural materials Views outside Contact with outdoors Visual access to mainstream of activity . The following does not assume that all services must be located under one roof (see Location of Services) .
Recreation-physical exercise Space in the form of an exercise room, gymnasium, or outdoor space (especially in warm climates) should be provided . Example: small exercise room for group settingup exercise program with agreement to use high school gym and playing fields located within easy walking distance . Staff needs Lounge area Storage for personal property Staff toilet Area for charting/private discussion with therapists Security for drugs Multiuse patient interview space, family discussion, etc. Minimal barriers to interaction with patients . Example: desks are preferable to glazed nursing stations .
1 . Inpatient Unit
This is a short-term residential facility for living under a supervised therapeutic program, requiring a domestic or college-dormitory rather than a hospital atmosphere . Architectural Section, NIMH, recommends this area be classified residential occupancy (NFPA No . 101) where permitted by local authorities. Patient Needs Privacy for sleeping, dressing, and bathing. Provision for personal grooming needs. As few regulations for use of facility as possible. Patients should be able to rearrange furniture, hang pictures on wall, etc. Patient belongings should not be out of reach-lockable storage space should be provided in each patient's bedroom unless specifically prohibited by program. Domestic Needs to So Provided Laundry and snack kitchen for use by each living group (1624 patients) . Socialization Areas A variety of settings is necessary: Space for small conversational groupings or quiet individual use (2-4 persons) . Example: small living space in a suite of two or four bedrooms . Activity spaces for games, dancing, music, group living (16-24 persons) . Two living areas are desirable to allow noisy and quiet activities to occur simultaneously. Quiet activity space could also be used for group therapy. Example: a large living room as the focus of living group activities with a smaller, comfortably furnished lounge adjacent . Visiting Area Space should be provided for private visiting with family and friends. Example: an out-of-the-way alcove for 6 persons, located near the entrance to the unit and the nurse's station, allowing visual and conversation level acoustical privacy . NOTE: each group of 16-24 patients requires the above spaces . Design should allow natural groupings of 4-8 persons. Physical Planning Guidelines for Community Mental Health Centers, Clyde H. Dorsett, AIA, Architectural Consultant, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Md ., 1978 .
Housekeeping Needs Domestic housekeeping : Linens-in patients' bedrooms or locate for central distribution Each bedroom unit to have own linen supply Bathroom and personal items Central janitor's closet Dietary services : Snacks, patients' activities in kitchen Feeding-hospital cafeteria and kitchen service on units; storage far dishes, linens, etc. Icemakers Complete domestic kitchen-exhaust system must be adequate Intensive can Acoustical privacy Social space for contact with staff and freedom to leave confined room Close supervision by staff Controlled access to toilet, wardrobe, light switches outside patient's room Security Tamperproof equipment and fixtures within patient's room and toilet (but not obviously tamperproof to patient) Tempered plate glass or removable-type detention screens Treatment room-first aid, emergency physical examination items for special programs such as drugs, alcohol, etc. Laboratory with storage Direct access from nurse's station and from emergency rooms in general hospitals Audio communications between nurse's station and patient's room Patient rooms may be used for medical care when needed . Necessary equipment not removable from the room must be lockable and concealable . We recommend occupancy for this area be institutional .
2. Emergencies Emergency can occur in any element of service of any time . Most common : l . walk-in 2. escorted emergency Walk-in: arriving at any element of service for the first time to get help . This person may come in alone or with others . He [or she] is ambulant and functioning . Escorted emergency: ambulant but not functioning.
Physical Space for Walk-in: Inviting entrance Must have immediate relationship to outside while patient is in waiting-reception area Privacy with receptionist in stating his [her] needs NOTE : all spaces for walk-in interview and initial treatment, admitting of walk-in emergency can be those used by outpatients .
Escorted emergency Will utilize all staff and space in emergency suite of general hospital . Additional spaces may be needed in general hospital emergency. Space: Interview space that promotes communication between patient and physician . Holding space-waiting bed space-for patient to wait while disposition for treatment is considered (i .e ., sedated patient) . Entrance available directly to intensive care area for escorted emergencies. NOTE : design and location should motivate interaction and communication between all agencies and elements of service utilizing the facility.
3. Outpatient Admitting Offices ceptionist
Should be convenient to re-
Ancillary Services Waiting areas Secretarial space Public and staff toilets, lounge (coffee, sink, refrigerator), and library-workroom
Waiting Areas Limited to 8-12 patients Distributed throughout office areas Receptionist by front door-open, friendly, en courage contact between receptionist and patient
Office space
Conference and interview
Meetings (with consultation and educational service)
Play therapy Individual Family
Group therapy" Staff conferences Interagency professional groups
Larger groups Community groups General meetings
" Group therapy rooms to be utilized through total programs
Health MENTAL HEALTH CENTERS Children's Treatment Adjacent to entrance and child therapist's office Provide for observation Provide for work sink (as part of "messy area"), and locked storage Provide for separate toilet available to children; separate waiting area, with possibility of observation by parent; outdoor play space; scaled for children; cleanable surfaces Office Space Should motivate communication between patient and therapist, should contain doctor (staff) and at least four or more patients and be flexible in arrangement of furniture. Conference Spaces Sufficient to accommodate 16 people Suitable for audiovisual presentations, staff meetings, staff work area Accessible to main entrance and/or office spaces and rest rooms Suitable for group therapy Provides storage closet Staff Lounge Should be comfortable for 8 people adjacent to staff toilets, storage, and small kitchenette (coffee-making, lunch, refrigerator); also adjacent to staff library and workroom . Need for large meeting room depends on availability of space in the community. Such a room needs audiovisual facilities, storage space, and sufficient toilet areas; it should be located between central facilities and community. 4. Partial Hospitalization Day Care This requires a primary social area (living-room-type space) 1 . Staff needs Office space for day program director Work area for staff Medications Nurses' lockers and toilet (All located in position for information and control for particular hospital program) 2. Patient's needs Storage for wraps and for personal articles Telephone, drinking fountain Toilets Kitchen suitable for social groups and theropy Occupational Therapy This consists of quiet and noisy activities and depends on the program. The most flexible design requires at least two rooms of classroom size with two kinds of storage: for patients' projects and materials and for equipment. The office for the program director is mostly program space for patient occupational therapy activities with the occupational therapist as part of the therapy team . It may be without staff offices and consist of large rooms divided by movable storage cabinets. Recreational Therapy Social recreational therapy has the following requirements: Large social space Outdoor terrace for gardening, outdoor games, and an inactive outdoor area for quiet T.V .-music Quiet indoor space Movies Kitchen, canteen-type Library (quiet) Quiet social area Not minimal but desirable are a swimming
pool with its own dressing rooms and toilets; and table games. Structured recreational therapy programs require a small gym, for 8-12 patients at one time, with its own showers, dressing rooms, and lockers. One should inventory the community facilities that can be used : YMCA, schools, shopping centers, public parks, public pools, and other mentalhealth related programs in the community. An active outdoor area must be available with a playing field, large space for active games, etc. The R.T . office can be same as for O.T . Weekend and night-evening program con be held within the same space as the inpatient program. S. Children's Day Care
General needs include a staff office, a central reception room-gathering place, and classrooms. The program could utilize the adult gym. Toilets and a small snack kitchen should be available. (They could be used for other parts of the center's program.) Classrooms need an area for messy (wet area) work (sink, etc.), an outdoor area, a teacher's work area with a desk (no desk in classroom), and also, for problem kids, quiet study; this class is separated from main classroom area by a curtain . Children's outdoor play space must be separated from adult outdoor areas. 6. Administration
Reception-waiting area Director's office-meeting room nearby Offices for program directors Volunteers and part-time office and loungewith lockers and toilets Conference room Library-workroom-staff lounge Business-secretarial pool Central records for all service elements
7. Consultation and Education
Meeting rooms and office spaces are located adjacent to or within central office groupings . Center con multiuse spaces for other elements of program for this purpose. (Basis of operations for CBS is out in the community and will use facility only to conduct business and for meetings .)
CIRCULATION 1 . Use for Socialization
Circulation space can be used for more than transportation from one area to another. Informal contacts, pausing along the way to look at views, stopping for a cup of coffee at a coffee bar are activities that also encourage social contact. Entry-Waiting Area Entrance through the front door to all program elements located in the facility should be possible . Arriving persons should be greeted by a staff person out in the open . Example: volunteer behind a desk located in sight of front door . Waiting areas should be smallgroups of 4 to 6-in sight of receptionist . Waiting area allows view of mainstream of activity, but is located in well-defined area out of main traffic pattern. Drinking fountain, toilets, and pay telephone are adjacent to entry-waiting area . A coffee pot is preferable to vending machines .
Contact with Staff Staff persons (volunteers, secretaries) should be located to be visible to persons moving in circulation pattern of building . Example: secretary for outpatient offices located in alcove with chairs for waiting adjacent to circulation space. Provide informal social areas as part of circulation space leading to meeting rooms, partial hospitalization, etc. places where numbers of people congregate, and also at "nodes" in circulation system-places where people are likely to pause. Example: gathering space with area for coats, bathrooms outside community meeting room . Waiting for outpatient appointments should be adjacent to outpatient staff offices. Director of Center should be located adjacent to other staff offices to encourage interstaff contact . 2. Orientation
Use of views outdoors and natural light-clear inside/outside circulation . Clear relation of program spaces to front door : go here for outpatient, go there for day program, go around corner for inpatient. Privacy or separation provided by single turn in corridor or by screens-minimum of closed doors. Staff person to greet arrival to program areasecretary for outpatient area, nurse or volunteer located by entrance to inpatient unit, etc. Use staff and design of circulation space rather than barriers (locked doors) for control .
3 . Time use
Locate community meeting areas near front door for night-time use-lock off rest of facility . Partial hospitalization/inpatient section could have its own entrance for day/night use. 4 . Variety
Circulation spaces should contrast light, dark, outside, inside, narrow, wide, free, controlled, stimulating (warm colors), subdued (cool colors) to provide clues to kind of activities associated with nearby program spaces and to maintain orientation . Example: corridor outside day program area widens to allow informal socialization and use of lockers located against one wall and is lit by skylight . 5. Zoning
Program elements should be related to : Public accessibility Acoustical separation Heavy circulation/noisy activities Quiet/private activities Scheduled use/nonscheduled use Frequency of use Day/night use Unique or common use Sole staff use Sole patient use Joint use by staff and patients Relation to other program spaces Relation to front door Need for outdoor space and natural light Need for privacy/controlled access
NOTE : The prevalent dichotomy between circula-
tion/service spaces and program spaces should be minimized where possible .
Health NURSING HOMES
Rv WII I IAM RRFd:FR
AIA
Current thinking in health planning emphasizes the concept of providing a spectrum of care which serves the health needs of the entire community . This spectrum includes general medical and surgical facilities, mental, rehabilitation, and tuberculosis hospitals, and longterm care facilities, hereafter referred to as LTC, which provide care beyond acute, shortterm medical and nursing care and may be in either chronic hospitals or nursing homes . While the functions of a chronic hospital are relatively clear, what is understood by a nursing home can be somewhat ambiguous . For our purposes, an LTC may be defined as a facility which is operated either independently or in connection with a hospital and provides nursing care and medical services under the general direction of persons licensed to practice medicine or surgery . Furthermore, unlike the chronic hospital, the LTC generally does not have resident physicians and limits its medical services to minor treatment, diagnostic x-ray, and minor laboratory analysis . Although good medical practice should be available wherever and whenever a patient needs it, the fact is that major medical and surgical treatments are almost always performed in other facilities . Eight categories of LTC facilities are readily identifiable : general hospitals with long-termcare beds, voluntary chronic hospitals, local government chronic hospitals, public home infirmaries, convalescent homes, voluntary nursing homes, proprietary nursing homes, and infirmaries or homes for the aged . Other nomenclature for the categories listed above are extended care facilities, intermediate care facilities, shelter homes for the aged, geriatric homes for the aged, and long-term-care facilities, homes for adults, foster homes, boarding homes, etc . Each type has its own criteria for admission based for the most part on the type of care required ; but reimbursement, whether through private payment, private medical insurance, Medicare or Medicaid, ate ., may as well be a determining factor in patient placement . Whatever problems are involved, the fact is that patients often require a wide range of services beyond initial acute medical care, and these services may cross several "institutional lines," from intensive nursing and rehabilitative care through lesser degrees of nursing care to perhaps simply convalescent attention .
SOCIAL PLANNING CRITERIA The basic criterion used in determining the needs for all health care facilities is the ratio of beds to the population served . Generally, we find that there are approximately 13 .2 beds
Hospital statistics from Health and Hospital Planning Council of Southern New York, 1970 and Long-Term Care, (LTC) Projection, 1973 Illustrations from Michael B . Miller and William N . Breqer, "How to Plan for Extended Care Service ' Modern Hospital, October 1966
per thousand population . A characteristic distribution of these beds is shown in Fig . 1 . Thus, the characteristic distribution of LTC in all categories is 4 .8 beds per thousand, and, equally important, is the understanding that the most significant single characteristic of this patient population is that they are elderly . Their age characteristics are indicated in Fig . 2.
Fig. 2
Age characteristics of patient population .
require specific management techniques . Fifteen to twenty percent of the patient population will present significant visual deficits, and there will be approximately the same number with auditory deficits . Other organ system involvement in the same patient is the rule rather than exception, such as gastrointestinal, pulmonary, neurological, and metabolic disorders . Multiorgan pathology in the chronically aged is a distinguishing characteristic of disability in contrast to other age groups . The utilization rate differs as well . Extended care facilities, both independent and attached to general hospitals, have an average turnover of 7 to 8 patients per year per bed, or approximately 40 to 50 day stays, and there are less rapid turnovers for other LTC facilities (proprietary nursing homes, 1 .17 ; voluntary nursing homes, 1 .69 ; voluntary chronic hospitals, 1 .30 ; public home infirmaries, 0 .91 ; average of all LTC facilities, 1 .43 per year) . One can conclude as well both from the demographic changes in a society that is proportionately growing elderly and the societal changes of placing the elderly members of society in medically oriented facilities that the LTC facility would have a greater percentage of beds allotted to it proportionately in the future and that this area of health concern would experience real as well as proportional growth . Another aspect of social planning is the translation of social data into the architectural program . We have found that the ideal method of determining the physical facilities of the building is in terms of the proposed patient population rated by their capacities to perform activities, including daily living, both in terms of their physical capabilities and their behavioral capacities . Tables 1 to 4 describe the clinical nature of the patient population under study and give some index of the percentage of patient population in each group . At the conclusion, we will indicate the physical configuration of the nursing units that each group generates .
Group I-Physically Disabled (15-25 percent) 2 As Dr . Michael Miller says,' studies of this aging population in terms of their characteristics from a medical viewpoint have indicated that terminal cancer is seen in only 3 to 5 percent of the patient population . Varying degrees of organic brain syndrome, as manifested by memory, intellectual, and judgmental deficits associated with confusion and disorientation, with or without locomotion disability, constitute at least 70 to 75 percent of the patient population . Recent studies indicate that 20 to 30 percent of a nursing home population may be expected to have experienced a significant psychiatric decompensation in the pre-aged period. Of the whole, 40 to 50 percent will demonstrate significant cardio-renal-vascular disease in varying degrees of decompensation . Arthropathies are virtually a universal occurrence, although only 20 to 30 percent may "'Synthesis of a Therapeutic Community for the Aged Ill," published in Geriatrics, vol . 21, pp . 151-163, August 1966
Patients having significant physical disabilities but with emotional and intellectual intactness and the ability to socialize in an open, unsupervised environment . (See Fig . 3 .)
Group II-Mentally and Physically Disabled (25-30 percent) Patients with severe physical disabilities with superimposed substantial handicaps of organic brain disease, thus requiring total nursing care for physical disabilities and major supervision for social activities . (See Fig . 4 .)
Group III-Custodial (15-25 percent) Patients presenting moderate or no physical handicaps with either no or minimal emotional or social disabilities, thus able to function in an uncontrolled social milieu . However they I Based on 1,050 patient survey by W, Breger at Columbia School of Public Health and Hospital Administration, 1970 .
Health NURSING HOMES function best in a professionally supervised environment. (See Fig. 5.) Group IV-Mentally Disabled (30-50 percent) Patients having minimal to mild physical disabilities with major emotional and social disabilities, who therefore require minimal nursing care on a purely physical level but because of the advanced degree of organic brain dis-
ease (senility) these patients are essentially totally and permanently disabled . (See Fig. 6.) DESIGN CRITERIA The design problems unique in this facility mainly involve the nursing units and supportive facilities that are required in terms of the projected patient population . The problems in-
herent in dietary, mechanical maintenance, and general and building storage facilities are fairly uniform regardless of the type of projected patient population and have a basic similarity to medical facilities of the same size, such as general hospitals, tuberculosis hospitals, etc . It should be noted that supply storage facilities, linens, equipment, etc., would depend to some extent on the projected patient population . TABLE t
Group I Facilities* Area
Fig. 3 Group 1, physically disabled. Symbols represent the following facilities : CR, community room ; NS, nursing station;T, toilet ; S, services (i .e ., utility rooms, treatment, bathing, pantry, nonpotient storage) ; P. eanerv . E. outdoor environment. (This list aealies to Fiat . 3-6.1
Design requirements
Community room . . . . Unsupervised Physical therapy . . . . . . . Combined with community living Exterior environment. . . . . Unsupervised Bedrooms . . . . . . . . . . . Sufficient area for wheelchairs, walkers, crutches ; half of rooms with bedside flush toilets Toilets . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-22 in . from floor Bathing . . . . . . . . . . . . Near nurses' station, must be supervised Utility room . . . . . . . . . . Near nurses' station Pantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supervised, near nurses' station Storage area, personal . . . Limited vertical storage; increase in horizontal storage Nonpersonal storage . . . . . Limited vertical storage; increase in horizontal storage Treatment room . . . . . . . Near nurses' station Family counseling . . . . . . Near nurses' station Nurses' station . . . . . . . . Located for convenience of nurses Group I patients suffer severe physical handicaps but are emotionally and physically intact. TABLE 2
Group II Facilities* Area
Design requirements
Community room . . . . . . . Supervised Physical therapy . . . . . . . Combined with community living Exterior environment . . . . . Supervised Bedrooms . . . . . . . . . . . Sufficient area for wheelchairs, walkers, crutches ; halt of rooms with bedside flush toilets Toilets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-22 in . from floor Bathing . . . . . . . . . . . . Near nurses' station, must be supervised Utility room . . . . . . . . . . Near nurses' station Pantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supervised, near nurses' station Storage area, personal . . . Limited vertical storage; increase in horizontal storage Nonpersonal storage. . . . . Limited vertical storage; increase in horizontal storage Treatment room . . . . . . . Near nurses' station Family counseling . . . . . . Near nurses' station Nurses' station . . . . . . . . Located for convenience of nurses
Fig. 4 Group II, mentally and physically disabled .
Group II patients suffer severe physical and behavioral disability . Therefore they require total nursing care as well as major supervision of social activities .
Health NURSING HOMES TABLF 3
Groun III Facilities' Area
Community room . . . Physical therapy . . . Exterior environment . Bedrooms . . . . . . . Toilets . . . . . . . . . Bathing . . . . . . . .
Design requirements . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Utility room . . . Pantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage area, personal . . .
Nonpersonal storage . . . . .
Treatment room . . . . . . . Family counseling . . . . . . Nurses' station . . . . . . . .
Unsupervised Not indicated Unsupervised Conventional Conventional May be located conveniently ; nonsupervision permissible Not indicated Unsupervised, near community room Increase in vertical storage ; conventional horizontal storage space Increase in vertical storage ; conventional horizontal storage space Not indicated Near nurses' station Located for convenience of nurses
'Group III patients require little supervision because they present no, or very moderate, physical and emotional and social disability .
TABLE 4
Group IV Facilities" Are a
Community room . . . Physical therapy . . Exterior environment . Bedrooms . . . . . . . Toilets . . . . . . . . . Bathing . . . . . . . .
Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Utility room . . . . . . . . . . Pantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage area, personal . . .
Nonpersonal storage . . . . .
Treatment room . . . . . . . Family counseling . . . . . . Nurses' station . . . . . . . .
Fig. 6
On the purely physical level, patients in Group IV need little nursing care but require maximum supervision because of emotional disability .
Group IV, mentally disabled .
Because, generally speaking, nursing home administrators cannot determine patient population beforehand-or they choose because of administrative and economic patterns to have a wide mix of patients, the common interpretation of the structure is to have the nursing and activity functions not flexible . This type of building is in a great degree determined by the relevant codes and the most economical means of construction . It has been our experience, however, that the criterion of initial low construction cost results in high administrative, maintenance, and operational costs, and as building costs are a very small percentage of whet the patient pays, a debt service of $2 .50 to $5 .00 a day, it appears a false economy . Another factor that should be explored is that
Supervised Not indicated Supervised Conventional Conventional Supervised, but located conveniently for patient Not indicated Supervised, near nurses' station Increase in vertical storage ; incease in horizontal storage space Increase in vertical storage ; increase in horizontal storage space Not indicated Near nurses' station Located to permit control of patient areas
operational care could be improved even in the uniform nursing unit if the design were determined to a greater extent by an awareness of the proposed patient population. Regardless of what overview decisions are made, the design of the typical LTC is basically concerned with (1) the relationship of area size to the daily census in the facility, (2) the analysis of these areas in terms of the different functions, and (3) the criteria used in discerning the nursing unit layout and supportive facilities . 1 . In most instances the program delineates the size of the LTC facilities . It is determined by such factors as available money for construction ; the need within a community as determined by demographic factors or methods
of health care, code requirements, site limitations ; and, finally, the kind of operation as foreseen by the administrator or nursing home operator . The nursing unit is a prime factor in operational cost, and thus the size of the facility is usually a multiple of the number of nursing units . Because of the cost of operation of feeding, therapy, and administration, the larger the facility, usually the more economically efficient it will be, although too large a unit might not allow for adequate patient service functions . The average size in 1970 was 80 beds, and the present recommended criterion is that it should not be less than 120 beds . In highoperational-cost areas, economically viable nursing homes require a minimum of 200 beds . Once the number of beds has been determined,
Health NURSING HOMES the areas of the building can be calculated, bearing in mind such factors as the care given, the stipulation of single-bedded or multibedded rooms, and the community facilities provided . Again, in the typical facility at present, where community functions are nonexistent or minimal and where the number of single-and multi-bedded rooms are determined by code or FHA regulations, etc ., the size varies between a total building area of 250 and 400 sq ft per bed . 2 . Although, as previously noted, it is desirable that the inter- end intreconfiguration be determined by the medical and social patterns of patient care, there are common facilities that are required for operation by codes and public agencies. Thus, in an overall sense, the design of all independent long-term care buildings will contain the following component parts : 1 . Administrative facilities 2. Staff facilities 3. Public facilities 4. Medical, treatment, and morgue facilities 5 . Dietary service 6. Storage areas 7 . Work area and maintenance areas 8. Mechanical facilities such as boiler, air conditioner, pump 9. Patient, staff and visitor circulation patterns . 10. Nursing units including ancillary facilities-i .e ., nurses' station, nursing unit dayroom 11 . Supportive and rehabilitative facilities for patients, such as recreation, dining, therapy areas The component parts listed above, except for items 10 and 11 -the nursing unit and supportive facilities-are similar to those of general hospitals, and thus criteria developed for general medical facilities, as indicated in the section on "Hospitals," may be applied to the LTC facilities . Some indication of the ways in which the areas of the LTC differ from those of the general hospital are listed below . 1 . Administrative Facilities Although there has been a great increase in staffing patterns in recent years nursing home administration facilities still require significantly less area and have fewer employees than do general medical facilities . The reasons for this are that nursing homes provide fewer medical, surgical, and laboratory services ; administrative problems are reduced by the lower turnover of patients (less record keeping and billing) ; and, usually, there are fewer visitors per patient per day, although there may be more family counseling . The administrative employees in a nursing home would number between 5 and 10 per 200 patients, and the area required would be about 150 sq ft per employee . However, with the administrative and bookkeeping problems involved in government aid programs and other funding, there has been a remarkable increase in the required area for administrative purposes in recent years, and it is expected that this trend will continue . Generally speaking, there are the following areas : a business office ; a lobby and information center ; an administrator's office ; an admitting and medical records area ; an administrative staff toilet room, supervising nurses' areas ; social service office ; and staff conference room . 2 . Staff Facilities As stated above, the reduced medical services provided, as well as the usual absence of staff physicians, results in a concomitant reduction of staff in an LTC facility as compared with s general hospital . Often the staffing is determined by patient population and is indicated in administrative codes, such as at least two registered nurses per facility,
one licensed practical nurse per 20 patients, and one aide per patients .' These are usually female, whereas other employees, such as porters and kitchen workers, are mixed . Generally speaking, LTC facilities have ''A to 1 employee per patient, and 80 percent of them are female . The facilities needed are locker rooms, toilet and shower facilities, and dining room . There is some question as to the location of these facilities-whether they should be grouped in a separate area or distributed on each nursing floor with a smaller central grouping . There should be a central lounge, and it should be accessible to the employees' dining room . 3 . Public Facilities The type and size of the public facilities depend to some extent on the type of sponsorship of the LTC facility ; but one factor is constant : the number of visitors in the LTC facility is much smaller per patient than in an acute general hospital . This is often reflected in parking criteria and internal visiting areas . Where the general hospital may require one visitor parking space per bed, the LTC facility requires one visitor parking space for between 3 and 20 beds . Architectural features that are desirable are a visitors' lavatory on each nursing floor and, when the building is large enough, a small lobby with perhaps a snack and gift shop. When an LTC facility is community sponsored, a variety of public functions may be provided for it, but these would be similar to what is provided in a community supported general hospital . 4 . Medical, Treatment, and Morgue Facilities As we have mentioned, both legislative requirements and medical practice require that major treatment of the acutely ill patient in the LTC be available within general medical and surgical hospitals . This gives the community an economical use of both staffing and facilities . Sometimes chronic hospitals in nonurban areas provide as part of their facilities intensive medical and surgical units ; but with the notion of regional health care, this is not considered by most health planning agencies to be desirable today . The facilities in the LTC which are provided, where the law permits, are a diagnostic x-ray unit, a laboratory for hematology, biochemistry, etc ., and, usually as part of the nursing unit, treatment rooms . It is desirable that spaces for dentistry, podiatry, and, on occasion, optometry, be provided if the patient population can support them . However, all these operations can usually be carried out in comparatively small areas. The requirements for a morgue facility have varied with different localities and different regulations . It is ultimately a problem of operation whether they should be provided or not, but if required because of geographic or administrative reasons, the morgue is at best a small area used for storage of bodies for a few hours or a day or two at most . The autopsy procedure is a hospital function . 5 . Dietary Facilities In the LTC as in the general hospital, the dietary requirements and the space and equipment required to support them are extensive and the basis for involved research and analysis . Feeding is required for nourishment and as a patient activity, and, quite understandably, the social functions of dining are important 'Another way of interpreting staff requirements is by using the New York State Code which requires of staffing time one hour of nursing care for ambulatory patients, two hours of nursing care for the semiambulatory, and four hours per day for the bedridden or wheelchair-confined patient .
therapeutically . Feeding is accomplished in five different methods in medical facilities : (1) Intravenous infusions, noso-gsstric tube feeding, gastrostomy feeding ; (2) with trays in bed ; (3) at tables in patient rooms ; (4) with trays in a controlled recreation room on the patient floor ; and (5) family style in a controlled dayroom, in the nursing unit, or on a separate floor . It is understandable that methods 4 and 5 will be favored and used more frequently in the LTC . Here the social dynamics of group situations can be developed, and it is also a more efficient way of providing patient dining . Many have held that feeding intravenously or with trays in bed are undesirable in terms of an LTC facility, but they are occasionally used, depending on patient conditions . Feeding at tables in patient rooms is used more often because it is possible to control behavioral problems in this dining context . The size of the facility, however, is smaller, as the number of employees is much lower than in a general hospital . 6 . Storage Facilities In the recent past considerable thought has been given to ways of resolving the storage problems of LTC facilities . Formerly large patient storage areas, as much as 25 eq ft per patient, were required, and there were minimal requirements for household supplies, linen, and furniture . However, the idea of the patient bringing possessions to the LTC to be stored is considered anachronistic, and the criterion used in designing storage areas today is about 5 sq ft per patient for personal storage and 5 sq ft for general hospital supplies and goods . The latter is less than what is allotted in a general hospital, because, as previously mentioned, the type of care required in a nursing home does not demand as many linens, pharmaceuticals, and supplies . However, the elements of hospital storage should be provided, and the importance of ensuring the flexibility of the compartments for this cannot be overemphasized . 7 . Work Area and Maintenance Areas In general these are quite similar to those of the community hospitals, except that there is a minimum of medical equipment to maintain and that, although the number of patients may be similar to the general hospital, the total amount of equipment in the LTC requiring maintenance or repair is considerably less . We have found a single large room to be more than adequate in these areas for most LTC facilities. 6 . Structural and Mechanical Factors During the last few years, the LTC facility has been designed to meet the structural and mechanical standards of the general hospital . As in most other medical facilities, problems, particularly of fire safety, have required fireproof buildings, often with sprinkler protection, smoke detectors, zoned floor areas, and rigid standards of fire resistance in terms of flooring, surfaces, and materials used . It is, of course, a fact that fire safety in a building housing many patients with behavioral problems (often involving carelessness and disorientation) is one of the major, if not the major factor in construction . While this appears evident, there are also other aspects of mechanical equipment criteria that are somewhat different than those for the short-term general hospital : a . Lighting It has been our experience that the level of illumination required for the LTC, bearing in mind the elderly patient population and their reduced sensory awareness and perception, is somewhat higher than that required in the patient
Health NURSING HOMES areas of the general hospital . Furthermore, the problems o1 safety require that all electric lamps and fixtures be firmly connected to a surface to avoid tipping . b. Heating and Cooling An imperative decision that has concerned the LTC administrator has been the method of heating and/or cooling . It is generally found that the elderly are far more likely to complain of being too cold than of being too warm . Therefore, in terms of the patient population, the provision of adequate heat without provisions for cooling has been considered satisfactory . Another factor is that the confused patient cannot be expected to reliably perceive or control his environment . Presently, the thinking is that the use of air-conditioning facilities is desirable, ideally with individual controls . However, even here there are problems for the patients in multi-bedded rooms . c . Ventilation A characteristic o1 many LTC facilities, because of the behaviorally difficult patient, is the problem of ventilation and the control of odors . It is a much more serious problem, at least for the staff and public, in this facility than in the general hospital and must be resolved by proper ventilation methods, the use of surface materials that do not retain odors, and the use of plumbing and furniture that allow for easy mopping and cleaning . The professional literature on this subject is extensive, and this aspect of mechanical equipment should be thoroughly researched before the LTC facility is designed . 9 . Circulation Patterns The movement of people, goods and equipment in the LTC is for the most part similar in nature, if not in intensity, to that in general hospitals . The one special problem is the need of adequate control for the circulation of the behaviorally difficult patient, for often the need to control the movement of this type of patient comes into conflict with the need to provide free movement in terms of fire department regulations . The use of mechanical devices such as buzzers attached to fire doors, the shortening of corridors, the visual control of elevator doors, and controlled exits from the building are some of the factors that can help control the traffic problems involved with this patient population . 10 . Nursing Units and Supportive Facilities An almost seminal practice in the design of LTC facilities is the placement of patients in nolonomous nursing units, as it is believed that the control and management of patients can best be achieved in this manner . This nursing unit can be defined is a self-contained grouping of rooms, supportive facilities with unified control, all on one level . A basic decision is the size of the nursing unit, and while ideally the size of the unit will have a direct relationship to the degree and type of patient care provided in the unit, nursing home codes and governmental regulations generally set the number of patients cared for in a nursing unit between 30 and 60 . In principle, the range could be even greater, as the spectrum of patients in LTC facilities is so varied . Thus as Table 3 shows, patients in Group III (custodial patients) could be in units of up to 100 beds, while patients in Group II (mentally and physically disabled patients) might be in units of 20 beds . Concomitant with the decision as to the num-
bar of beds per nursing unit is the determination of the number of beds per room . Here the guidelines are medical operational criteria, hospital and administrative codes, and financial mechanisms. But also a very important consideration is the aesthetic and social values that the patient may have, and, even more important, those of the people placing him in the home . Thus, often patients with minimal cognitive awareness, requiring as much group support as possible, may be erroneously housed in single rooms because of social pressures. Most thinking today is that the two-bedded room with adjoining or private bath should be the basic room pattern regardless of nursing unit size or type of care required, and that there should be a certain number of single rooms as well within the unit for medical and behavioral problems . Codes require at least one single room per patient unit as an isolation suite with its own toilet, but often the requirements are that single rooms be available for 10-33 percent of the patients . However, the problem of the single or the multi-bedded room, as well as the other functions of the nursing unit, should (once the minimum code requirements are resolved) be determined by the criterion of what patient population would be served in the program given to the architect, and, as pointed out above, the criteria can range from minimum requirements to aesthetic and social values . Supporting the idea of the autonomy of the nursing unit are the types of ancillary facilities that are part of it . The functions that must be provided are the control of the unit from the nurses' station, the preparation of medicines, the cleaning and providing of the entire range of supplies necessary for the patients, the supplying of supplementary food, and whatever bathing, recreation, dining, and training facilities are required . The question o1 whether patient treatment (e.g ., surgical dressings, etc .) should be done in the room or in a separate treatment room depends on the choices that the nurses make . All of these functions are usually translated into representative areas as determined by the relevant codes . Listed in Tables 1 through 4 is an analysis of the types of areas, the required equipment, the minimum size, the function, and the relationships that seem to be generic in terms of regulations . The fact, of course, is that, depending on the projected patient population, the types and sizes of these facilities would vary . Thus, in Group 111, medical preparation end treatment might be eliminated and the pantry might be made much larger than for other patient populations. However, most codes do allow, if not flexibility in the type of function required, a fairly wide range in terms of the size required . The essential thrust in the design of the LTC is ultimately in the configuration o1 the nursing unit, and, as mentioned, the genesis of the choices available for this is in the operational program initially presented to the architect, or, even more salutary, when developed with the architect . In the overwhelming percentage of buildings, as has been stated, most of the plans are made for a variable patient population, ideally with a central nursing station adjacent to ancillary nursing functions that the nurse directly uses, with visual control of the patient corridors, recreation area, and means of entrance and egress . The size of the units, both for economy of structure and operation, is as large as the relevant code would allow . However, as has been pointed out, there is really little difference between this nursing unit
and a general hospital nursing unit, despite the fact that one is meant for an average 5-day stay and the other for an average 400-day stay . On a theoretical basis, Figs . 3 to 6 illustrate the correlation of possible unit configurations based on the patient population . While these designs would obviously be modified by code, medical practice, economy, and a difficult problem of determining the projected patient population, we believe they are valuable as abstractions indicating the correlation of care and planning . 11 . Rehabilitative Facilities Rehabilitation and physical medicine is the primary medical discipline involved in LTC facilities . Present thinking is that, in terms of the aged patient population, rehabilitation should properly be both a physical and behavioral therapeutic process . For the most part, this therapy is not centered on making the patient operational in society but rather on providing adjustments for the patients to live with their disabilities . Just as difficult an aspect of this adjustment as the physically based problems are those problems generated by behavioral disabilities . While, broadly speaking, spaces for therapy have meant facilities for physiotherapy, hydrotherapy, and heat therapy, the fact is that facilities for social therapy or facilities for developing social groupings should be part of the overall planning . The areas for physically based rehabilitation are required by code, but the type of medical care given in these spaces is usually determined by the medical staff and administration . Often, physiotherapy, both in exercise and manipulation, has been considered sufficient for the patient population, and the location of this space has been both in separate rooms and as part of the dayroom, as this would induce a greater incentive for the individual patient to perform in terms of a peer group . Whether this area is separate or part of other areas, the fact remains that the use of such apparatus as parallel bars, exercise wheels, etc ., under proper supervision, is a vital part of the patients' care . The need for hydro and heat therapies in the LTC facility has often been questioned . Ultimately, the decision to use these latter therapies is either an administrative or governing regulation . Recreational spaces are needed for the behaviorally based therapies or what is sometimes called occupational therapy, which can be considered both physical and behavioral therapy . Whereas a central area is desired, often the actual therapy takes place within the nursing unit dayroom . Often considered the best behaviorally based therapy is participation in a social community, whereby, as it has been demonstrated, many of the anxieties and much of the loneliness that is a concomitant of the aging process can be reduced . These group situations may take the forms of religious services, lectures, group games, group teas ; even a bar has been used . However, the most important aspect that generates one of the most difficult planning decisions is the development of a community within the LTC, whereby patients will be providing support for others . In terms of architectural configurations, spaces for this activity have been arranged so that sleeping rooms open directly onto living rooms, or they have been provided by eliminating halls and having spaces open into large community areas . It is through the exploration of this problem that architectural planning may be considered an aid of therapy as well . The size of these
Health NURSING HOMES TABLE 5
Typical Regulatory Requirements for LTC Facilities Nursing unit
Type and size of room Single (125 sq ft) Multi-bedded 1100 sq it per bed), cubicle curtains required
Activity Depends on patient population . Will serve for both sleeping and general activity, and may also include dining, recreation, and therapy
Equipment and sizes Beds )usually gatch type) with side rails, 36 by 86 in . ; overbed tables fusually not required) ; bedside cabinet, 18 by 20 in . ; chairs, straight beck and arms let least one chair per bed)
Relationship Not more than 120 ft from nurses' station
Comments See plans; desirable distribution should be based an administrelive practices
Storage Space: Vertical storage - robes, outdoor clothing in closets or wardrobes, 1 ft 8 in . wide by 1 ft 10 in . deep, should contain shoe rack and shelf Horizontal storage-cabinets or built-in drawers, 1 ft 6 in . deep (Note: Ideally, vertical storage areas should be increased for ambulatory patients and horizontal storage increased for nonambulatory patients .) Optional Equipment: Small table, ideally round with a heavy pedestal base ; platform rocking chairs, where patient conditions permit ; lavatory ; cabinet for storing patient toiletries (Note : Where private toilet is used, lavatory may be placed in toilet .) Required : Grab bars, toiletry cabinet and/or space for toiletries, mirror (Note : lavatory should be accessible to wheelchair patients . )
Toilet (3 by 6 ft) Toilet and lavatory (3 by B ft and/or 6 by 5 it I
Optional : Divert-a-valve, bed p an washer Nurses' station (minimum 6 tin ft of counter with access space an both sides l Nurses' toilet room (5 ft by 4 ft 6 in .)
Control of nursing unit charting communications, storage of supplies and nurses' personal effects
Patient charts 19 by 12 in .-May be movable or set into the desk), chart rack for 40 charts 14 ft wide by 16 in . deep), writing desk, legal files, cabinet storage area, outlets for nurses' call system, telephones Toilet, lavatory, toiletry cabinet, mirror
Convenient to nurses' station No more then 120 ft from patients' rooms
Clean workroom (minimum 8 by 6 ftl
Storage and assembly of clean supplies such as instruments, etc.
12-ft-minimum work counter with back splash, sterilizer, 2 sinks, drawer and instrument cabinet storage
Medicine room, 1 ft 6 in . by 5 ft cabinet (mediprep unit l
Storage and preparation of medicine
Sink, refrigerator, locked storage (Note: Facilities for preparation of medication can in mediprep unit .)
Adjacent to nurses' station
Cleaning of supplies and equipment
Clinical sink-bedpan flusher, work counter, waste and soiled linen receptacles
No more than 120 ft from patients' rooms
Soiled workroom Iminimum 8 by 6 ft) Enclosed storage space ( 4 by 4 ft)
Clean linen storage
Nourishment station 5 tin ft of counter and work space in front
Supplemental food for patients during nondining hours
Equipment storage room 14 by 6 ft)
Storage of intravenous stands, air mattresses, walkers, similar bulky equipment
Patient baths Ishowers not less than 4 sq ft)
Storage area, stove, sink, refrigerator
Although not desirable, often used as visitors' toilet as well
May be a designated area within clean workroom if selfcontained cabinet is provided
May be a designated area within the clean workroom May serve more than one nursing unit
Optional : Icemaker, coffeemaker
One shower stall or bathtub for each 15 beds not individually served, grab bars at bathing fixtures, recessed soapdishes
At least one bathtub in each nursing unit
Health NURSING HOMES TABLE 5
Typical Regulatory Requirements for LTC Facilities )Continued) Nursing unit (cont'd)
Type and size of room
Activity
Stretcher and
Equipment and sizes Open space
wheelchair parking area 18 by 5 ft ) Janitor's closet
Storage and cleaning of house equipment
Oayroom ; total area for patient activities, 30 sq ft per patient . Minimum size, 300 sq ft
Controlled and multigroup activities, religious services,
Relationship
Comments
Easily accessible from hall, near exit and entrance of nursing unit
Housekeeping supplies and equipment, floor recepfor or service sink
Larger cleaning area desirable with garbage and linen chutes in vertical-type buildings
Nurs ing u n it and pa tient activity ar e as
lectures, group games, group teas, dining (most frequently this is combined with the dayroam, but it can be separate) Recreational therapy often combined with this area
Upholstered sofas and armchairs, preferably with straight backs and designed for ability of patients to sit and get up ; straight chairs similar to those in patient rooms ; rocking chairs similar to those in patient rooms ; tables with firm supports and round or rounded edges, accessible to and of a height for wheelchair patients (preferably with pedestal supports and round tops) ; television sets on low tables or ceiling-mounted lectern
Physiotherapy minimum 300 sq ft, approximately per patient)
3
Generally nursing unit dayroom is 15 sq ft per patient ; common day and dining room is 15 sq ft per patient
Central to LTC circulation from nursing units
sq ft
a . Exercise space
Exercising, treatment and training in ambulation, stair-climbing, and activities of daily living
Parallel bars, exercise wheel, ambulation track shoulder ladder, convertible exercise steps
b . Examination and massage space
Manipulations and massaging
Treatment tables with pads
Hydra and heat therapy area may be cambined with physiotherapy . Size
Use of water movement and heat as massage
Mobile stands, hydrocollater (2 by 3 ft high), infrared lamp, whirlpools (partial and full-immersion tanksl, paraffin bath, patient lift, ultrasonic generator, microwave diathermy unit
Social and physical support in terms at creative actions
Hand looms, potter's wheel, painting equipment, easels, leatherworking tools, woodworking tools, sewing machines
included in area abo v e Occupational or recreational therapy
Required floor day room ideally to be controlled by nurses' station ; different medical programs generate different relationships
areas for social rooms is often delineated by relevant codes and average about 30 sq 1t per patient, but usually the codes allow the distribution in either a nursing unit dayroom, floor lounges, or a common LTC dayroam to be done in terms of the administrative program . Again, the only rule we can recommend would be to arrive at this through the analysis of the particular patient population of the proposed facility . Listed in Table 5, in terms of the usual codes and regulations, are the typical patient activity areas, their size, the equipment they usually contain, and their relationships .
CONCLUSION Mentioned above have been only the rough planning data of the design of LTC facilities . Microscopic analyses based on the kind of hardware patients with reduced manipulative
(3
Structural reinforcement necessary for ceiling mounted ambulation track and wallmounted exercise wheels
by 6 ft)
ability can use, the types of furniture (such as seating that would allow easy access without strain, beds that would be sufficiently protective, and tables that would be sufficiently sturdy), the kind of plumbing fixtures that the elderly patient needs, and the kinds of interior surfaces are part of the literature of professional magazines and should be examined in detail . The essential basis, though, for understanding these aspects of the LTC is the understanding of the patient . Nor is it our intention to discuss the major problem of aesthetic values in terms of this patient population . The range of what aesthetic an LTC facility should generate, whether the criterion should be what society wants, what the employees want, what the children of the patient want, or what the patients want is a question that individual decisions must resolve, and these can, it is hoped, be based
Not usually required by code
Size of room varies depending on where activity is done . Often area is used primarily as a storage facility and for fixed equipment (i .e ., kiln, etc .l .
on some empirical data . It is believed as well that the extended care LTC program should generate a building that emphasizes the quality of space required for a longer patient stay and that this quality should be different from that of the community hospital in both plan and form, visually and functionally . Finally, we should arrive at an architectural expression for this space that would be a rejection of institutional forms, such as long hallways, sterile color schemes, mechanistic furniture, purely utilitarian finishes, and an acceptance of the fact that sunlight, casualness, and comfort not only are desirable patterns but also are part of the therapy and well-being of the LTC patient . The task of resolving this fundamental social problem of providing support for the ill aged is a social action that we have just begun to explore and to which architects can make a most meaningful contribution .
Health CHILD HEALTH STATION CHILD HEALTH STATION
The diagram (Fig . 1) shows the desirable space organization for a child health station . Preferred location for the carriage shelter is within the building if space permits . If the shelter must be outside, it should be placed in the lee of the building . The various rooms shall have space for the following equipment :
N.Y. CH.A . Memo to Architects.
Waiting Room Desk and chair at control point between waiting room and entrance to weighing and undressing room, etc . ; movable chairs, with ample space between and around them ; demonstration table ; play pen, within the waiting room, minimum area 60 sq ft; small chairs and table ; bookshelves, 36 in high . Toilet Located off waiting room . Provide one normalsized toilet, and one child's toilet, one lavatory, set 28 in from floor . Public
COAT
CLOSET -~'
COAT
DOCTOR'S OFFICE
STORAGE JANITOR'S CLOSET
DOCTOR'S OFFICE
CLOSET
STAFF
TOILET UTILITY ROOM
o
R
R
0
1
R~ ~
0
ANTE ROOM (TO DR .'S OFFICES )
~I~
NURSE'S OFFICE
PUBLIC TOILET
COAT
Doctors' Offices In each office : desk; two chairs ; large table; smaller table; lavatory (standard apartment type) . Utility Room Table; refrigerator; four-burner gas range ; combination sink and laundry tray (standard apartment type) . Nurse's Office Located adjacent to the waiting room, it can be used also for isolation space . It will need a desk and a chair . Staff Room Table and chairs .
WEIGHING, UNDRESSING AND RE-DRESSING ROOM
STAFF ROOM
CONSULTATION ROOM WAITING ROOM PEN
vEST .
O CARRIAGE SHELTER
CHILD SPACE York City Housing Authority,
HEALTH STATION ORGANIZATION
N .KCH.A . Memo to Architects.
Consultation Room Desk, two chairs, table, and three file cabinets . Slop Sink Closet Must have space for cleaning equipment .
CLOSET
-PLAY
From New
Anteroom to Doctors' Offices Chairs .
Staff Toilet Lavatory and toilet.
~C
Fig. 1
Weighing, Undressing, and Dressing Room Table; Bench-type clothes hamper; 25 cubicles ; slop sink .
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
SITE ANO PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS Site The modern medical center is so large and so complex that it should be located on the edge of the university campus rather than within it . This location will emphasize the fact that the medical center is a satellite in the university orbit, but has a degree of autonomy . It is important that students and staff in the medical center have easy access to the main university campus, and that the medical center be accessible to all areas of the university . The site should be large enough to accommodate growth of the school programs and concurrent parking for at least 20 years . The minimum size recommended for a medical center including a teaching hospital is 50 acres, and 50 to 150 acres is preferable . Buildings should be placed on the site so that additions can be made as programs develop and as enrollment increases. The service functions of the medical school involve patient care in hospitals and outpatient clinics . Growth of research and service responsibilities frequently leads to the development of specialized hospitals, such as children's, veterans', psychiatric, chronic disease, rehabilitation, or others . The site should permit location of these facilities in relation to the major teaching hospital so that staff and students can be within a five- to ten-minute walk . The teaching hospital and clinical science facilities should be placed on the site so that the educational functions relate to and connect with the basic science facilities . Outdoor facilities for rehabilitation of patients related to the clinic and recreation facilities for students related to housing should be provided . The extent of these facilities varies widely among schools . Adequate space for housing should be provided nearby . Apartment-type housing with play areas for children, within five minutes' walking distance of the hospital, is preferable . Adequate parking facilities should be provided for students, staff, patients, and public convenient to each element of the medical center including housing . This may take the form of divided shopping-center-type parking, preferably with trees, various types of paved surface parking, or multilevel parking garages . If possible, the site should be sloping so that more than one level of entrance to the buildings can be obtained and horizontal movement of supplies can take place at one level without conflicting with horizontal movement of people at another level . The direction of prevailing wind should be studied so that buildings can be placed in relation to each other and to the campus and community to avoid windblown odors from cooking and incineration of animal waste and trash, bacteria from infected patients, chemical fumes, and low levels of radioactive isotopes . The site for the animal farm is not usually contiguous to the medical center . However, a minimum site of about 25 acres should be Medical School Facilities, Public Health Service, U .S . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D .C ., 1964 .
provided ; recent studies indicate that 120 acres may be required . It should be located for convenient transportation to and from the animal quarters . Functional Relationships Of prime importance in planning medical schools is the relationship of its three major components : the basic science facilities, the clinical science facilities, and the teaching hospital . For the most efficient movement of students, faculty, patients, and supplies, the three should be interconnected, but for maximum flexibility in expansion each should be an independent element . Fig . 1 illustrates this relationship . The basic science and the clinical teaching and research facilities, in turn, should be attached to the hospital to permit easy access to patient units and other hospital facilities . The diagram also shows the possibility of expansion inherent in this relationship . In the basic science facilities, the departments can be stacked above each other with teaching laboratories, faculty, research and office space, and lecture rooms for each department located on the same floor . The cadaver preparation and storage department is usually located on a floor accessible to grade for convenience in handling cadavers . Central animal quarters serve teaching and research areas for both basic science and clinical departments. A location with direct connection to the circulation center and at grade level for access to a delivery entrance for animals is important . Other common-use areas should be located where they are accessible to both the basic science and clinical departments . Thus, a basement location for such facilities as the radioisotope laboratory and technical shops is acceptable . Administrative facilities, school post office, snack bar, student lounge, and bookstore should be accessible from a circulation center and are generally placed on the first floor . Study cubicles for basic science students
should be convenient to both the medical library and teaching laboratories . The medical illustration area should be located for north light if possible . Locating the clinical science facilities in connection with the circulation center provides access to the common-use facilities mentioned above . These clinical science facilities, similar to those provided in the basic science departments, consist of faculty research and office space, since third- and fourth-year students are taught in the hospital . Individual departments should be on the same floors as the patient-care units which they serve in the adjoining hospital . Study cubicles for third- and fourth-year students and house officers can be provided in the teaching hospital . Lecture rooms should be placed near the circulation center for greater flexibility of use . The arrangements and relationships of the elements of the departments in both the basic and clinical sciences are generally similar . Facilities for an individual department should be on the same floor insofar as possible . Teaching laboratories and their auxiliary spaces in basic science departments should be separate from but near faculty offices and research laboratories . Elements such as floor animal rooms and cold rooms, which are found in each department, should be stacked for economy . These facilities, together with lecture rooms, should be sized initially and located to take care of later expansion . Toilet facilities should be designed to accommodate expansion . If located on a circulation center they will be accessible to adjacent departments . Separate elevators for passengers and supplies are recommended . Program Assumptions Because of the variations which exist among present schools and programs, it is apparent that space requirements for a new school cannot be stated dogmatically . There is great need,
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS however, for some benchmark for planning a new school . In this section, it is assumed that the basic science facilities, clinical science facilities, and teaching hospital are contiguous . The space considerations and requirements presented in this section are for two hypothetical schools including basic science facilities, clinical science facilities, end a teaching hospital . The first is School A, with an entering class of 64 students and a hospital of 500 beds ; the second is School B, with an entering class of 96 students and a hospital of 700 beds . School A
1 . Is a four-year university-based school . 2. Provides space to house an entering class of 64 medical students, with a planned expansion to an entering class of 96 students . Enrollment in third- and fourth-year classes will be 60, with future expansion to 90 . 3. Provides office and laboratory space for a full-time faculty of 35 in the basic science departments and 60 in the clinical departments . 4. Provides space for 40 graduate students and postdoctoral fellows in the basic science departments and 30 in the clinical departments . 5. Provides either conventional or multidiscipline teaching laboratories for the basic sciences . 6. Has its own library, with ultimate capacity of 100,000 volumes. 7. Has its own teaching hospital of 500 beds . 9. Has its own technical and maintenance shops, but heat is supplied from a central source . 10 . Does not provide space for teaching students in other health professions such as dentistry or nursing. School B
1 . Is a four-year university-based school . 2. Provides space to house an entering class of 96 medical students with third- and fourth-year enrollment of 90 per class. 3. Provides office and laboratory space for a full-time faculty of 50 in the basic science departments and 85 in the clinical departments . 4. Provides apace for 55 graduate students and postdoctoral fellows in the basic science departments and 40 in the clinical departments . 5 . Provides either conventional or multidiscipline teaching laboratories for the basic sciences . 6. Has its own library with ultimate capacity of 100,000 volumes. 7 . Has its own teaching hospital of 700 beds. 9. Has its own technical and maintenance shops, but heat is supplied from a central source. 10 . Does not provide space for teaching students in other health professions such as dentistry or nursing. GENERAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPPORTING FACILITIES General Administration
The dean of the medical school is responsible for the formulation and execution of policies of the teaching programs and for the general administration of the basic sciences, the clinical sciences, and the teaching hospital . Be. cause of the magnitude and complexities of these programs, the dean will require assistance from competent persons in these fields . Table 1 gives the net area for administration .
TABLE 1
Net Area for General Administration
School A lentering class of 64 students)
Type of facility
Squar e
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3,900
Dean's office . . . . . . . . . . Assistant dean's office . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
400 200 450 500 400 250 250 250 200
. . . .
200 200 500 100
Secretaries' offices . Conference room . . . Business offices . . . Registrar and alumni
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Postgraduate office . . Scholarship and grants Records . . . . . . . . . Public information and publications . . . . . . Public toilets . . . . . . Waiting room . . . . . . Storage . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . .
School B (entering class of 96 students) feet 4,700 12)
400 400 600 500 500 300 300 400 300 200 200 500 100
Medical School Library
The medical school library includes the offices, work areas, stacks, carrels, vaults, reading rooms, alcoves, conference rooms, audiovisual rooms, and other related spaces required by the maintenance and service responsibilities connected with the care and use of recorded medical information. In programing and designing the medical school library, consideration should be given to the probable impact of future regional branches of the National Library of Medicine and the computer-based bibliographic retrieval and publication system called MEDLARSMedical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System . The medical school library should be located so that its resources are quickly available to students, research workers, faculty members, hospital staff, and practicing physicians . Unless there are large medical research collections nearby, the library should be equipped to accommodate 100,000 volumes and 1,600 scientific periodicals . Table 2 gives the net area for a medical school library of 100,000 volumes and 1,600 periodicals . Since medical library collections lend to increase rapidly, the library should be planned for future expansion . In designing the library, maximum flexibility should be a prime consideration with necessary divisions in the form of partitions which can be moved. Shelving, whether in stacks or in reading areas, should be standard library equipment, with standard interchangeable parts. Standard sections, usually 3 ft long, should be used throughout, with only such exceptions as floor layout may demand . Those for medical books have a shelf depth of 10 in . One 3-ft-long singlefaced section will accommodate approximately 100 volumes. Service aisles between stacks should not be less than 3 ft wide . Main aisles should be at least 3 ft 6 in . wide . If bookstacks are on more than one level, or are not on the level where books are received, vertical transportation must be provided . Students and faculty members should have free access to stack areas, which should be provided with carrels for work and study .
rhess are usually alcoves, preferably adjacent '.o windows, each equipped with a desk, readng light, end chair. They should be provided at the rate of one for each ten students . However, fewer may be required if individual study :ubicles for students are provided elsewhere . Other rooms often associated with the stack area are a microfilm storage and viewing room and a room for the storage of motion-picture films and slides . A relatively soundproof room for photoduplication facilities is necessary. An area for general reading and open-shelf reference work may be supplemented by a number of smaller reading areas, rooms, or alcoves . The main reading area should be near the main catalog and circulation desk . If individual student study cubicles are not provided in the school, student reading areas in the library should accommodate from 25 to 50 percent of the total enrollment of the medical school and students from other programs who ,squire access to the collection . Students seated at tables require a minimum of 25 sq ft of space each . Additional seating allowance should be made for faculty and research staff and other users. A separate alcove with shelves, or a section of shelving in the main reading area, should be TABLE 2 Net area (in Square Feet) of Facilities Required for a Medical School Library of 100,000 Volumes and 1,600 Periodicals
Type of facility
School ; A and H (entering 'buses of 64 and 96 students) SqPare f et
Total net area ----------------------
29,560
Public services : Total------------------------------
24,950
Vestibule ---------------------------Reception area and display ------------Charging and reserve areas------------Card catalog area --------------------Information and reference area--------Browsing collection -------------------Main reading area -------------------Microreading area -------- ------------Paging-reading area ________-__ .------ Periodicals area including indexes_______ Seminar-studvarea___--__ . . .- .-_----Historical collection room______ .-__ . .-Sound demonstration room ------------ Slides and movie room ----------------Hookstack area--------------- .-_--- . carrels Unenclosed ____---------------Closed carrels-------- .--------------.Audioyisualstorage ------------------Microfilm storage --------------------Food vending machine area -----------Public toilets- --------------- .-_-_-- .I Work BrTotal ------------- -___-__ Receiving and mailing room -------- .---, .4cqnisitions department __ . .---------- Cataloging department_ _ _ _ ___ ----- _ __ . Preparation room--------------------I'hotoduplication--------------------------------------Binding and mending----------------- -, Serials work area ---------------------- ~,
____.----------I
Chief librarian's office_ _ Reception-secretary's office ------- -----Aasistantlibrarians' offices____-_-_----Historical librarian's office ---- -------Office storage . _ .----- -_--------------Staff room --------------------------Staff toilets and lockers ---------------._ Housekeeping__________ .__________
100 400 450 150 400 150 6,070 200 400 1,200 1,350 630 450 450 10 .000 1,200 200 400 200 300 250 _ 4,610 5170 600 520 150 Soo 210 2110 2110 200 120 120 Fo 400 240 240
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS provided for unbound journals . If sloping display shelves are used for current issues of journals, open shelving underneath for housing unbound earlier issues are more convenient than closed compartments . A room with paging facilities may be provided for the use of those on call . Small study rooms for group conferences of four to six persons each should also be included . An area should be provided in the lobby or near the reference desk containing nontechnical books for browsing . A film- and slide-projection room and a sound-tape room, each to accommodate 16 students and an instructor, may be required depending on the program . Both rooms should be soundproofed and designed so as not to distract readers in other areas . A microfilm reading room is necessary. A medical history room may be required and may be a combined medical history end rare medical book room, in which case protected windows, doors with locks, a fireproof vault, and special air conditioning will be required . Well-lighted exhibit cases should be provided adjacent to the en . trance to the library and its main lanes of traffic . Public toilets, rest rooms, coat rooms, and janitor services should be convenient to the reading areas . The book charging desk, located near the entrance, should control the exits from reading areas, workrooms, and stacks to minimize book loss . The card catalog should be close to the main entrance and near the circulation desk and the acquisition and cataloging rooms . In the staff workroom a sink should be provided . Provisions should be mode so that noise generated by activities at these areas does not distract readers . One workroom subdivided into alcoves by double-faced bookshelves may be provided, instead of separate workrooms, for acquisition and cataloging . These rooms should be near the public catalog and should have direct access to the stackroom ; 100 aq ft should be allowed for each staff member . The reception-secretary's office should be adjacent to the head librarian's office . A departmental conference room may be required . The head librarian's office should be accessible both to the staff workrooms and library clientele . The receiving room is best located on the ground floor with access to an unloading platform . A work table, shelving, and shipping equipment should be provided . Lift service, preferably an elevator which will hold loaded book carts, between the receiving room and the acquisitions department should be provided where these areas are on different floors . Vending machines for food and drink should be located outside the library proper and be provided with space for tables . Animal Quarters The need for controlled care of animals to meet teaching and research requirements is reflected in the provision of a central animal service in an increasing number of medical schools . The location of animal quarters on the ground floor, where direct-connected outdoor animal runs and truck unloading facilities can be provided with complete separation from any other fr-nction, has many advantages . A separate entrance to serve the animal quarters is essential . Provision should be made for expansion in the initial planning . However, a vivarium in an adjacent wing with its own vertical transportation for animals, animal supplies, and personnel may serve the
needs of research better than an animal facility at grade level . The floors of the viverium should communicate with those of the adjoining structure so that animal rooms are horizontally contiguous to the research and teaching laboratories using them and so that animals can be transferred to the laboratories without traversing corridors of other areas . If a vivarium is provided, animal-holding rooms are not usually required within research areas . Animal quarters are composed of a number of different kinds of areas . Each has its own requirements in terms of space and location . In animal areas, provision must be made for the reception, quarantine, and isolation of incoming animals near the animal entrance ; for housing different species ; for exercising animals ; and for specific research projects . Isolation rooms for infected animals, each with a vestibule containing facilities for gowning and scrubbing, are required . Table 3 gives the net area for animal quarters . Animal rooms should be isolated from each other with no connecting openings and arranged to separate clean and contaminated functions . A service corridor may be provided in addition to the main access corridor to allow the removal of soiled bedding and other materiel at the rear of a range of cages rather than through the main corridor . Borrowed light in corridor partitions and between rooms should be avoided since light bothers some animals . Windows, if used, should be placed at least 6 ft above the floor so that animal cages can fit below them . Each room should have a sink TABLE 3
Net Area for Animal Quarters School A ~ School B (entering (entering class of 64 class of 96 students) students)
Type of facility
Square feet Total net area
Departmental Offices
____
11,980
14, 860
Animal rooms: Total ------- ------------
9. 730
11,830
Coldblooded animals and aquarium _-------- --_-_ . 140 Guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters, rats, and miss 1, 800 Primate ____ . 280 . . Cats _---- . .- . . . . . 250 Dogs ____ . . _ 2, 100 Animal rceeptino-quarantine_ (3) 3011 Cage washing m,d sterilization ._-------------- . . . 350 Cage storage --------------280 Bedding storage --------- __ 300 Food etureg, and preperation---__ 7,50 S-ray and fluoroscope___ ._ . 400 Sterile isolation_ . -----( :I) 600 Routine laboratorv -------200 Veterinarian's research laboratory 630 Veterinarian's office_ 250 Isolation ---------------2311 Autopsy ------------------- . 300 Animal morgue _--------- _ 70 Incinerator .____ . .- - . 220 Keeperslocker-- ._ . . ._ ._ . . . 260 Animal surgery rooms : Total------------------ . Operating ----------------Scrubup--------- - . .------Recover----------- _ . . . . . . Cleanup . - . _ Inatrumcnt _ _ ___ Central sterilizing- _ ____
200
(3)
;300
900
ISO
200 300 270 400
750 400 600 200 6311 250 230 300 70 2211 280
2,250 (3)
'_, 700 400 370 3, 000 300 350 2811
( :3)
3,030 (5)
and soap dispenser . A vestibule at the entrance to a block of rooms where the attendant can change clothes and shoes is recommended to help reduce infection . The construction of animal quarters should be fire resistant, vermin- and insect-proof, and above all easy to clean . Recesses, cracks, and pockets should be avoided . Bases should be coved . Special attention should be given to such openings between rooms as pipes, conduit, end telephone wiring . Doorsills will prevent water from leaking into the corridor when floors are washed down, but are not as convenient for moving cage racks in and out of rooms . Well surfaces should be smooth, hard, and easily cleaned . Ceramic tile is often used but is easily damaged by cage rocks . For protection of wall surfaces from such damage, a 6-in . curb may be provided . Cinder . or concrete. block walls must be laid up with tight joints and covered with a moisture-resistant material . Doors should be 3 ft 6 in . wide to permit easy passage of cage racks, and all hardware should be recessed . Floors must be able to resist the disintegrative action of the organic salts and acids in animal urine . Quarry tile with acid-resistant joints is satisfactory but should not be used in the corridor because of the noise created by cage carts as they bump along the joints . Concrete floors, well compacted and troweled, are also satisfactory . Asphalt, rubber, and vinyl tile floors are not recommended . Floor drains are suggested for monkey and dog rooms . These should be 6 in . i n diameter of the flushing type with special hair traps to avoid clogging . Use of floor drains in smaller animal rooms will depend on whether the rooms are hosed down regularly or swept and wet-mopped .
1 .500 360 2011 3011 270 400
Each basic science and clinical science department faculty member requires office space for his departmental activities and laboratories for research . The head of each department requires an office with a desk, reference table, and space for a conference of several persons located near his research laboratory and adjacent to a secretary's office (see Fig . 2) . The conference room, which will be used for meetings of groups of students, should accommodate about 20 persons . Shelving for departmental books and periodicals and storage space for slide projectors, models, and other visual-aid equipment, chalk boards, and rollup projection screens should be provided . In the clinical departments, x-ray view boxes are required . The secretary's office may handle the secretarial work for the entire department and should be sized for the ultimate expansion of the department . For space estimating, a unit of sixteen modules may be used as the primary unit for each department . The balance of the staff can be housed in additional eight-module units each accommodating five or six people and providing laboratory, office space, and supporting facilities . An additional two-module space is required for each additional faculty member . Research Facilities Research laboratories should be provided for faculty members, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate students in each department .
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS The use of modules in planning laboratory facilities permits flexibility in utilization of space where changes in space requirements are common . Utilities and duct connections should be so provided that when space is changed utilities are available without undue pipe runs or perforations of walls or ceilings . The equipment of research laboratories will vary with the kind of activity performed in them . It should be possible to rearrange work counters, microscope benches, and sinks, and to vary the size of the room as required without undue labor, inconvenience, or expense . This is most easily accomplished if all utilities and ducts are properly sized and located so as to make them available to all parts of the laboratory wing . This includes space not designed originally for laboratory use . Some possible arrangements of research laboratories are shown on Fig . 3 . The fume hood is shown on the corridor wall for convenient relation to the duct space . Counter heights will vary-31 in . for sitdown work and 37 in . for stand-up work are most commonly used . The choice of a peninsula or island counter in larger laboratories may vary with the research project . Island counters can be used on all sides but are more expensive to install and alter ; peninsula counters are more flexible with respect to air, vacuum, water, gas, drainage, and electrical
services required . An additional two-module space adjacent to the large laboratory can be divided to provide an office for an instructor and a special instrument or storage room . A two-module apace may be used for four study cubicles for postdoctoral fellows . Cold rooms are required in the laboratory wing of each department . They are refrigerated rooms for several workers who do procedures at low temperatures . A counter with sink, undercounter cabinets, and shelving are usual equipment . Electrical, air, and vacuum connections are required . All safety features such as safety door latches and warning lights should
be installed . The term "animal-holding room" is used to designate areas within a basic science or clinical department where small animals are held for a short time . These holding rooms, located close to an elevator which also serves the central animal quarters, eliminate the hauling of animal cages through public corridors . The animals are assigned to a staff member conducting studies requiring close, periodic observation or experimentation over a short time for a limited number of animals . These rooms may also be available to medical students performing animal experiments . Space is required for racks of cages, often placed back to back in the center of the room, with a single line of racks placed against the walls . Animal operating and recovery rooms should be located in central animal quarters . Where vivaria are provided on each floor adjacent to departments, they should substitute for animalholding rooms. If properly located and provided with the necessary utilities, storage rooms can be used for expanded research activities . Those shown on the accompanying space diagrams are located and sized to allow for expansion . A fourmodule central equipment room should be provided in each department . Auditorium and Lecture Rooms The auditorium and lecture rooms are important teachinq facilities for all the medical
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS school departments and the teaching hospital . They should be located for convenient use by faculty and students from the clinical depart . ments, the teaching hospital, the basic science facilities, and by outside groups . Auditorium The hospital auditorium is necessary to any medical education program . It is used for demonstrating patients to students and should be attached to the teaching hospital so as to provide maximum convenience and the least movement of patients . Ramps should be provided for bringing in wheelchair and stretcher patients . The minimum seating capacity required for teaching in a university hospital auditorium is equal to the total number of students in the third- and fourth-year classes plus 50 percent additional seats . A second auditorium or additional lecture rooms may be required since prolonged use of the lecture facilities may conflict with regular undergraduate teaching schedules. For auditoriums, most authorities prefer fixed seats with dropleat tablet arms, arranged in theater fashion with a sloping floor . The auditorium should have a low stage to facilitate the demonstration of patients end should be equipped for the installation of closed-circuit television . Projection facilities for sound films and slides, lighting controls, chalkboards, public-address systems, and closed-circuit television for doctors' paging should be provided . Lecture Rgbtee A significant portion of the instruction in a medical school involves the use of lecture rooms . A minimum of three lecture rooms should be provided in the basic science facilities as follows : two sloping or stepped-floor lecture rooms of 120-150 seats each for use primarily in basic science courses, and one sloping or stepped-floor lecture room of 80 seats for graduate-student instruction, continuation education, and other programs . Table 15 gives the area for lecture rooms for a hypothetical basic science facility . Two 150-seat lecture rooms of sloping or step-floor type should be provided as part of the clinical department facilities and the teaching hospital. Lecture rooms included in the tables are sized to accommodate a class of 96 students, with 25 percent additional seats. Although a class size of less than 96 students may be contemplated in the initial planning of a new medical school, it will be advantageous to construct lecture rooms on the basis of the maximum class size . The main entrances to lecture rooms should be located at the rear, although corridor access to the demonstration areas of lecture rooms is essential for bringing in tables and other large equipment . A minimum distance of 10 to 12 ft should be provided between the first row of seats and the back wall of the demonstration space . Fixed seats with dropleaf tablet arms are generally preferred for lecture rooms . Such seats are usually 26 in . i n width and require a minimum back-to-back spacing of 36 in . For a rough estimate of lecture-room seating-area size, including aisles and crossovers, 10 sq 1t per person may be used . Demonstration areas in all lecture rooms should be equipped with chalkboard, x-ray film illuminators, and roll-up projection screens . A lavatory may be necessary for the demonstration areas .
A projection area with platform, projector table, and convenient electrical outlets should be provided in each lecture room . Sound amplification equipment with conduits for loudspeakers for sound movies should be installed . Projectors are noisy and some sound-absorbent baffling may be required if a separate booth is not provided . Auxiliary spaces which may be required for the use of the lecture rooms, such as storage rooms for visual aids and portable equipment, coat-rooms, toilet rooms, and telephone booths, will be determined by the individual school . Public toilets should be convenient to lecture rooms . Study Cubicles Consideration should be given to the use of study cubicles within the basic science and clinical departments for postdoctoral fellows, and in the teaching hospital for the house staff . Cubicles for medical students in the first two years should be located in the basic science area. For third- and fourth-year students, cubicles should be in the teaching hospital . Table 15 gives the net area for cubicles for hypothetical schools . Each cubicle contains a desk with drawers on one side ; a cabinet above the desk for books with a built-in fluorescent study light underneath ; and a locker which, in addition to hanging clothes, may be used for microscope storage . A duplex outlet is necessary to attach the microscope . The locker not only provides privacy by forming a barrier, but also eliminates the necessity for separate locker rooms. An allowance of 50 sq it per cubicle is adequate . This includes desk, locker, chair space, and adjacent aisle . If aisles are double loaded (cubicles on either side), privacy for the student may be obtained by staggering the cubicles so that desks are not directly opposite each other . It is desirable to have a lounge area nearby where discussions among small groups can be held without disturbing students in the study cubicle . Chalkboards and tackboard should be provided in this area and vending machines should be available . If the study cubicle-clothes locker combination is not used, separate student locker rooms for male and female students should be provided . To conserve students' time and to ease elevator traffic, locker rooms should be located close to the line of travel to teaching areas . The proximity of the hospital should determine the necessity for separate locker rooms for third- and fourth-year students . A toilet room should be connected to each locker room or study cubicle area and showers should be provided in the basic science area . If study cubicles with lockers are installed, a dressing room is required adjacent to toilet and shower room in the basic science facilities . A rest room for women should be included . Student Activity Facilities Lounge Space may be provided for such activities as pingpong, billiards, and card playing . A recessed or screened area with vending machines is desirable . A kitchenette for preparing coffee and snacks is provided in some schools . Shelving for books and current magazines, an aerial for TV, and a storage closet adequate for card tables, phonograph records, and other equipment should be provided . Public and house telephones should be available . Table 4 gives net area for various student activity facilities . Facilities should also be provided for outdoor recreation .
Activities Office A student activities office near the student lounge may serve as headquarters for such activities as student organizations, honor medical societies, student publications, and student council, and may be the center of inquiry regarding athletic, recreational, and social events . There should be space for typewriter desks, file cabinets, and shelving . If the activities office is to serve as an information center, a service counter and bulletin board would be desirable . If the office is to be used for student publications, space for duplicating machines will be required . Laundry Collection The medical student often wears more than one coat per day in the basic science courses . To maintain a supply of clean linen, a laundry collection station convenient to the student lounge or locker room should be provided with a pickup and delivery counter . Bookstore The bookstore, although primarily for students, should be available to all persons using the building . Its location on a main floor of the medical school is preferable . Health Office A student health office will serve the entire four-year student body, half of which will be studying in the basic science areas, the other half in the hospital . Locating the health office adjacent to medical school administrative offices may be desirable if they are near the hospital . Otherwise, a hospital location is suggested . The health office should have a waiting area, an office area, and an examining room and should provide space for a medical cabinet, a small domestic refrigerator for storing pharmaceuticals, an examining table, a portable examining light, weighing scales, storage cabinet for incidentals, a clothes rack, and a lavatory . Medical Illustration
Service
The demand in medical schools for visual material to implement teaching, research, and patient-care programs is so great that a centralized medical illustration service for the production of such material is required . Space required will depend on the extent of activities and number of personnel . The activities of a medical illustration service are divided into graphic arts, plastic arts, and photography . Closed-circuit television as a teaching aid is usually a separate service but may be a part of the medical illustration service . The medical illustration service usually is responsible for TABLE
4
Net Area for Student Activities
Type of facility
School A (entering class of 64 students)
School
B (entering class of 96 students)
Square feet . . . . . . . .
1,850
2,400
Lounge and toilets . . . . . . Student activities office . . . Laundry collection . . . . . . Bookstore Health office and examination area'
1,000 200 200 450
1,200 200 400 600
Total . . . .
' May be in hospital or pan of general university health service .
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS maintaining the slide and movie projectors used throughout the school and facilities for repair and storage of such equipment should be provided . (See Table 5 .) Activities to be considered in planning the graphic art section include drawing, painting, and airbrush work, drafting for charts and technical diagrams, mechanical lettering, and general art work required in preparing displays or scientific exhibits . A large, well-lighted room, subdivided into work areas, is usually satisfactory . If possible, the area should be provided with natural north light. The activities of the plastic art section include the skilled operations required to produce three-dimensional models of the organs of the body . These activities require a room for working with the patient in addition to the main work studio . Since the activities involve close color matching, both the studio and patient room should have north light. TABLE 5
Net Area for Medical Illustration School A lentering class of 64 students)
Type of facility
School B (entering class of 96 studentsl
Square feet Total net area . . . . .
2,020
3,170
Administration : Total . . . . . . . . . . .
370
370
140 140
140 140
90
90
Chief's office . . . . . . . Secretary and files . . . . Equipment and supply room . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical illustration : Artists' work area . . . . . . . . . . .
600
950
Photography : Total . . . . . . . . . . .
1,050
1,050
420
420
90 50 140 30 60 190 70
90 50 140 30 60 190 70
Photo studio and dressing . . . . . Photomicrography room . . . . . . . Light lock . . . . . Oarkroams . . . . Loading room . . . Mixing room . . . Laboratory . . . Finishing room . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
121
(2)
Audiovisual : TV studio lincluding control area)
800
Activities to be considered in planning the are photographing patients, both still and tine, photomicrography, copying, film processing and printing, film and print drying, film loading, chemical mixing, print and slide finishing . Photographing human and animal specimens is a regular activity of a photographic section, but, because of the hazards involved in handling fresh specimens, this work should be done in or near the autopsy rooms. A studio for photographing patients is required ; two are preferable-a main studio for full-length studies and a "closeup" studio for phtographing the head, extremities, eyes, and mouth. The wall of the main studio serving as a background should have a plain, smooth surface for at least 12 ft of its width. The adjacent floor space or patient area should be the
photographic section of the department
same tone as the wall with a 3-in .-radius cove at the base of the wall to prevent a strong line of demarcation between the floor and well in full-length studies . A height scale on the wall at one side of the background area is desirable . Electric outlets should be provided at either side of the patient area for floodlamps and other portable lighting equipment . An adjacent patients' dressing cubicle and a lavatory with wrist-action valves are necessary . The door for admitting patients to the studio should be at least 44 in . wide . For making 16-mm . motion pictures, about 35 ft between background end camera is required to prevent distortion . However, it is possible to back the camera into an adjacent work area to attain this distance . Sometimes a draw curtain is provided between the main studio and the "closeup" studio to facilitate this arrangement . A separate room for photomicrography permits the photographer to work in the dark, which is frequently necessary ; permits him to leave the equipment set up ; and minimize$ dust . The room should be near a darkroom . Copying charts and drawings is frequently done in the main studio . Copying radiographs, however, requires a small room that can be darkened . Both types of copy work can be done in this room . The smallest photographic section will require two darkrooms, one for films and one for contact prints, enlargements, and lantern slides. If color films are to be processed, a special darkroom for this purpose should be provided . The volume of color printing will indicate whether a special darkroom for this purpose is warranted . Darkrooms should have a sink along one well and a bench along the other, with 3 It of work space between them for one occupant or 4 ft for 2 . Film and print driers may be located in any open work area near the darkrooms . A room for loading film holders reduces traffic . A small, well-ventilated room, with a sink for chemical mixing, is necessary to pro. tect equipment and materials against chemical fumes . It is desirable to provide a small room for motion-picture film editing and titling, and for binding slides . Other finishing operations such as spotting, trimming, and mounting may also be done in this room . If projection equipment is included, motion pictures and slides may be checked . A storage room for supplies should be provided . At least one refrigerator should be included for storing color material . A storage room should also be provided in the general storage area of the building for the service . Some of the material handled may be a fire hazard and protective provisions should be made .
Technical Shops Central technical shops are required as a supportive facility to all departments of a medical school . However, specialized shops may be required in some departments . The use of shops elsewhere on the university campus is not usually satisfactory from the standpoint of time or accuracy . Technical shops usually include separate areas for metalwork, woodwork, glassblowing, and electronics. A metalworking shop usually requires a metal lathe, a drill press, two milling machines (one horizontal and one vertical), a metal-cutting band saw, a bench grinder, and a universal tool and cutter grinder . Storage
racks for bar end plate stock, tool cabinets and racks, and a machinist's bench will also be required. The woodworking shop needs space for a table saw, a thickness planer, a jointer, a wood lathe, and a drill press . A heavy wood bench, lumber racks, and tool cabinets should also be included . The glassblowing and electronics shops may be similar to those described for the department of biochemistry but on a larger scale . Each technical shop should have space for a desk and files to record stock purchases and maintain requisitions from individual departments . The area for technical shops is given in Table 15 .
Service Facilities Table 6 gives the area for service facilities .
Telephone Facilities
The teaching hospital will need switchboards . If the medical school is close by, a central telephone system may be advantageous . Combining the switchboard and information center is not recommended for a medical school complex . The switchboard in therefore best located in an area inaccessible to the public. A doctors' cell system will be required in the hospital .
Postal Facilities
A postal facility in the medical school may assume the normal duties of a post office and handle the distribution of interoffice correspondence . If the leeching hospital is adjacent, a central facility of this type will reduce duplication of mail handlina and delivery.
TABLE 6
Net Arse for Service Facilities
Type of facility
School A School B (entering (entering clan of 64 claw of 96 students) students) Square feet
Total net area ------------------
13,700
16,050
Total--------------------
6,000
3,350
Telephone equipment room_Post office ----------------Personnel and purchasing 1 _Employees' lockers and toilet facilities ----------------Maintenance shops---------Plant engineer-------- .-----If-k-ping -------------llupii-ring----------------
300 550 400
1, 100 1,000 400
2,000 900 150 600 200
3,000 1,100 150 am 400
Central storage: r Total ----------------
7,700
7,700
Snack her____ . . . . .___ . ._ ._ .
400
Basic science departments: 1,000 Anatomy ---------500 Biochemistry_______ Physiology ---------Soo Microbiology______ . 500 1,500 Pathology_ __ _. . . .. . Pharmacology______ 5W Clinical departments: Soo Medicine- . --------Surgery___________ 5oo Pediatrics --------- ._ SW Obstetrics-gynecology------- - . . .. Soo 300 Psychiatry------- _. Radiology_____Wo Preventive medicine_ 300
600
1,000 500 500 500 1,500 Soo 500 SW 500 500 300 600
300
' 2 offices and secretaries . 'Central storage spaces for each department are listed on the department tables . However, areas for this storage are grouped here .
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS Central Storage Storage spaces within the department are discussed under other headings, but, in addition, separate storage space should be provided for each department elsewhere in the building . The amount of space for departments should be determined by their needs and designed for expansion . A general storage room near maintenance shops should be provided for fixtures and equipment required for building maintenance and operation . Each department should have a partitioned space for bulk storage . Because of variable loads of stored items, it is preferable to locate storage areas on a basement floor to avoid special floor live loads . Central areas for storage and dispensing of bulk supplies of gases such as acetylene, argon, and hydrogen, and flammable liquids such as alcohol, acetone, and xylene, require specially designed space readily accessible to loading platforms end receiving areas . These areas must comply with applicable codes . Locker and Toilet Facilities Locker and toilet facilities should be provided for male and female service personnel convenient to the employee entrance . Snack Bar vending machines for food and drink serve as a convenient type of snack bar . Another type includes facilities for shortorder foods, a service counter with stools, a table seating area, and a preparation-storage room . Allocation of apace for a cashier counter end vending machines may be desirable . The snack bar should be convenient to the center of activity . Maintenance Shop$ Maintenance shops required by the medical school and hospital usually include a mechanical and plumbing shop, an electrical shop, a carpentry shop, and a paint shop . Where the medical school and hospital :rounder one roof or in close proximity, a single set of maintenance shape may serve both . The plant engineer usually has the responsibility for coordinating maintenance and repair activities . He requires an office with space for s desk and correspondence files, a secretary's office suitable for one secretary, files, and waiting space, and usually needs a separate drafting room with tables and plan-filing facilities. Duplicating Room A central duplicating facility may be required if each department does not have duplicating facilities within the department . Some schools have set up a print shop in addition . BASIC SCIENCE FACILITIES Ideally, basic science, clinical science, and teaching hospital facilities are contiguous because of the close interrelationship of their functions in the teaching of clinical medicine . Conventional and Multidiscipline Laboratories Basic science departments have certain common elements, the most outstanding of which are the teaching laboratories . Two types of laboratories are in use in medical schools today : conventional laboratories, where each department has its own laboratories or shares laboratories with another department requiring similar facilities and students move from one laboratory to another ; and multidiscipline laboratories where students are assigned
work spaces and all disciplines except gross anatomy are taught in this laboratory . With the exception of gross anatomy, the basic sciences may be taught in either conventional or multidiscipline laboratories . Conventional Laboratories If conventional laboratories are used, the following considerations must be taken into account : . Laboratories are usually sized to accommodate an entire entering class . They are sometimes arranged for division, by means of folding partitions, into groups usually of 16 students (Figs . 4 and 5) . One laboratory is usually assigned to each of the disciplines in the basic sciences, although in some instances several departments-for example, physiology and pharmacology, and pathology and microbiology-may use the same laboratory . - Laboratories are generally referred to as sit-down or stand-up laboratories . Sit-down laboratories are provided for microbiology, microanatomy and neuroenstomy, and pathology . In physiology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, most of the work is done standing up . In sit-down laboratories, however, some stand-up work is done, and it is customary to provide stand-up counters for special instruments and reagents which may be shared by groups of students . - Auxiliary rooms are required . These in . clude preparation and issuing rooms, glassware processing rooms, storage rooms, and media-preparation rooms. Some schools place large and noisy pieces of equipment shared by groups of students in a separate instrument room . " Graduate students usually use the same laboratories as medical students for classroom laboratory work . If separate facilities are provided, they are located close to the TABLE 7
auxiliary rooms. The design is similar but size will vary with the teaching program . Multidiscipline Laboratories The multidiscipline laboratory is sized to take the number of students assigned to one teacher, usually 16 students, although some schools assign 24 . Except for dissection, the student will do all his laboratory work in this room ; therefore, both sit-down counters, 31 in . high, and standup counters, 37 in . high, are required . In addition, movable tables 37 in . high are required for animal work for physiology (Figs . 6 and 7) . Table 7 gives the area for multidiscipline laboratories . Each student is assigned a space containing about 4 ft of stand-up counter end the same length of sit-down counter opposite . Utilities, storage, sinks, and general design and finishes of both stand-up and sit-down space will be similar to that for conventional laboratories . Chalkboards should be visible from each student space . Bulletin boards should be located near the entrance . An equipment room is provided adjacent to or between each pair of multidiscipline laboratories in some designs . Equipped with a fume hood, counter space with utilities and cabinet space, it houses equipment required for the work in adjoining laboratories . Equipment such as centrifuge, freezers, and refrigerators are available to more then one laboratory . The laboratory manager's office, secretary's office, end office space for one or two assistants should be provided . In addition, a ready storage room, a student issuing and supply room, a chemical storage room, cold room, and glass-washing room are required . If media preparation or slide preparation are to be done here, space for these should be provided .
Not Area tot Hypothetical Multidiscipline Laboratories Type of facility
School A (entering clue of 64 students)
School B (entering class of 96 students)
Square feet Total . . .- . . . . . . . .-- . . .-- .---- . .. .- .- . .----- .- .------ . .--- . . Gross dissecting rooms (4 students/table) : Medical students- .-- .------------- .- .--- .------- - . .----------Graduate students --------------------------------------------Utility room- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-- .- .-- .- .-- .- . . .----------Storage room .- .- . . . . . . . . . . . .------------- .--- .--------------Neuroanatomy -----------------------------------------------Multidiscipline laboratories : lot year medical students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "Interlab" equipment rooms.. . . . . . . . . .- . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . 2d year medical students-- .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- .------ . . .--------"Interlab" equipment rooms . . .-- .--- . .--- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancillary teaching facilities : Cold rooms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regulated temperature rooms------------- .--------------------Human experiments laboratory . .------------ .- . .- .- . . . .- . .-----Glass washing, sterilizing, and storage------ .- . . .- .----- .--------Media preparation room .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clinical pathology tissue room ----------------------------------Balance rooms .----- .--------- .- .- . . . . . . .-- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculating and drafting rooms----- . .--- . . . .---- . .-- . .-- . .-- .--Animal rooms. .-------------------------- .--------------- .---Conference rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .----- . . . . . . . .-- . . . . . . . . . .-Stockrooms --------------------------------------------------Laboratory management : Laboratory manager's office .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secretary'soffice ---------------------------------------------Assistant managers' offices-- . .--- .--- .- .-----------------------Laboratory --------------------------------------------------Cold room ---------------------------------------- .----------Animal room --------------------------------------------------
22,500
29,960
2,560 720 160 250 290
3,840 720 160 250 290
940) (2 (y 400) (4 @ 940) (2 Ga 400)
3,760 800 3,760 800
(6 (3 (6 (3
@ 940) ® 400) ® 940) ® 400)
5,640 1,200 5,640 1,200
(2 ® 200) (2 ® 410)
400 820 780 630 280 570 200 560 1,640 1,400 820
(2 ® 200) (2 ® 410)
400 820 780 630 280 570 300 560 2,460 2,100 820
(4 @
(2 (2 (4 (4 (2
® 100) Q 280) ® 410) ® 350) @ 410)
(2 @ 140)
210 210 280 410 100 100
(3 (2 (6 (6 (2
® 100) ® 280) ® 410) ® 350) ® 410)
(2 ® 140)
210 210 280 410 100 100
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
Fig. 4
Layout for a conventional teaching laboratory with single-faced benches .
Fig. 5
Layout for a conventional teaching laboratory with double-laced benches.
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
Additional unassigned conference rooms sized to accommodate 20 persons may be provided in the basic science facilities for use by unscheduled groups.
Basic Science Departments Anatomy Figure 8 shows a
space diagram for a minimum department of anatomy . Table 8 provides a list of net areas for an anatomy department . Dissecting Room . The teaching area for gross anatomy is usually one large room with stand-up height dissecting tables to accommodate all the students in the course. Convenience for faculty and students and proximity of elevator service to be used for transporting cadavers are important considerations in the location . Provisions should be made to prevent viewing of dissection procedures by unauthorized persons . One dissecting table for each four students is usually required.
Tables should be arranged to allow ample work space on all sides . Additional space to accommodate one or two portable tables for use in demonstrations or by special students may be required . If dissecting tables are movable, a folding partition may be installed to provide a screen behind which the tables may be stacked during off-semesters, freeing the room for other uses . Handwashing facilities for students should be provided in the dissecting room . Surgical scrub-up sinks, three for each sixteen students, with wrist- or foot-action valves or industrialtype fixtures are recommended . Counter units should have reagent ledges, knee spaces, and under-counter drawers and cabinets for storage of student's dissecting equipment and demonstration microscopes . Electrical service outlets for microscope illuminators should be provided . Counter tops should have resilient surfaces . Wall-mounted x-ray illuminators, one for
each sixteen students, a bank of four to eight, should be located for easy viewing by a group . Chalkboards located for easy viewing by each sixteen-student group should also be provided . Storage for fixed specimens and models used in demonstrations and for x-ray film should be provided . Cabinets in a connecting area, such as a utility room, may suffice . The uohty room, which may serve as a diener's work room, should have a flushingrim service sink accessible to the dissecting area . The sink should have flush valve and wrist-operated valves . Graduate-student dissecting room . It should be adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the medical students' dissecting room . Fixed equipment and mechanical facilities should be similar to those furnished the medical student . Microneuroanatomy Teaching Laboratory A conventional student teaching laboratory for microanatomy and neuroanatomy instruction usually requires a demonstration area with a table, chalkboard, projection screen, and sitdown laboratory benches to accommodate all the students of either course . Benches should seat four students on the same side to face in the same direction for an unobstructed view of the demonstration area . Each bench position should have knee space, drawers, and a cabinet for storing slides and microscope case . Water, air, gas, electrical outlets, and vacuum should be provided at each position . Liquid waste receptors in bench tops may be either lead cup sinks or continuous drain troughs with stone end sinks . Bench top material should be resilient and alcohol-and stain-resistant . In addition to sit-down benches, some standup bench space should be provided for each sixteen students . Bulletin boards and tack boards should be provided . Graduate-student teaching laboratory . It should be adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the medical students' microneuroanatomy teaching laboratory . Fixed equipment and mechanical facilities should be similar to those furnished the medical student . Gross Neuroanatomy Room . This room is a supplementary teaching area . Usually the area serves also as a departmental storage center for specimens, in which case adjustable shelv-
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS TABLE 8
Net Area for a Department of Anatomy School A (entering class of 64 students) Type of facility
School B (entering class of 96 students)
with conventional departmental laboratories
With multidiacipline laboratories
With tidiacipline oratories
7 7
7
10 10
Assumed size of faculty_ ._______________________-Number of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows_
7L7 Square feet
19,330 Total net area________-_______ .__ ._ .______ ._ Faculty offices, research laboratories, and related facilities : 11,640 Total ------------------------------------210 Professor's office -----------------------------280 Secretary's cities ----------------------------350 Conference room . . --------------------------(4) 560 Faculty offices ------------------------------200 Postdoctoral fellows'office --------------------280 Data room----------------------------------280 Special-projects room ------------------------Research laboratories : 610 Departmental________ . .- .____ ._______ .___ 1,830 General--------------------------------- (3) -------I--------------(2) 400 Graduate students 400 Special ---------------------------------- (2) 610 Electron microscopy rooms -------------------280 Storage room -------------------------------Tissuestalningandembeddingandtechnician'sofce1, 140 570 Microneuro preparation and technician's office___ 200 Special instrument storage --------------------200 Coldroom-----------------------------------410 Animal room --------------------------------- (1) . Grouneuroanstomy and neurological storage room 410 Cadaver storage rooms (60 bodies) and com720 pressor room ------------------------------- (2) 560 Embalming room----------------------------160 Embalming room storage ----------------200 Crematory ----------------------------------210 Morgue (pathology)__________________________ 140 office ----------------------------Mortician's 430 Urn storage room----------------------------Departmental central storage r-------------- _ ---------------Conventional teaching : Total ------------------------------------Gross dissecting rooms (4 students/table) Undergraduate students___________________ Graduate students--------- .-------------Utility room_____________________________ Storage room ---------------------------Micronewoanatomy teaching Laboratories : Undergraduate students----------------- -_ Graduate students -----------------------Conference roo------------------------------
7,690
(1)
(4)
22,950
11,510 210 280 350 560 200 280 280 610 1,830 400 400 610 280 1, 140 570 200 200 410 280
(3) (2) (2)
(1)
(4)
(4) (3) (t)
(2)
12,660 210 280 350 560 200 280 280 6l0 2,440 600 200 610 280 1, 140 570 200 200 820 410
(2)
720 (2) 720 560 560 160 160 200 200 210 210 140 140 430 430 --------------------------(1 )
10,290
(1) 12,530 210 280 350 560 200 280 280
(4)
610 2, 440 600 200 610 280 1, 140 570 200 200 820 280
(4) (3) (1)
(2) (2)
720 560 160 200 210 140 430 -------------(')
2,560 720 - .-------160 _ ____- . . . . . . -------250 _
3,840 .- -----------720 -------------160 -------------250 __ .--_______
3,000 ------720 _ . .- .______ 2S0 .---- ---------
4,320 -------------720 -------------280 --------------
' For total net area for multidiacipline laboratories, see Table 7 For central storage areas, see Table 6 .
ing for supporting a number of jars of formalin is required . The demonstration table, located at the center of the room to accommodate four students on each side, is usually provided with a stainless-steel top with raised edge and an integral sink at one end . Lighting should be designed for close observation at tabletop level . Hand-washing facilities, an x-ray film illuminator, and a chalkboard should be provided . Storage for formalin should be considered . Tissue Staining and Embedding. This unit may be subdivided into a head technician's office, an embedding area, a sectioning and tissue-staining area, and a slide storage-andissue area with access to the teaching laboratory, preferably by way of a dutch door for issuing slides and materials. In the embedding room small tissue specimens are prepared, processed through a number of solutions by hand or in an automatic tissue-processing machine, then embedded in small cubes of paraffin or colloidin . Preparing the specimens requires the use of a refriger-
ator for gross tissue storage and a sit-down counter with sink . For processing specimens and mixing solutions, a stand-up counter with sink, undercounter cabinets for equipment, and wall cabinets for chemicals and reagents are usually sufficient . For embedding procedures, an island bench of stand-up height with paraffin oven at or near one end should be provided . Cabinets with drawers for paraffin molds and mounting blocks and for filing embedments in frequent use should be provided . A storage room for embedments and for fixed gross tissue specimens not frequently used should be provided in the general storage area of the building . Glazed partitions may be installed to separate sectioning and mounting activities from the staining procedures . mounting activities reSectioning and quire sit-down counters with knee space and drawers for storing slides end equipment . Counters for tissue staining and stain mixing should be of sit-down height . Each work position should have a sink, knee space, cabinets for equipment, and chemical storage . For
attaching cover glasses and labels, a sit-down counter with knee space and drawers is satisfactory . Hand-washing facilities should be provided . Counter-top surfaces should be resilient and stain and alcohol resistant . The slide storage-and-issue area requires standard microscope slide file cabinets, and cabinets for storage of boxed sets of slides . Microneuro Preparation . To prepare microscope slides used in the neuroonatomy course, a microneuro preparation unit is required similar in design and equipment to the tissue staining and embedding unit for microanatomy . The head technician's office should have access to the unit and to the corridor . Electron Microscopy . In the preparationroom, stand-up and sit-down counters and a fume hood are required . Air, gas, vacuum, and electrical outlets should be available . A refrigerator is necessary for chemical storage . The electron microscope should be located away from electric motors, elevators, fans, and other equipment that may generate vibration and stray magnetic fields . The room should be shielded to minimize dust, and the room should be windowless . Electron microscopy requires a darkroom next to the microscope room . Table 9 gives the area for an electron microscope suite . TABLE 9 Suite "
Net Area for Electron Microscope School A (entering class of 64 students), square feet
Type of supporting area
Total . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electron microscope Darkroom . . . . . . Preparation area . . Entr y . . . . . . . . .
rooms . . . . . . . . . . . .
See departments pathology .
of
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
anatomy,
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
610 (2)
microbiology,
230 70 280 30 and
Cadaver Preparation and Storage . The unit should be so located and designed that no unauthorized persons may enter . Its location relative to the dissecting and autopsy rooms should not require transportation through any public areas. It should be located at grade with a receiving entrance accessible to a low loading platform . Where design permits, the platform may also serve the animal-receiving entrance . The mortician's work area or embalming room should permit working on all sides of the embalming table and handling by stretcher cart, portable lift, or other means . An embalming table with built-in sink et one end is generally preferred . A combination instrument and scrub sink with knee- or foot-operated valve, service sink, and a floor drain should be provided . Floor and wall materials should be washable . A connected storage room for supplies and equipment is necessary . Shower and dressing facilities for use of the mortician should be provided . A mortician's office should be adjacent to the area . Cadaver storage should be adjacent to the embalming room . There are several methods of storing cadavers, some more demanding of space than others . An efficient method is storage on individual tray shelves on both sides of a service aisle . Thirty-five trey positions are usually adequate for a school with a 64-
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
student entering class ; provision should be made in the original planning for approximately 60 tray positions to accommodate enrollment increases up to 96 students . A crematory, if provided, should be located in the cadaver preparation and storage unit . The department will require storage space for tissue embedments and gross organs . The same type storage as that described for pathology should be provided . BiOchelllili ty Figure 9 shows a space diagram for a minimum department of biochemistry . Table 10 gives the area for the department for the 64- and 96-student class hypothetical schools . Teaching Laboratory . The conventional teaching laboratory is similar to those of other basic sciences. Island-type laboratory benches approximately 16 feet long will accommodate eight students, four on either aide . The bench should have a stone sink at one or preferably both ends and a continuous drain trough or cup sinks (one for each two students), a continuous reagent shelf, and individual service outlets for each student . Services required are gas, air, vacuum, cold water, and electricity . Bench tops should be stone or acid-resistant compoaition surfaces. A large chalkboard, smaller chalkboards for each 16 students, a retractable projection screen, and a bulletin board should be provided . An instructor's table of desk height with knee space, cabinets, cup sink, electrical outlets, cold water, and gas should be provided for demonstration to the class . The teaching laboratory should be adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the medical student teach-
ing laboratory . Fixed equipment and mechanical facilities should be similar to those furnished the medical student . Preparation Room . A preparation room adjacent to the teaching laboratory is used for mixing reagents and for storing chemicals and glassware . It may be divided by partitions into alcoves for separating issue, storage, and preparation . These alcoves should have laboratory benches, sinks, and cabinets for use as a research area . The storage of glassware, chemicals, and other stocked items requires adjustable shelving . The issuing area requires cabinets with small drawers and an issue window or door opening into the leaching laboratory . Glassware Washing and Storage. Commercial glass washing and drying machines are often employed. In addition, a large sink with drainboards is required, with space for glassware carts, a worktable for glassware sorting, and shelves for storage . Physi010gy Figure 10 shows a space diagram for a minimum department of physiology . Table 11 gives the net area for a physiology department. Teaching Laboratory. A conventionalteaching laboratory may be used by more than one department . The laboratory described here is a conventional laboratory designed for specific use by the department of physiology . With only minimal additional equipment this laboratory is suitable for pharmacology teaching . Many animals are used in physiology teaching and stand-up tables 37 in . high with casters to accommodate four students, two on each side, are suggested . A shelf under the top
should be provided as storage space for animal boards . A service island may be provided with gas, electrical, air, and vacuum outlets . Distilled water should be piped into one place in each laboratory or preparation area and carboys should be used at work stations . A floor drain should be installed between each pair of service islands . A 4-ft fume hood should suffice for eight students . Space for incubators should be considered unless they can be placed on counters . Chalkboards, a bulletin board, and a retractable projection screen should be furnished similar in size and number to those in other teaching laboratories . Space for an instructor's table at the front of the laboratory is required . Graduate Student Teaching Laboratory. It should be located adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the teaching laboratory . Fixed equipment and mechanical facilities should be similar to those furnished the medical student . Student Research Laboratory . Furniture and mechanical facilities may be similar to those of a typical research laboratory. Equipment Storage . An equipment storage area, adjacent to the teaching laboratory, is needed, as is desk space for a stock clerk and technician . A 31-in .-high pounter with gas, air, vacuum, and electrical outlets and cabinets should be installed for testing and preparing equipment . An issue window or door opening into the teaching laboratory is desirable . Space for assembly of equipment to be issued and for glassblowing and soldering should be provided . Shielded Room. If required by the program, a shielded room distant from obvious electrostatic interference must be provided .
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
LAB DEPT. . 610
PROr 210
L A[ . 61,
SEG Y . 260
CONFERENCE 3)0
PO.r. W. 200
POiS 200
PO.I S 200
FACULTY OFrI ES 140 140
D" T" 111 2f0
6
16 MODULES
"511.10 S111
Or
GRA , 6T
B!
XT
SPECIAL PROJECTS RFA 260
fTpl " 6E 610
YIIYAL AM . 410
O(IT . 5 .7 . ROY"70GRAM7 RY . 160 4)0
6
MODULES
MODULES
ULTRA CENTRIFUGE RY . 0,0 "
"VNTIXG 280
6
FAG . OFr NO
RY
YODUL.I
DARK * AM 100
6ulfURE WASHING " DARK STDIrpE AM, " 410 100
COLD AM . 100
j
GRAD. S7uDEXT! iLICNIXG LA6 TLO
,
I I
I PREP
570
!
ROOM
TEACHING LABORATORY INEDICAL STUDENTS]
)000
40DULE5
FACULTY
N0. GR10u11E STUDENTS 6 PosT DOCTOR " , FELLOWS
-
"w
*SPECIAL ROOMS WL L VARY WITH TYPE of RESEARCH PROGRAM . NET
11111 - 1196010 IT
Fig . 9
Diagram for a department of biochemistry .
TABLE 10
Net Area far a Department of Biochemistry School A (entering class of 64 students) Type of facility
with conventional departmental laboratories
Amumedsize offaculty --------------------------Number of graduate students aDd postdoctoral fellows_
School B (entering class of 96 students)
with with multidiscipline eonventionRl laboratories ~ department,d IeboratorL-
6 10
6 10
with multidiscipline laboratories
9 14
9 14
Square feet Total net area_____________________________ Faculty offices, research laboratories, and related facilities : Total -------------------------------------
12,240
8,670 1
Professor's office______________________________ 210 Secretary's office----------------------------280 room_____________________________ Conference 350 _ ___ ___________ (3) Faculty offices________ 420 Postdoctoral fellows' offices -------------------- (2) 400 Data room___________________________________ 280 Special-projects room_________________________ 280 Research laboratories : Departmental____________________ _____ _ 610 General_________________________________ 610 Postdoctoraifello---------------------------------------------200 Graduate studenta------------------------ (4) 800 Storage room (future laboratory)_______________ 610 Storage room -------------------------------280 taassware wa6hiwashing and storage_________________ 410 Cold room_----------------- ---------------200 Special-equipment room F______________________ 430 Centrifuge room 2----------------------------410 Darkrooms 2---------- __-_______ __ ._ -_ __ (2) 200 Counting room t______________________________ 280 Departmental shop____ --------------------------280 Animal room_________________________________ 410 Graduate students' teaching laboratory__________ 720 Departmental storage F------------------------ -------------Conventional teaching : Total____________________
_______________
Teaching laboratory__________________________ Preparation room_____________________________ '
(')
3,570
14, 980
8,6-10 210 280 350 420 400 280 280
(3) (2)
610 610 200 800 610 280 410 200 430 410 200 280 280 410 720
(4)
(2)
__________
( 1)
3,000 -------------570 ---------------
For total net area for multidiscipline laboratories, see Table 7 . Special rooms will vary with type of research . For central storage areas, see Table 6 .
(1 )
10,0901
10,090
-_- 010 l1 280 350 (3) 420 1 (3) (2) 4011' (2) 280 280 (3) (5)
(2)
610 1,830 200 1,000
210 280 350 420 400 280 280 610 1,830 2u0 1,000 0111 280 410 `00 430 410 200 280 280 410 720
(3) (5)
2811 6,0 410 ! 200 430 410 200 (2) 280 280 410 '] 720 :
__________
4,890 4,320 570
________
__
(1)
______________
Audio Room . If an audio room is provided, it should consist of a test room and a control room with a triple-glazed clear-glass observation window between and with acoustical treatrTTent, including reduction of floor vibration . The test room should have a microphone and a speaker cabinet . The control room should have a sit-down counter with cabinets located on the observation window side . Physio-optics Room . If the student curriculum includes exercises in physio-optics, a special room will be needed with 20-ft separation between the subject and the vision chart . A sink for hand washing and a sit-down counter for recording are necessary . Treadmill and Gas Analysis . A room close to the laboratory is preferable . The room should also contain a cot and table for recording . This room should be near Supply Room . the teaching laboratory . Shelving and racks for volatile solvent storage should be within a fire-resistive closet off the mixing and issue areas . Counter tops, 37 in . high, with gas, air, vacuum, and electrical outlets, cabinets with varying sized drawers, and a sink are required for mixing solutions and preparations for student use . Glassware washing and storage require a large sink, drainboards, provision for distilled water, and base cabinets for glassware . An issue window is suggested . Space should be allocated for solution carts and assembly of materials to be issued . A head technician's office may be required depending on the quantity of material handled . A minimum machine Department Shop. shop should contain a drill press, a metal lathe, a milling machine, and wood and metal bandsaws . A workbench, stock racks, and tool bin are required . In the electronics area, a sit-down work counter with electrical outlets of appropriate voltages, drawers, and locked storage cabinets for electronic equipment and space to bring in floor-mounted equipment for testing will be required . Noise and vibration associated with technical shops should be considered in their relation to other areas . Constant Temperature Rooms . Constanttemperature rooms should have access to the corridor and to a work area . Doors from the corridor should accommodate beds or animal
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
GOAD.
oc`1oA4~
" NOI. 210
a1i
-T
Mutt
p , s.
"YDOFos
T
T
4EGT 240
rANFENENCI ]SO
FAOFF 1A0
T7 E! 1b
.C D .TA 210
1! YOOULES
YO U
1so
TLQi
STUDENT
,uD iiiua
10e Au " . -_
SRCI.L MIOUtOT!! Y!0
"
WOaa AREA
.
TREAWILL I r3 awLrsls
sr`o1.E
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S
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FK MF I "0
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-_
OAllx NY 210
D
-_
M " T SNO " 240
YO .UL15
-
I
I
_____J
t
EOUI ". 57011 .1.E 550
!
I
CIIAO . STUDENTS
su " !ioxN
TEAC.I N. LA40 " ATOAY (Y[OgAL STUOI
1.00
I
NODULES
.SSUYEO SIZE Or FACULTY " { rO OF GRADUATE STUDENTS IS " 4 Po5T DOCTORAL FELLOWS NET AREA . o950 SO FT
Fig. 10
Diagram lot a department
of physiology .
racks. Floor and wall surfaces should be similar to those suggested for animal quarters . The work area associated with these rooms should have 31-in.-high work counters, a sink, and gas, air, vacuum, and electrical outlets . Microbiology Figure 11 shows a space diagram for a minimum department of microbiology . The net area for a microbiology department is given in Table 12 . Teaching Laboratory . The conventional teaching laboratory is usually designed to accommodate the second-year class. Satisfactory results can be obtained with the use of an island-type laboratory bench to position four students all on the same side facing demonstrations. Laboratory benches may be 31 in . high for sitdown work with microscopes . Each student should have knee space, drawers for supplies, and a cabinet for microscope storage. Bench service outlets should be water, gas, air, vacuum, and electrical for each position . A cup sink at each position, or continuous drain trough, and a shelf for storing bottles above are required . Bench tops should be resilient and stainproof . In addition to island benches, it is desirable to have counters 37 in . high, with reagent shelves equipped with gas, air, vacuum, electrical outlets, and sinks with wrist-action valves for hand washing. A chalkboard, a bulletin board, a retractable projection screen, and space for the instructor's desk at the front of the laboratory are required . Space in the teaching laboratory may be required for incubators and refrigerators. One domestic refrigerator per sixteen students and one stationary incubator per eight students should be provided . A stationary centrifuge, one per sixteen students, may be provided depending on the curriculum . Facilities should be available to maintain and observe such small animals as rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice close to the teaching laboratories . Graduate Student Teaching Laboratory . It should be adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the teaching laboratory . Fixed equipment and mechanical facilities should be similar to those furnished the medical student . Research Laboratories The microbiology
TABLE 11
Net Area for a Department of Physiology _ _ I
Type of facility
L
School A (entering Class of 04 students)
School S Centering class of 96 students)
R'ith With «'i(.h With ' rouvrntionel mullidiscipdie, coLycutiooal unllcidi,l" 11~linc dopnrtnleiital ~ laboratories departineutal laboratories laburatorir, 1aboratorirs
Assumed size of faculty- _____ .________- .-Number of graduate studeuts and postdoctoral fcli,r., "
6 l6
6
S I S
8 4
Square feet Total Let area__ . . .
- ..
-
_
- ------
Faculty offices, research laboratories, and related fardltles' Total ----------------------------------
12,230 1, 12, I
. _ professor'soffice - ________________ Secretary'soffice -_-_______________ .__________ ' -----------Conference room ----------------Faculty offices _--___ .__ ._________ .___ .________I Postdoctorelfellows office -------- ----------Dots room ----------------------------Slx" cial-projects room -------------------------- , Research laboratories : Departmental_______________ __ ._________I General------------ _________ Graduatestudents ----------- -----------------Storage room (future laboratory) Storage room --------------------------------Constant-temperature rooms ------------------- ' Shielded room --------------------------Dark room ---------------------------------- , Departmentalshop ---------- __--Animal room --------------------------------Cold To------------ _ ----------Graduate students teaching laboratory__________ Departmental central storage'__________________ -----------Conventional teaching . Total- ._---------------------- -----------__ . Teaching laboratory Equipment storage room_______________________ --------------------------__ __ _ _ ____ Supply room_____ ______ Student r-carch laboratorv and work area______ --Audio room --- __ . .___ .________________________ Physio-upticsroom _______-________ _ .-____ .____~i Treadmill and gas analysis room-------------------I
6,040
(1)
1
6,740
2111 1 211 , 350 560 (4) 21rt) 2, I1 2111
(4)
t 1)
Id, IGO
210 2411'1 350 5611 (4) 2110 2111 2111
7,550
7,550
21()
210 2,111 350 5(10 2110 _1.0 2111
24(1
35(1 560 211u 2~tl 2it11
(4)
6111 610 6111 fill fil0 1 610 41111 (2) 400 (2) +1111 4141 ('2J 610 1.1(1 1 6111 6111 2,11 25(1 2J1) 2511 (2) 2411 ('2) 240 (2) 2411 (2) 240 '1111 . 210 210 210 210 210 210 '1111' 210 2811 25(1 210 250 410 41111 411) 410 2(10 260 200 200 720 721 7'30 720 ____________ _ _____ ._____________________ ________--_(2)
5,290
(1)
3,000 350 -------------610 _ ------------.___90 -------------26(11 __-_____ 410 '_ _____ .____
1 For total net area for multidiscipline laboratories see Table 7. ' For central storage area, see Table fi
6,610
(I)
4,3'20 3 :50 3.50 610 5.0 90 260 410
I______________ ______________ -------------_ _____ .______ 1 --------------
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
research laboratories will, in many instances, be similar in equipment and design to laboratories in other basic sciences . However, laboratories used for bacteriological and virus research have additional requirements . Glassware of an unusually large size is often used . One sink in each laboratory should be sized to wash this glassware . Separate animal rooms are provided in the microbiology department to prevent crosscontamination . If highly contagious material is to be handled, a vestibule may be needed at the entrance to microbiology animal rooms to permit the attendant to change clothes and shoes to reduce infection and cross-contamination . Electron Microscopy . Facilities for this purpose would be similar to those described for the department of anatomy . Media preparation Media Preparation . areas should be adjacent to teaching areas and designed to eliminate through traffic to prevent drafts and the introduction of contaminating organisms . A media kitchen requires a range, or portable hot plates on a counter 37 in . high, for cooking the material . Counter-top sinks and cabinets with drawers ranging in width from 6 in . t o 2 ft 6 in . and wall cabinets with shelves for storage are desirable . Counters should have air, gas, vacuum, and electrical outlets . Distilled water should be piped to one location over a sink and distributed in carboys . After the unsterile liquid culture media has been prepared in bulk quantities, it is dispensed into test tubes or plates . This requires counter space similar to the media kitchen, including wall and base cabinets and service outlets . An autoclave is required for sterilizing prepared culture media after it is poured into previously sterilized petri dishes . A flushing-rim sink near the autoclave is desirable for disposal of spoiled media . The issue room will contain glassware and equipment storage, shelving and cabinets for glassware and equipment, and an issue window opening into the laboratory . Glassware Washing and Storage . If this is to be done as a central unit for the department, it should be divided into sterilizing, sterile storage, glassware washing, and clean glass storage . An autoclave to sterilize glassware prior to washing, a sink and drainboard area, and space for chemical jars and for soaking extra dirty glassware are required . Commercial glass
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
washers and dryers may be employed and space for these should be provided beside the sink . Space should be available at sink and washer area for glassware and petri dish carts and cart storage . Storage areas should be furnished with adjustable shelving, as some glassware may be exceptionally long or high . An issue window or door from sterile storage to corridor should be provided . Chemical Storage . Bulk storage of chemicals should be provided for in basement areas . Pathology Figure 1 2 shows a space diagram for a minimum department of pathology . Table 13 gives the net area for a pathology department . Teaching Laboratory. A conventional teaching laboratory similar to that described for micro- and neuroanatomy is usually adequate for teaching the second-year pathology course . Graduate Student Teaching Laboratories . These should be adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the medical students' pathology teaching laboratory . Tissue Staining and Embedding, Technician's Office. A unit similar in design and equipment to the tissue staining and embedding unit described for microanatom y should be provided . Clinical Pathology Preparation Unit . This unit usually has a head technician's office and a preparation room with direct access to the teaching laboratory, preferably by a dutch door . For preparing some types of specimens as well as stains and reagents for direct issue, a stand-up counter 37 in . high is desirable. For other types of specimens, particularly those such as blood and bone marrow, a sit-down counter 31 in . high is more convenient . Both counters should have reagent shelves, countertop sinks, air, gas, vacuum, and electrical service outlets, knee spaces, cabinets for storing equipment and chemicals and reagents . Work surfaces should be alcohol- and stainresistant and resilient to minimize glass breakage . A refrigerator for storage of clinical material and a lavatory with wrist-action valves for handwashing are necessary . Space for parking a specimen cart should be provided . Autopsy Room . This should be located convenient both to the teaching hospital and to the pathology department and arranged so as to prevent unnecessary contact of unauthorized persons with autopsy procedures. If the basic science building is separated from the teaching hospital, autopsy facilities should
TABLE 13
Net Area for a Department of Pathology
Type of facility
School A (entering class of 64 students)
School 11 (entering class of 96 students)
With conventional departmental laboratories
With conventional departmental laboratories
Assumed size of faculty'-------------------------Number of graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and residents_________________ _________________
With uiultidiscipline laboratories
6
6 -
6
6
With multidiscipline laboratories
_ 9 --
9
8
8
Square feet Total net area______________________________
14, 100
Faculty offices, research laboratories, and associated facilit tea : Total___________ _________________________
11,100
Professor's office______________________________ 210 Secretary's offiices_____________________________ (2) 560 Conference room_______________ _____________ 350 Faculty offices_______ _____________________ _ (3) 420 Postdoctoral fellows' office_____________________ 130 Data room--_________ m----------------------------------280 Special-projects room ---------- _-------------280 Research laboratories : Departmental ---------------------------610 General ____ ___________________________ (2) 1,099 Graduate students________________________ 200 Special__________ _______________________ 200 Residents' laboratories ------------------------ (2) 400 Electron microscope__________________________ 610 Storage room __-----------------------------280 Tissue staining and embedding and technician's office___ __________________________________ 1,290 Clinical pathology preparation __--------------570 Record storage__ ____________________________ 21)0 Autopsy rooms ____________________ _________ 410 Darkroom_----------------------------------100 Utility room_________________________________ 300 Photo room ---------------------------------110 Autopsy and X-ray --------------------------410 Gross pathology conference room_______________ 310 Dictation room------------------------------140 Showers, locksmand toilets -------------------310 Morgue (see department of anatomy)___________ ______________ Animal roome____________________ ___________ 910 Cold rooms______________ ---------------------------------200 Graduate students teaching laboratory__________ 720 Departmental central storage °_____ __________ _ -------------ConvenConventional teaching : Total_____________ _ _____________________ 3,000 Teaching laboratory -------------------------- -
(°)
(2) (3)
17,390 i
11,1001
13,(1701
210 560 350 420 130 280 280
210 560 350 420 200 2511 280
610 1,090 200 200 400 610 280
(2) (2)
1,290 570 200 410 100 300
(2) (3)
(3) (3)
(2)
110
610 1,830 200 2011 530 6111 280 1,290 570 410 820 100 300
(r)
13,070 210 560 350 420 200 280 2811
(2) (3)
160 1,830 200 200 530 610 280
(3) (3)
1,290 570 410 820 100 300
(2)
110
410 310 140 310
110
410 310 140 310 ---------------------------- -------------410 (2) 820 (2) 820 200 200 200 720 720 720 ___________
(s)
3,000 ______________I
410 310 140 310
-------_____
4,320
(r)
4,320
' For teaching responsibility only . r For total net area for multidiscipline laboratories see Table 7 . For central storage areas, see Table 6 Note .-These areas do not provide for the permanent professional or resident staffs performing services for clinical pathology in the teaching hospital.
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
TABLE 14
Net Area for a Department of Pharmacology
Type of facility
School A (entering class of 64 students)
School B (entering claw of 96 students)
With eonventlonal departmental laboratories
With conventional departmental laboratories
Assumed aim of faculty --------------------------Number of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows_
With inultidiacipline laboratories
5 5
With niultidiscipline laboratories
7 7
5~ 5
7 7
Square feet Total net area-----------------------------Faculty offices, research laboratories, and associated facilities : Total ----------------------------------
7,700 210 280 350 560 200 280 280
Professor's office __ .--------------------------Secretary's office-----------------------------Conference room ----------------------------Faculty offices ____ -------------------------- (4) Postdoctoral fellows' office --------------------Data room ----------------------------------Special-projects room_ ----------------------Research laboratories : 610 Departmentsl---------------------------610 General --------------------------------400 (2) Graduate students -----------------------610 Storage room (future laboratory) --------------280 Storage room ---------------------- _--------430 Supply room_________________________________ 560 Glassware washing and storage ----------------90 Anesthesia storage__________ _________________ lib Darkroom----------------------------------820 Animal rooms-------------------------------- (2) 200 Cold room --------- ._______ .____________ .____ 820 Graduate students teaching laboratory . --------_____________ Departmental central storage t----------------Conventional teaching : Total ----------------- .__ .________________ Teaching laboratory ---------- .---------------Preparation room__ m---------------------------------Students research laboratory'
(')
11,520
3,820
(4)
13,450
7,700
8' 310
8,310
210 280 350 560 200 280 280
210 280 350 560 200 280 280
(4)
21(1 280 350 560 200 280 280
610 1,220
(2)
610 610
(2)
400
610 280 430 560 90
110
820 200 820
,2 _1
(4)
(2)
(2)
(2)
4(K)
610 280 430 560 90
110
820 200 820
---------------------------
( 1)
3,000 -------------330 -------------490 __ ._______ . .__
5,140
610 1,220 400 610 280 430 560 9u
(2)
110
(2) .-
___
820 200 820 _-___ ._ (r)
4,320 -------------330 -------------490 __-___________
For total net area for multidiscipline laboratories, see Table 7. For central storage areas, see Table 6.
be located in the hospital to avoid transporting bodies from one building to another . Each autopsy room should be equipped with a scrub-up sink with knee- or fool-action valve ; a sink with drainboards, cold-water manifold, and gas and electrical service outlets ; an adjacent work counter with drawers and cabinets for storage of supplies ; a flushing-rim clinical sink ; wall cabinets with adjustable shelves
and glazed doors for storing instruments ; a wall-mounted four-bank x-ray film illuminator ; and a chalkboard . An instrument sterilizer and a storage cabinet for fixed specimens should also be provided if they are not available in an adjoining utility or clean-up room . Water and ac electrical service outlets with waterproof caps are required . A table with downdraft top for removal of contamination
and odors directly at their source, with an integral sink at one end of the top, and service outlets, is generally preferred . Provision should be made for foot-operated dictation equipment . A ceiling-mounted 35-mm . still camera should be located over the table for in situ photographs during the autopsy . The same mount may provide for TV to remote monitors . Space to accommodate a portable observation stand opposite the table for convenient viewing of autopsy procedures by students and house staff should be provided . Floor and walls should be of water-resistant material, and a floor drain should be installed . A mobile x-ray Autopsy and X-Ray Room . machine should be provided . X-ray protection should be in accordance with the recommendslions of the applicable handbooks of the National Bureau of Standards . This room Utility and Clean-up Room . should be located between two autopsy rooms with direct access to each and to the corridor . Equipment for this area includes a sink with drainboard ; a flushing-rim service sink ; provisions for storage of glass jars, formalin, and alcohol ; wall cabinets for fixed specimen storage ; and an instrument washer-sterilizer unless provided in each autopsy room . Photo Room . The photo room should adjoin the autopsy room . Fixed equipment in a photo room usually includes a stand-up counter with sink and electrical outlets, a cabinet for instruments and supplies, and shelves for photographic accessories . For photographing gross specimens, a 3-ftsquare light box is used . Electric outlets for table and floodlamps should be 30 amperes . Darkroom . Wet and dry areas of the darkroom should be separated . A refrigerator for storing color film should be provided, and water supply at all processing sinks is required . Bench tops should be chemically inert, watertight, and wear resistant . Floor surfaces should be waterproof, resistant to chemicals, resilient for foot comfort, and not slippery when wet . Cold Room. A cold room separate from the research cold room but adjacent to the autopsy areas for holding tissue and organs for later study is required . A deep-freeze unit and adjustable metal shelving may be provided for preservation of fresh gross material for class use . Stand-up counters with sinks and air, vacuum, and electrical service outlets are required . Floor surface should be smooth, waterproof, and wear resistant .
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS A separate room for storing gross pathological specimens should be provided . Gross Pathology Conference Rooms . A stand-up table with sink at one end and clowndraft top similar to that described for the gross neuroanstomy room is appropriate . Other equipment includes adjustable shelving, x-ray film illuminators, bulletin board, and scrub sink with knee or foot controls . Where possible, this area should have direct access to the cold room . Dictating Room . This in a small room equipped with desk and equipment for writing or dictating autopsy records . Record Storage . Open-faced shelving with shelf dividers designed for vertical stacking of the records with a reference table and chairs should be provided . A storage room for records of less frequent reference should be provided in basement storage . The pathology department requires areas for storage of embedments, fixed tissue, gross organs, microscope slides, and protocol records not in frequent use . Tissue in solution is kept in glass jars, paraffin sealed, and stored on wood shelving designed for jar height . Microscope slides are usually contained in metal slide files, and this area should be separated from areas where formalin vapors are present . Protocol records are often bound and placed on shelving or in legal-size file cabinets .
Pharmacology
Figure 13 shown a space dia . gram for a minimum department of phar . macology . Net area for a pharmacology depart. ment is given in Table 14 . Teaching Laboratory. The conventional pharmacology teaching laboratory may be similar to the physiology teaching laboratory . Graduate Student Teaching Laboratory . This should be adjacent to auxiliary rooms of the medical student teaching laboratory . Fixed equipment and mechanical facilities should be
similar to those furnished the medical student . Student Research Laboratory. A student research laboratory, if provided, should contain facilities similar to those in typical pharmacology research laboratories . Where possible, it should be located within the teaching area but adjacent to research areas . Glassware Washing and Storage. Glassware washing and storage facilities similar to those indicated for the biochemistry department are adequate in the pharmacology department ; they should be located near the teaching laboratory. Preparation Room . This should be adjacent to the pharmacology teaching laboratory . Anesthesia Storage . An anesthesia storage room should be provided with cylinder storage racks to lock cylinders in an upright position and shelving for pressure gauges end other anesthetic equipment . Space at ground level should be provided for bulk storage of cylin . ders . Supply Room . A supply room in pharmacology may be divided into two areas : one for instruments and general supplies and the other for chemicals used in research . Some instruments require floor space while others should be placed on shelving . A deskhigh counter with drawers and file cabinet is needed . Since some instruments may be used here, electrical outlets should be provided . If narcotics are to be stored, a built-in safe should be provided. Space must be provided for the care of ani . mals used in experimental work in phor. macology. A summary of space estimates for all basic science facilities is given in Table 16.
Clinical Science Facilities
The departments generally include internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, preventive medicine,
TABLE 15 Summery of Space Estimates for Basic Science Facilities for Hypothetical 4-Year Medical Schools with Entering Classes of 64 and 96 Students'
Type of facility
School A (entering class of 64 students)
School B (entering claw of 96 students)
With conventional departmental laboratories
With conventional departmental laboratories
With multidiscil9iuu laboratories
With multidiscipline laboratories
Square feet Total gross square feet (rounded) .---- . . .-- . Total ni ,t square feet (round--d)--------------
152,000 99,000
135,000 88,000
183, 000 119,000
158,000 103,000
Departmental facilities. 19,330 11,510 22,950 12,530 .Anatomv .- .----------------- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,240 5,670 14,950 10,090 Biochemistry .- . . .-- .- ._---____- . . . . . . ._ . . .__12,230 6,94(1 14,160 7,550 Physiology 12,240 8,970 14,170 9,580 ----------------------------------Microbiology--------------------------------Pathology +----------------_--. - . -- . . 14,100 11,10() 17 .390 13,070 13,450 8,310 Pharmacolog--------------------------------11,520 7,700 29,960 Nlultidisciplinc laboratories and adjunctive areas . . . . . .- .-- .-22,500 -------3,780 3,780 Lecture rooms ----------------------------------- . 3,780 3,750 Unassigned conference rooms -------- .-- . . . .-------- (2 ® 350) 700 -------------- (3(x}350) 1,050 -------------6,110 9,400 (') Study cubicles $- .-----------------------------(') 1,500 1,500 2,000 2,000 Technical shops --------------------------- .-----4,5011 4,500 4,500 4,500 I)epartmentalcentralstoragc------------- --- .__ 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,2011 Toilets----------------------------- . . . . . . . . . . . . . This table does not include the supporting facilities which are a necessary part of both the basic science and clinical science facilities . ' To compute gross area, it is estimated that 65 percent of the total gross area is available as usable space, and the remaining 35 percent will provide space for exterior wells, partitions, corridors, stairs, elevators, and duct ways and chases for mechanical and electrical requirements . ' Space for service functions in the teaching hospital is not included . " Study cubicles for 3d- end 4th-year students and for house officers in teaching hospital . ' Optional . I
end radiology . Pathology, although usually considered a basic science department, nevertheless has many of the characteristics of a clinical department and, therefore, functionally and structurally, usually bridges both . Space diagrams for the departments of medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics-gynecology, psychiatry, and preventive medicine are shown in Figs . 14 through 19 for a hypothetical school with an entering class of 64 students (60 in the third and fourth year) . Tables 16 through 21 give the not area for a minimum facility for each clinical department for hypothetical schools with entering classes of 64 and 96 students . Table 22 gives a summary of space estimates for all clinical science departments . For convenience of operation, clinical deportment facilities should be located between, and connecting with, the basic science building and the teaching hospital . This allows for joint use of teaching, research, and supporting facilities provided in the basic science building and makes it convenient for the medical staff to take care of their hospital responsibilities. Departments should be located on the some floor or floors as the patient-care units they serve . Research facilities in the form of laboratories should be provided for each department member . Teaching activities of all departments will be carried out, for the most part, in common lecture rooms, on the words of the hospital, and in the outpatient department . Medicine The department of medicine consists of physicians specializing in internal medicine and includes the subspecialties of allergy, cardiology, dermatology, gastroenterology, hematology, infectious diseases end end immunology, metabolism, neurology, pulmonary diseases . The members of the department will hews responsibility for the care of hospitalized patients, for ambulatory patients in the medical clinics of the outpatient department, and for medical consultations on patients under the care of other clinical services . They will have major teaching duties for second-, third-, and fourth-year medical students, and clinical interns, residents, fellows .
Surgery
The department of surgery consists of physicians specializing in general surgery or in one of the surgical specialties, which include ophthalmology, otolarynanesthesiology, plastic gology, orthopedics, neurosurgery, surgery, thoracic surgery, and urology . The members of this department will have responsibility for the care of patients who are hospitalized on the surgical service ; who visit the surgical clinics of the outpatient department ; and who require surgical consultation while on some other service. Often the emergency service of a hospital is under the direction of the department of surgery, as may be the professional aspects of disaster planning . The department of surgery will have teaching responsibilities for second-, third-, and fourthyear medical students, interns, residents, and surgical fellows . Each full-time member of the department may be expected to engage in research . Pediatrics The department of pediatrics consists of physicians specializing in the developmental aspects of physiological processes and expressions of disease . They are as concerned about the long-term health effects of early disease and with their prevention, as with the immediate care of infants and children . In most
0- W F M" OOC1- ru~ws .IT I .I .
-
Fig. 14
III-w11
DIBGFem for a department of medicine .
-
T . GENERAL
SURGERY
ORTHOPEDICS
ASSUMED SIZE OF FACULTY POST DOCTORAL FELLOWS NET
CENT ANESTHESIOLOGY NCURO SURGERY
UROLOGY
15 5
AREA - EGAD SO FT .
Diaarem for a department of surgery.
Fia. 15
ASSUMED SIZE OF
FACULTY
POST DOCTORAL FELLOWS
.
ASSUMED
S
" s
POST
Diagram for a department of pediatrics .
Fig. 17
ASSUMED POST
SIZE
OF FACULTY FELLOWS
DOCTORAL
NET AREA -
Fig. 18
FACULTY
" a "
I
MET AREA - 4120 S0. FT .
MET AREA - 4120 SOFT.
Fig. 16
SIZE OF
DOCTORAL FELLOWS
Diagram for a department of preventive medicine .
4120
SO fT
4 2
Diagram for a department of obstetrics-gynecology.
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS
ASSUYEO SIZE OF FACULTY
"
POST OOGTORAL FELLOWS
10 e
14(T AREA - 5440 50 FT Fig. 19
Diagram for a department of psychiatry .
TABLE 16 Net Area for a Department of Medicine for Hypothetical Schools with Entering Classes of 64 end 96 Students Subspecialty and type of facility
Assumed size of faculty t--__ . _-----Postdoctoral fellows- .-__
School School Is (enter(enteringclass ingelaes of 96 of 64 students) students) 18 8
2, 11 -
Square feet }'arulty facilities : Total net area ---- -------- -_
13,430
15,49(1
General internal medicine : Total__ . .------ .-----Total
'2,400
3,150
210 280 3.50 140 200 610 610
210 280 350 (2) 280 200 610 20 (2) 1 '
Professor's office r---------Secretaries' office_ _-_ _ _ Conference room ----------Faculty offices --------- - _ _ Postdoctoral fellows' office_ _ . Departmental laboratory-__ . Additional laboratories . . .__ . Cardiovascular-renal : Total ___----------------
1,030
1,170
Professor's office -------- ._ _ Secretary's office ----------Faculty offices ------------Laboratory__-- _ ._______ -
110 140 140 610
140 140 ('2) 280 610
Gnrtrointestinal : Total -------------------
1, 170
1, 170
140 Professor's office-----------140 Secretary's office ----------Faculty offices ------------- (-) 280 Laboratory ---------------610
140 140 (2) 280 610
Neurology : Total ------------------Professor's office -----------Secretan'eoffice_ .--------Faculty offices ------------Office _ _ . Laboratory --- . --------- ._____ Chest:
' For
1 . 170
1,810
140 140 140
140 140 ('2) 290 140 610
610
Total___-_ . . ._ ._ ._ ._ . . ._
1,030
Professor's office---- .------Secretary's office ----------Faculty offices_____________ Laboratory -------------- _
140 140 140 610
teaching responsibility only .
r Chairman of department .
_
1,030 140 140 140 610
Seimol A School lb (euter(cuteriugclaas ' ..clans of 89 of 96 students) students)
ubslx" cially and type of facility
Square feet Faculty fucdities-C'ontmucd Metabolism : 'rotal _ _ _ Faculty offices__ . l.aboraton - __---
t,90
4JU -
-
. . . (_') 280 '200
(2)
2SO 410
Allergy : Total- __---- . .-------Faculty offices --------- . . . Laboratory__ __ _ Derlll '1 oltal 't ...
. . ...
ecrSeCTeet8larY 's office_ .------- --: y''e office . . _ _ Fecultyofficc------- ------ Laboratory__
(2)-ISO 610
(':)
',0
610
42U
l . 0,A)
170 140
140
111)
110 140 G10
.-----
440
'4f1
Lftbora office -------------Labora tory ._ . .__
Ia0 .W
140 200
Common-use facilities : Total ---- .----------- . . .
4 .314
4, 710
Hematology : Total ._ .
. . .- .- .
600 .Ppeciallaboratoryy--------- 200 Conferenceeroom--s'ofrtcee ._ 350 130 Conference ---------.__ . . . . . . ._ .10 Steno P_ Data room------------ - ---280 Special-projects room ------250 Storage room (future lab410 oratory) _------- .-------Storage room ------------- . 2SO Cardiac catheter suite. . . . . . . 210 Patients' cold-room_-------- (2) 250 FEGrooms roome__ . . ._ . .- .- .__ . (2) 220 200 Cold room__--------------410 Animal room---------------
(2 ;
('10
4-10
21
_lU _50 0
(2) (2)
410 280 810 250 220 200 410
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS Net Area for a Department of Surgery
TABLE 17
School A School B (enter . (entering class ing clean of 64 of 96 students) students)
Subspecialty and type of facility
Assumed size of faculty I-----------Poetdoctoralfellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 5
Square feet
21 7
Eye, ear, nose, and throat (EENT) Total----- .----------- --
Square feet Faculty facilities : Total net area ----------------
8,840
11,120
General surgery : Total ------------------ .
2,740
4,300
Professor's office 3____-----Secretary's office ----------Conference room ----------Faculty office& . . . . . . . .----Postdoctoral fellows' offices__ Departmental laboratory____ Additional laboratories_____ .
210 280 350 (2) 280 (2) 400 610 610
210 280 350 (3) 420 (3) 600 610 (3)1,830
Orthopedics : Total .__ . . .-_ . .----------
550
690
140 410
(2) 280 410
Faculty offices -------------Laboratory ----------------
'
TABLE 18 Pediatrics
Urology : Total ---------------- . . .
830
830
Professors office ---- . Secretary's office ----------Faculty office ---- -_ . . .__ Laboratory __ . .----- . .---
140 140 140 410
140 140 140 410
School A School B (entering (entering claw of 84 class of 96 students) students)
Assumed size of faculty I-------Pmtdoctoral fellows__ ._ ._ .______
5 3
I
8 4
Square feet Total net area -----------Faculty facilities : Total ------------------Professor's office -----------Professor's office -------- . .__ Secretary's office----------Conference room ------ --Faculty offices__________ __ (2) Postdoctoral fellows' office___ Departmental laboratory____ Additional laboratories_____Common-use facilities : Total ------------------Data room ---- .-----------Special projects room_ _ . _ _ _ _ Storage room (future laborstory)-------------------Storage room -------------Cold room ----------------Animal room---------------
'
For teaching responsibility only.
Profcssor'soffice ------------ !, Faculty offices ___-_ ._ -_ . . I Laboratory---------------Laboratory__--------Anesthesiology : Total ----- .------------Faculty offices ----------- .' Laboratory ------------ -_ . .~ Neurmurgery : Total ----- ._ . . .___ . .___
1,090
1,230
140 140 610 200
140 (2) 280 610 200 690
340 140 200
(2)
280 410
340
690
Faculty offices--------- _ _ . -~i Laboratory ----------------
140 200
(2) 280 410
Common-use facilities : Total ______ .__ ._______--i
2,950
2,690
350 (2) 700 Conference rooms --------- _ 210 210 Steno pool ----- . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 280 Data room _____________- . .-I, 280 Special-projects room . .__ . . . Storage room (future laboratory)-----------------0I0 ------- . 280 Storage room -------------- ------- _ 610 Surgical laboratory- __ . . . . . . 610 200 200 Cold room ----- .- .________ .i 410 410 Animal room ___ . -----------
For teaching responsibility only. Chairman of department .
Net Area for a Department of
Type of facility
School A School B (enter(entering class Ing claw of 64 of 96 students) students)
Subspecialty and type of facility
4,260 2,680 210 140, 280 350 280' (3) 200 610 6101 (2)
TABLE 20 Net Area for a Department of Preventive Medicine
TABLE 19 Net Area for a Department of Obstetrics-Gynecology School B 1 School A (entering (entering clam of 64 class of 96 students) students)
Type of facility
3 I, 1
Assumed size of faculty I-- .----Postdoctoral fellows ---- -_-------
4 1
Type of facility
School A School B entering (entering cSew of 64 class of 96 students) students)
Assumed size of faculty' . . . . . . . . Poetdoctoralfellows -------------
_ _ .lucre feet 5,010 3,430 210 140 280 350 420 200 610 1,220
1,380
1,580
140 280
140 280
410 140 200 410 1,
410 140 200 410
6 3
4 2 Square feet
4,390
Total net area____________
4,260
4,870
2,311)
2,540
Faculty facilities : Total -------------------
2,340
2,050
Professor'soffice_ . .-_ . .____ .I _- 210 280 Secretary's offie _ . . . --- _ _
210 2"0 V0 240 200 6 10 610
210 280 350 280 200 610 410
210 280 350 280 200 610 1,020
Total net area . -----------
4,390
Faculty facilities : Total -------------- _----
Conference room .---- ._- .-_ /1) Faculty offices -----_----Postdoctoral fellows' office__ .~ Departmental laboratory _ _ . . Additional laboratory_ ._ .__Conuuuu-use facilities : Total_ .___ . . ._ . .__
___
-
Data room--------------------------------Special-projects room _ . ----Storage room (fntnrc Inborntory)---- ._ .____ .______ ._' Storage room -------------Cold room ------- . .-___ . . . .! .lulmalroom ---------------~ i ' For teaching responsibility only .
350 280 (2) 200 610 1 610
-1 .350
1,g50
140 -1 80
140
410 410 200 410
410 410 200 410
Professor's office-_ -------Secretary's offire ----------Conference room ----------Faculty officw------------- (2) Postdoctoral fellows' office--Departmental laboratory _ . _ . Additional laboratories__ .___ Common-use facllilics : Total ------------------Data room ---------------- . Special-projcetsroom ------Storage room (future Iabo. ,story) -----------------Storage room -------------Cold room----------------Animal room -------------' For teaching responsibility only .
(2) (2)
1,920
1,920
140 280
140 `s80
610 230 200 410
610 280 200 410
Health MEDICAL SCHOOLS hospitals, the age range extends to the fourteenth or sixteenth year . Pediatrics University is a nonsurgical specialty . Consequently, surgery on patients in the pediatrics age is generally handled by the department of surgery . As in internal medicine, a number of subspecialties generally based on organ systems such as cardiology, neurology, and endocrinology are usually represented in the department of pediatrics . The general requirements for departmental offices, teaching spaces, and laboratories are the same in pediatrics as in other clinical departments . Teaching is generally concentrated within one or both of the last two clinical years . In addition, there are teaching responsibilities for interns, residents, and postdoctoral fellows in pediatric training .
Obstetrics and Gynecology Obstetrics concerns itself with the processes of conception, gestation, and delivery in women, whereas gynecology deals with the specific diseases of the female reproductive tract . Requirements of the department of obstetrics and gynecology for administrative office, teaching and research space are not essentially different from those of any other clin-
TABLE 22 Summary of Space Estimates for Clinical Science Facilities for a Hypothetical Four-Year Medical School"
School
Type of facility TABLE 21 Psychiatry
Net Area for a Department
Type of facility
of
10
14 10
a
Square feet Total net arm -----------
5,480
6, 660
Faculty facilities : Total-------------------
5,000
6,100
Professor's office-----------Professor's office--------------Secretary's orate----------Conference room----------Faculty offices--------------Postdoctoral fellows' offices-Interview offices -----------Psychologists' offices. - .----Departmental laboratory---Additional laboratories-----Special laboratory ----------
210 140 280 350 420 400 280 280 610 1,830 200
210 140 280 350 700 400 280 280 610 2,440 410
(3) (2) (2) (2) (3)
(5) (2) (2) (2) (4)
Common-use facilities : Total --------- ----------
480
560
Data room ---------------Special-projects room ------Storage room --------------
140 140 200
140 140 280
' For teaching responsibility only .
8
School
lentering class of 96 students)
Square feet
School A School S (entering ( enterlng clam of 64 cam of 96 students) students)
Assumed sin of faculty '-------Postdoctoralfellows -------------
A (entering class of 64 students)
Total gross areat (rounded) . . . . . . Total net area (rounded)- . . . . . .' Departmental facilities : Medicine . . . . . . . . . . .
Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pediatrics . . . . . . . . . Obstetrics and gynecology . . . . . . Psychiatry . . . . . . . . Preventive medicine . . . . . Auditorium$ Lecture rooms*
Central storage . . . . . . Toilet rooms . . . . . . . . . Radiology* Anesthesiology* Pathology§ j
69,000 45,000 13,440 8,840 4,260
80,000 i
I
52,000 15,490 11,120 5,010
4,390 5,480 4,260
4,390 6,660 4,870
3,200 1,200
3,200 1,200
'This table does not include the supporting facilities which are a necessary part of both the basic science and clinical science facilities . tTo compute the gross area, it is estimated that 65 percent of the total gross area is available as usable space, while the remaining 35 percent will provide space for exterior walls, partitions, corridors, stairs, elevators, and duct ways and chases for mechanical and electrical reaulrements . $ In the teaching hospital . §Preclinical pathology is taught in the basic science facilities . Space for clinical pathology may be provided in the teaching hospital .
ical department . Usually this department confines its teaching activities to students in one or both of the third and fourth years . Teaching activities may expand to include such courses as reproductive biology . In addition, there are teaching responsibilities for residents and fellows. Interns are generally not assigned to this service except as part of a rotating program . Student groups may be smaller than in some services and, therefore, teaching space should be sized accordingly . Psychiatry The department of psychiatry consists of specialists concerned with the functions and disfunctions of the mind and emotions . Offices for members of the department of psychiatry may be used for somewhat different purposes than staff offices of other clinical departments . For example, not only do psychiatrists use their offices for desk work, study, and conferences with students and others, but they may also use them as interview rooms for psychiatric patients . Clearly, this will have an effect upon the design of the psychiatric departmental office suite in that it may be necessary to incorporate waiting rooms for patients and space for the administrative control of patients in addition to the usual departmental administrative space, teaching space, conference rooms, and reference libraries . Consultation rooms connected by a one-way viewing screen or TV with an adjoining observation area are frequently required . In general, studies involving psychiatric patients are best carried out in research facilities associated with the psychiatric bed area, and laboratory studies not involving patients are best carried out in departmental research laboratories . Preventive Medicine In general, however, the discipline of preventive medicine comprises physicians who are concerned with the natural history of disease and the factors in the environment which have an effect upon morbidity and mortality . They are interested in reducing the incidence of avoidable disease and premature death through control of those factors which may contribute to disability and incapacity. There is usually a close relationship between the staffs of pediatrics, medicine, obstetricsgynecology, psychiatry, and preventive medicine, and this should be borne in mind in the location and assignment of office space .
SELECTING THE SITE Preferred Locations Dental educators generally prefer certain locations for a dental school . The obvious choice, a university campus, has impressive advantages . It offers students and faculty a richer cultural life and often a more pleasant environment . Adequate housing and student facilities may be more readily available than in other locations . If the university also has a medical school on campus, students and faculty can enjoy a close association with other health professions . Location in a health center is also advantageous, since it offers access to a complex of health facilities and provides day-to-day opportunity for close cooperation between the health professions . A metropolitan location generally assures the school an ample supply of patients for teaching clinics .
The Site Itself High ground Topography and Dimensions . with natural drainage is desirable, but the elevation should not be so high that approach on foot is difficult . A patient entrance at ground level and a service drive to the basement area should be feasible . A gently sloping lot has advantages, since it offers entrances on two levels ; traffic in and out of the building is automatically divided between them, and the movement of people and supplies can more easily be diverted over separate routes within the building . The site selected should be of sufficient size to permit later expansion . Where land costs are favorable and where parking facilities are planned, a building site covering a minimum of 10 to 12 acres is advisable . Utilities . Sewerage, water, electricity, telephone, and gas must be available on the site or be extendible to it at reasonable cost . Utilities must also have adequate capacity . Convenient pubTransportation and Parking . lic transportation is a necessity . Runs should be frequent, with adequate peak-hour service . Good public transportation materially reduces the parking problem . It also makes it easier for the school to secure and retain service and clerical employees . Even with good public transportation, first-class roads should connect the school directly with local traffic arteries. The site should permit adequate parking areas for students, faculty, and patients . Generally, one parking place for each full-time faculty member and one for every two parttime members is advisable . A site in a suburban area should also allow two parking places per entering class student (ECS) for students, if possible, and another two places per ECS for clinic patients . In determining how much land will be needed for parking, allow 130 cars per acre (for 45'
Public Health Service, U .S . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1962 .
parking) as a guide if parking lots are to be used . Parking lots, however, are likely to become desirable building sites, and multilevel garages or underground parking may prove a more permanent solution to the parking problem .
SPACE RELATIONSHIPS The Effect of Traffic Patterns The arrangement of the many elements of a school is determined largely by the movement of students, faculty, patients, and materials . Clinics . The most common and effective way of reducing traffic within the school is by physical separation of the clinical facilities from the remainder of the school . Staffed by a separate faculty and visited daily by large numbers of patients whose presence elsewhere in the school could be disruptive, the clinical facilities are logically a physical entity . For this reason, physical separation will continue to be advisable even though efforts to break down the rigid separation which exists between the clinical and basic science teaching programs are successful . However, if they are successful, there probably will be a need to locate certain clinical areas so that students can move between the clinics and the basic science areas without disturbing the clinical routine . Planning committees should therefore consider the possible
Fig. t
implications of this change for traffic patterns within the school . Basic Science and Preclinical Laboratories . The activities of freshmen and sophomores are largely confined to these areas ; by locating them in reasonable proximity, with other facilities used by these students nearby, traffic within the school could be materially reduced . However, since laboratory sessions are normally scheduled for a full half day, with students shifting between laboratories only once a day, locating these areas on separate floors or in separate wings may well resolve a particular school's problems of space arrangement .
A Design which Controls Traffic Flow Figure 1 is a space diagram showing the relationships between and within the clinical and preclinical dental science areas of a school which will locate its basic science facilities in another wing or on another floor . All student facilities are located close to :heir major areas of activity . Note the proximity of student lounges and locker rooms to the teaching facilities used by the students . Freshmen and sophomore locker rooms are adjacent to the preclinical laboratories, while locker rooms for junior and seniors are close to the clinic . Locker rooms for both groups adjoin the student lounge and bookstore and are located near the student entrance . Lecture rooms, used by both preclinical and clinical students, are readily accessible from all student areas .
Space relationships : preclinical and clinical dental science areas.
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS The need for a location as free of vibration as possible makes the basement the preferred site for the electron microscope suite, for example, though this location is seldom convenient for users of the laboratory . Facilities which will be used after normal school hours-auditorium, libraries, and study areas-provide another example . Ideally, they should be located so that they can be left open after the remainder of the school is locked .
THE PHYSICAL PLANT : DESIGN AND STRUCTURE Modular Planning for Flexibility and Efficient Use of Space Modular planning is particularly adaptable to the design of schools, hospitals, and other buildings in which repetitive elements lend themselves to the systematic and uniform spacing of certain structural features . The module should be a multiple of the basic 4-in . module recommended by the American Standards Association Project A62 . Many building components are prefabricated on this basis, and the floor plans in this section are based on modular design, using a module of 4 ft 8 in .
In Laboratory and Office Planning
In the dental school, modular design is particularly applicable to the planning of research laboratories and offices . Figure 2 shows a section of a typical basic science laboratory based on the 4-1t 8-in . module . It is a two-module laboratory, approximately 9 ft in width . When allowances are made for the equipment and laboratory benches extending into the room from the wall, the two-module unit is the smallest size practical but yet adequate for its function .
Examples
of Modular Planning When modular planning of areas is combined with modular planning of utilities, various combinations of offices, laboratories, and storage space are practical . (See Fig . 3 .) Figure 3b is a sectional drawing of a research floor of a school . Figure 3c is a partial plan of the corridor wall . Columns are located at every fifth module . Vertical utility shafts, which supply the laboratories with water, drainage, gas, and other utilities, are located at every fourth module . Figure 3a shows the arrangements of laboratories, office, and equipment storage areas possible with this design . For example, if a series of laboratories of four-module width is desired, either index A or B can be followed . Index A has the laboratory bench at the side walls, while index B shows a center island or peninsula type of laboratory . If an office and equipment room is desired with each laboratory, these can be substituted for alternate laboratories . Indexes C and D illustrate smaller laboratories suitable for one or two researchers . Index C is a series of laboratories only, and index D is a combination of two-module laboratories, offices, and equipment storage rooms . One or more four-module laboratories can easily be provided in combination with two-module laboratories . Advantages and Limitations
Modular design can be applied to structures in which utilities are located at or in the exterior walls. It can also be used, and with perhaps greater flexibility, in research laboratories in which a central utility core is utilized . (Fig . 4 .)
Fig. 2
Building module .
SECTION THRU OFFICE UNIT
Modular design provides a basis for determining the width of laboratories and offices . In estimating depth, at least 24 or 25 ft should be allowed . In Figure 18 the bay depth is 28 ft -the equivalent of six modules ; a sufficient allowance when utility shafts are located along the corridor wall . Caution should be used in following modular planning for other elements of the dental school . Where location of columns is important, strict adherence to the selected planning module may result in obstacles in aisles and other areas . This is a particular problem in the clinics, where chair layout may be adversely affected by a lack of coordination with the structural and mechanical features of the building. In the clinic area, modular design is of lesser importance in those plans in which op-
eratories, laboratories, offices, and other small rooms are not located along the exterior walls .
BASIC SCIENCE FACILITIES-IN GENERAL Few decisions made in the initial stages of programming will have a greater influence on the space and structural requirements of the dental school than those reached in defining the school's teaching and research objectives in the basic sciences .
Departmental Facilities The head of every department needs a private office with space enough to accommodate small staff or student conferences . An adjoin-
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
(a) INDEX OF MODULAR USE
(b) SECTION
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Modular planning of research areas.
Plan for a basic science area utilizing a central utility core .
LEGEND
M-Module ~ LoOOrorory Office office a EOr'"bmoat Storage WW-Wsl Ball-Dlililies Ffume Duel
DSEC ing office should be provided for the department secretary . A conference room and a seminar room accommodating a 16-student group should also be provided . In addition to chalkboards and bookshelves, each room should be equipped with or adaptable to the use of slide and film projectors and ETV . Both can be used for staff or student conferences, or for formal but unscheduled classes or seminars . A data processing room for use both by faculty and graduate students is also an advantage . Special equipment need not be elaborate, and may include an adding machine, a calculator, and a typewriter. A storage room easily accessible to staff offices and research facilities is a major convenience . Properly planned, it can always be converted into office space-a much-needed insurance against eventual overcrowding . Every full-time faculty member and graduate student will need office and research laboratory space . In addition, an unassigned research laboratory should be considered for each department . Laboratories
The traditional arrangement for basic science teaching provides a laboratory of class size for every department . This calls for a separate laboratory for anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, microbiology, pathology, and pharmacology. Considerably less space will be needed for undergraduate teaching if multidiscipline laboratories are used, and dental schools have generally found that more than one discipline can easily be scheduled for a single laboratory . Schools which use integrated systems of instruction or which need to assure a marked degree of flexibility will necessarily plan multidiscipline laboratories . If they are equipped with movable partitions and four- or eight-man position benches, both departmental and multi-discipline laboratories of class size are easily divided into smaller units to accommodate research projects or small-group teaching . Many educators, however, look with increasing favor on the laboratory designed specifically for the smaller number of students . Figure 5 is a floor plan showing how items of equipment are placed . Sophomore laboratories have no anatomy table but are otherwise similar. Unit laboratories accommodating a larger number of students and designed for teaching only the basic science disciplines are more widely favored . Figure 6 is a floor plan of a 16student laboratory in which physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology are taught . More detailed information on the arrangement and equipment of teaching laboratories, and the special facilities associated with them will be found in a following section . Suggested space allowances are shown in Table 1 .
Fig . 5
Layout and equipment of unit laboratory for both basic and preclinical sciences.
BASIC SCIENCE LABORATORY FACILITIES
Three teaching laboratories-two multidiscipline and one single discipline-are described in this section . Together, the three can accommodate all of the basic laboratory sciences taught in a dental school . Each of the multidiscipline laboratories described may be laid out as a series of selfcontained units accommodating small groups of students, or retained as a class-size laborstory and equipped with folding partitions to permit division of the room into smaller units . The ancillary and special facilities required by the different disciplines using these labora-
CORRIDOR
Fig . 6
Sixteen-man teaching laboratory .
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS TABLE 1
Summary Space Allocations-Ten Hypothetical Schools Size of entering class In schools with facilities for clinically oriented basic sciences only
In schools with facilities for all basic sciences Type of Area Net square feet-all areas . . . . . . . . . . Basic science facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teaching laboratory and ancillary facilities Special laboratory facilities . . . . . . . . . . Faculty offices and research laboratories . Graduate study and research areas . . . . . Other departmental facilities . . . . . . . . . Clinical land preclinicall facilities . . . . . . . . Operatories and ancillary facilities . . . . . Laboratories and ancillary facilities . . . . . Faculty offices and research areas . . . . . Graduate study end research areas . . . . . Common facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lecture rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETV end visual aids . . . . . ETV . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visual aids . . . . . . . . . Special supporting facilities and clinics . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . for . .
. . . . . . . . . : . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . laboratories . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . .
Animal quarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technical shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General supporting facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special facilities for students and faculty . . . . . . . . . . General maintenance and building services . . . . . . . . .
Low-Bench Disciplines Teaching Laboratory The disciplines which share the low-bench teaching laboratory are those employing microscopy as their principal technique-histology (the microscopic study of normal tissue), pathology (the microscopic study of diseased tissue), and microbiology (the study of microorganisms) . LabLaboratory Benches and Arrangement . oratory benches are usually 30 to 32 in . high to permit students to sit comfortably for long sessions at the microscope . Stools have back rests and adjustable seats . Either single or doublewidth benches may be used . However, because all students sit along one side of single-width benches, these can be more easily arranged to permit all students to face the demonstration area . A four-position bench is particularly desirable in the class-size laboratory, since it permits the division of the class into groups of 16 or less without splitting the group at any bench . If double benches are used, the eightposition bench is preferred . Clearances of 3 ft between single-width benches and 4 ft 6 in . between double-width benches are required . Side aisles, center aisle, and main cross aisle should be 6 ft wide . Work Station at the Bench. Each position at the bench should be at least 42 in. wide to allow both adequate knee space and room for a base cabinet containing drawers for storing slides and supplies and a cupboard for storing a microscope . Water, gas, and electricity should be available at each position . The need for an air outlet is limited, and a vacuum is seldom used . A lead cup sink et each position
96
BO
64
48
112
96
80
64
48
215,545
186,875 53,750 19,950 1,900 14,400 5,400 12,300
165,205 47,200 17,300 1,900 12,300 4,600 11,100 67,425 40,325 14,000 10,600 2,100 23,780
141,135 39,350 14,550 1,900 9,000 3,400 10,500 59,685 36,865 11,400 9,400 2,000 19,820
3,000 700
2,510 1,500 1,010
1,800 59,685 38,865 11,400 9,400 2,000 16,985 3,000 8,290 2,520 1,650 870
1,600 51,205
2,830 1,650 1,180
120,230 8,750 4,400 700 1,500 450 1,700 67,425 41,325 14,000 10,000 2,100 19,455 3,700 9,120 3,260 2,200 1,060
3,700 700 1,200 450
3,880 2,200 1,460
134,400 9,900 5,100 700 1,800 600 1,700 73,585 44,385 16,400 10,600 2,200 22,615 4,600 9,950 4,090 2,550 1,540
89,510 6,650
4,000 8,290
156,220 11,250 5,900 700 2,100 750 1,800 88,375 53,475 18,800 13,200 2,900 24,395 5,300 10,780 4,190 2,550 1,640
104,700 7,850
4,900 9,120
122,175 35,500 12,200 1,900 8,100 2,800 10,500 51,205 32,305 8,800 8,200 1,900 16,870 3,100 7,560
6,100 4,700 1,400 26,800 4,900 10,300 11,600
4,700 3,500 1,200 22,300
3,500 2,500 1,000 18,800 3,800 7,300 7,700
4,125 2,525 1,600 32,200 5,500 12,000 14,700
3,975 2,375 1,600 28,300 5,100 10,700 12,500
3,375 2,275 1,100 24,800 4,700 9,100 10,800
3,175 2,175 1,000 20,400 4,100 7,700 8,800
2,375 1,575 800 17,100 3,600 6,500 7,000
60,600 22,600 1,900 17,100
. . . . . . . . . . . .
tories are generally described, and they are substantially the same whether small-group or class-size laboratories are utilized .
112
6,100 12,900 88,375 53,475 18,800 13,200 2,900 31,570 7,100 10,780 4,790 2,650 2,140 8,900 6,900 2,000 35,000 5,700 13,600 15,700
73,585 44,385 16,400 10,600 2,200 28,440 6,200 9,950 4,590 2,550 2,040 7,700 5,700 2,000 30,900 5,300 12,100 13,500
4,300 8,700 9,300
(or a bench-long drain trough with a sink at one end) is necessary . Bench Tops . Bench-top surfacing should be resilient, to minimize slide breakage, as well as stain and alcohol resistant . Bench tope should be as free of joints as possible . Stand-up Work Areas . Wall counters (37 in . high) are located along the sides of the laboratory area . These provide bench space of standup height, where students may set up portable equipment, conduct experiments with animals, or take part in other assigned projects . Countertop handwashing minks with knee- or footoperated valves should be installed and supplied with hot and cold running water . Gas, air, and electricity outlets will also be needed . One set of outlets for every four work stations at the counter is adequate . demonstration area Demonstration . The should have a table, retractable projection screen, and a chalkboard at least 4 ft high and as long as the supporting wall permits . Additional small chalkboards-3 by 4ft-should be available throughout the laboratory . At least one for every 16 students should be provided, and all chalkboards should have adequate illumination . A bulletin board is also advisable. Because small-group laboratories easily accommodate demonstrations, no separate areas are needed for this purpose in schools employing the unit arrangement . Each of the small-group laboratories will require its own projection screens, chalkboards, end a bulletin board . Equipment. One noncorrosive Stationary fume hood should be provided for every 16 students . Stationary centrifuges in the same ratio are desirable for microbiology . Space will be needed for incubators-one for every eight students-and for refrigerators-one for every 16 students .
900 450
32,306 8,800 8,200 1,900 14,556 2,300 7,580 2,320 1,500 820
Each discipline sharing the Ancillary Facilities low-bench teaching laboratory must have certain ancillary facilities available . Space for the preparation of microscope slides is necessary for any laboratory in which histology and pathology are taught . Preferably, this area consists of two interconnecting rooms . In one, the embedding room, tissue is processed and embedded in paraffin . This room should have two counters, 31 in . i n height, one to be used as a workbench for preparing end processing specimens and the other for mixing solutions . Piecing a plain worktable at one end of the paraffin oven provides an efficient arrangement for the embedding procedures . For easy access from either side, the worktable should be located near the center of the room . Wall cabinets for storing solutions and other supplies should be provided . The second room is used for sectioning, staining, and storing the completed slides . Counters 31 in . high and 2 ft wide should be provided in this room . Each work station et the counter should have knee space of sufficient width and a base unit with drawers for storing blank slides . All of the countertops in these slide preparation rooms should be resilient and stain-resistant . For microbiology, a media preparation room should be provided adjacent to the teaching laboratory . Usually the work of a trained technician, media preparation requires space for several items of equipment, including a range or hot plates for cooking the material, an autoclave for sterilizing test tubes and media, a refrigerator for storage of culture media, end often an incubator for testing the sterility of media prior to use . This area should be dustfree . Wall counters 37 in . high, equipped with base cabinets and air, gas, distilled water end
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS electrical outlets, are needed both in the kitchen area and in the area where media are transferred to test tubes. In the latter, burette stands are normally placed on the counter lop . A fairly large area for glassware washing and sterilization should adjoin the teaching laboratory . Commercial glass-washing and drying machines, an autoclave, and often a hot air sterilizer must be accommodated, as well as sink and drainboerds, space for storing the carts which carry glassware and Petri dishes to and from the area, and a worktable for glassware storage . Storage rooms for chemicals, glassware, equipment, and other materials are necessary . Among the items of portable equipment which may be used and will require space for storage are water baths, incubators, and spectrophotometers . An animal holding room where small animals may be held for observation or experimentation completes the list of the larger ancillary areas required in conjunction with this laboratory . Special Facilities Additional facilities which are of special value for research and teaching in the low-bench disciplines include a cold room and electron microscope setup . The cold room is essentially a refrigerator room. It contains counter space and sink for work that must be done at low temperatures . Safety door latcl as and warning lights are mandatory features . An electron microscope unit requires at least three rooms : one to house the microscope itself, another for slide preparation, and a third -a darkroom-for developing, enlarging, and printing electron micrographs . High-Bench Disciplines Teaching Laboratory The disciplines which share the high-bench teaching laboratory are those for which laboratory work requires that the student stand and move about to perform experiments. These include physiology (the study of the process of living organisms), pharmacology (the science of drugs), and biochemistry (the study of the chemical compounds and processes occurring in organisms) . Laboratory Benches and Arrangement. Laboratory benches are usually 37 in . high . Stools of adjustable height are provided . Except for their height, benches may be similar in design and arrangement to those in the low-bench laboratory . The four-position bench has particular merit because much of the work, especially in physiology, consists of special projects undertaken by a team of four students . Work Station at the Bench . The student's work station is also similar to that in the lowbench lab . Each station should have a base cabinet with both drawer and cupboard space . Adequate knee room should be provided, even though students stand a good share of the time . Hot, cold, and distilled water should be available at each bench position . Gas and electricity are also required . In addition, low-voltage direct current and control circuits should be available from a central panel . Bench Tops . Bench tope should be of stone or of acid-resistant composition stone because of the reagents used in biochemistry . Sit-down Work Area . Low counters, with resilient counter tops, and under-counter cabinets are placed along one or more of the laboratory wells . Gas, hot and cold water, air, and electric outlets will be needed, and countertop sinks should be equipped with knee. or foot-operated valves for hand-washing . Stools with adjustable seats should be provided .
Demonstration Area . The demonstration space and equipment are like that of the low . bench lab. In addition, physiology teaching makes extensive use of electric polygraphs and the Van Slyke machines, often to the extent of one to each four students . If the unit laboratory is used, no demonstration area is necessary since each unit can easily accommodate demonstrations . Stationary Equipment. Fume hoods-one to every 16 students-should be provided . Because flammable and explosive chemicals are used, the hoods should be installed a safe distance from fire exits . Burette stands, approximately 5 ft in length, are used by both biochemistry and pharmacology students . One to every 16 students is an accepted ratio . Movable Equipment . A great variety of movable equipment may be used . A few movable tables of stand-up height may be required for some of the experiments in pharmacology and physiology involving animals . Table tops are of laminated wood with a stain resistant finish, and a shelf is provided for storing animal boards . In addition, a deep-freeze unit, centr, togas, refrigerators, incubators, and much of the electronic apparatus used in physiology are part of the movable equipment used in the laboratory for which space is required. First aid kits and blankets are necessary, although these generally occupy no floor space but are mounted on the wall . Ancillary Facilities Both biochemistry and pharmacology require a preparation room adjacent to the teaching laboratory for mixing reagents and storing chemicals and glassware . Storage and washing facilities are included in this room . Wall counters similar to those in the teaching laboratory and wall cabinets permit this room to be used as a research area during off periods . Each discipline requires storage and supply areas, some of them special in nature . Special provisions must be made, for example, for storing anesthetics . Although only a limited supply of cylinders holding oxygen or anesthetics should be kept here (additional storage should be allotted at ground level), the storage area should be located along an exterior wall, with floor and ceiling louvers installed to provide gravity ventilation . The room should be locked . For chemical storage areas, fire hazards must be minimized . Narcotics require locked storage . Generally, rooms used to store instruments and equipment should be amply supplied with electrical outlets so that equipment can be used without being removed from the room . Animal rooms and cold rooms are among the other facilities used regularly in conjunction with the teaching program of the high-bench laboratory . Many of the special facilities Special Facilities used for research and teaching in the highbench disciplines require unusual construction or safety features . The chromatography room is a biochemistry research laboratory where various processes are employed to separate organic substances . In laboratories where paper or column chromatography is performed, fume hoods capable of exhausting toxic or inflammable vapors are required, and the laboratory must be maintained under negative air pressure to prevent the spread of vapors . Where gas chromatography is used, it must also be possible to seal off the laboratory in the event of fire . Some instruments used in this laboratory depend upon radioactivity as an ionization source ; if these
are installed, safeguards must be provided, even though the radioactivity level is low . In the ultracentrifuge room, another small laboratory often used in biochemistry research, the selection of equipment will largely determine the requirements . Depending upon its anticipated use, the ultracentrifuge may be either electrically powered or air driven . At least part of the housing for this equipment is of heavy armor plate . Additional cooling may be needed in the room to offset heat produced by operation of the equipment . Constant-temperature rooms, or controlledtemperature rooms, as they are sometimes called, are usod to house small animals under constant temperature and humidify conditions . The work area in this room usually consists of 31-in .-high counters, with a sink and outlet for gas, air, and electricity . Space may be needed for counter-top food storage . At least one floor drain will be required so that the room may be completely washed down . The space allotted for the radioisotope laboratory should be divided into two rooms, the radioisotope laboratory proper (radiochemistry laboratory) and the uptake-measuring room (counting room) . The radiochemistry laboratory is the room where shipments of radioisotopes are received and stored . Here, too, specimens are made ready for examination, and dosages are prepared and administered . Items contaminated with radioisotopes are either cleaned, held for decay of radioactivity, or stored prior to disposition . In the counting room, the uptake of the radioactive substance is prepared and the radioactive content of specimens is accurately determined . If the counting room is separated from the radiochemistry laboratory by a corridor, the possibility that stored isotopes will interfere with counting can be substantially reduced . The location of the radioisotope laboratory some distance away from x-ray equipment prevents interference with measurements of radioactivity . The basement is usually the best location, since it simplifies provisions for waste disposal and shielding . In most schools, a basement laboratory will also be convenient to the central animal quarters, and this is highly desirable . If the main radioisotope laboratory is some distance away from these animal quarters, schools may want a separate and specially designed radioisotope laboratory within the animal quarters . Safety features and special devices are essential to guard against radiation contamination . Wall shielding is a necessary safeguard against radioactive penetration, and the average building partition will not usually suffice for this purpose . Plastic, wood, or other light material is adequate shielding against beta radiation . Solid concrete or solid brick wells will be necessary for protection against gamma rays . Interior well surfaces should always be of a material . High-gloss smooth, nonporous enamel paint is best suited for this purpose . To facilitate decontamination, strippable vinyl plastic or replaceable wall panels are installed near sinks and other critical areas . The floor in a radioisotope laboratory is usually a concrete slab . The slab must have a protective covering or coating to prevent radioactive contamination from spillage . The floor should always have a heavy wax coating, which will fill cracks and serve as waterproofing . Counter lops should be stainless steel, with splash-back trims . Sinks should be made of
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
OBSERVATION CONTROL [ANnsCAVE SCREEYINO & OBSCURE OLASS
Fig. 7
Layout of anatomy laboratory of class size .
stainless steel and equipped with foot or knee controls . Each sink should have two drainboards . Holding tanks must be provided for the collection of large amounts of radioactive materials or small amounts of the more dangerous isotopes . Special radio-chemical fume hoods are necessary . Because of the dangers of air roovement, hoods should never be placed near windows, doors, or ventilators . A deluge shower will also be needed . Anatomy
The Dissection Room Dissection tables are the basic laboratory equipment . They are approximately 24 by 78 in . Aisles at the table sides should be 5 ft wide and those at the ends 3 ft fi in . Dissection rooms are, as a rule, planned to accommodate full classes. Though class size largely determines room size, space should be allowed to accommodate a few additional tables for use by graduate students and for demonstrations . (See Fig. 7 .) Good table lighting is essential . Often, adjustable lighting fixtures are attached to both sides of each table . If tables are on casters, cleaning of the room will be considerably easier . The dissection room should be equipped with an adequate number of hand basins .
Round, industrial sinks are a good choice, since they accommodate more students simultaneously than those of standard design . One sink for every four tables is an accepted ratio. The dissection room should include counter units with drawers and cupboards for storing students' instruments . Storage space should also be provided for such supplies as wood blocks, mallets, arm rests, embalming fluids Because of the odor of the preserving fluids, air conditioning with a 100 percent air exhaust should be provided in the dissection room. As the anatomy dissection room is frequently washed down, durable, waterproof flooring is required . providing storage space for the dissection tables will make it possible to use the dissection room for other purposes . Ancillary
Facilities
Several additional rooms either near or adjacent to the dissection room are required . Storage space for cadavers must be provided and bone storage space will also be needed . If neuroanatorny is taught in the dissection room, storage for gross specimens must be available, too. Generally, schools will need sufficient storage capacity for 1 .5 cadavers for every four ECS. If the school policy is to hold cadavers for one year prior to use, storage requirements will double . Cadavers are commonly stored in large walk-in refrigerators . Because the
method of preservation and storage affects ancillary space requirements, the system to be used should be determined early in the programming stage, and specifics should be worked out with the aid of qualified consultants. A room equipped for embalming is often provided, though dental schools with access to medical school facilities will probably need only a minimum of space for this purpose. As for final disposal, cadavers are usually cremated . The dental school can either provide its own crematory for this purpose, share facilities with a medical school, or arrange periodic transfer of cadavers to public facilities for cremation. Because it should never be necessary to move cadavers through public areas, facilities for cadaver storage and embalming should be as near as possible to the dissection room, and all three should be located at ground level. Wherever practical, loading platforms should open directly into the cadaver storage area to facilitate delivery and removal. PRECLINICAL FACILITIES The Preclinical Laboratory The preclinical laboratory is designed to accommodate the entire class of freshman or sophomore students in a single session. (See Fig. 8 .) Though it is not often so-called, the pre-
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
Fig. 8
Preclinical laboratory of 96 student positions utilizing closed-circuit television for demonstrations,
clinical laboratory is actually a multidiscipline laboratory, for all the preclinical dental science courses are taught here : the instructors of the several subjects take over the laboratory in turn while the students remain in their assigned places . Seating, in the arrangement most common to preclinical laboratories, students sit on each side of a bench, their backs to those of students at the next row of benches . The aisles separating the rows are at least 4 ft 6 in . wide, so that the instructor may move easily between the benches as he inspects the students' work . In some of the newer laboratories, benches are arranged so that all students face in one direction-usually toward the instructor's podium . The aisles between benches--a 3 ft minimum is satisfactory are riot as wide as those required for back-to-back seating . On the other hand, back-to-back seating is economical . It conserves floor space and reduces the cost of bench work arid utilities . In either of the two seating plans, high or low benches can be used, but the low bench-- 32 in . i n height---will perhaps be the more satisfactory . With low benches, a standard adjustable typing chair on casters can be used and is less costly than tire laboratory stool . All benches should be equipped with gas, air, arid duplex electrical receptacles . Each student atetion at the bench should be at least 3 ft wide, arid 3 ft 6 in . i s actually more satisfactory . If the latter figure is used, an over-all allowance of 36 sq ft per student position will provide adequately for tire teaching facilities . Every preclinical technic laboratory should provide the instructor with a table or desk, equipped with gas, air, and electricity for demonstration purposes . In large classes which require more than one instructor, each should be allotted desk space . Ancillary Facilities . To reduce the tracking of plaster from the laboratory into the public corridors, the processing room, which is used
for pouring wax forms, molds, impressions, arid flasks for denture processing, can be located adjacent to the preclinical technic laboratory . Also nearby should be a small storeroom . Figure e shows a preclinical dental technic laboratory of 96 student positions together with an adjoining processing room . Demonstrations within the laboratory are given with closed-circuit television . There are 16 students per monitor . The monitors are also coupled to the television studio of the school . This layout is also adaptable to the monitoring of students' work by closed-circuit television . In such a systeni,the picture is relayed to the console at the demonstration position . While the principal mediurn of demonstration is ETV, facilities for chalk talks arid for projection of motion pictures or slides are provided . Display cases, some of which permit viewing from both sides, should be provided for models and examples of student work . The laboratory shown has the equipment used in common by students, such as lathes, model trimmers, sinks, ovens arid casting machines, located at the perimeter walls . ETV in the Preclinical Laboratory
THE CLINICS : FUNCTION
ANO OPERATION
In the clinics, dental students gain experience in the correction and control of dental diseases and disorders . Here, too, the connnunity finds an additional source of dental services, some of which are frequently unobtainable outside the dental school . Figure 9 illusin the Clinics trates patient rnovement through the clinics . The new patient first reports to the information desk located in the lobby or main waiting room of the clinic area . He then proceeds to the regisPatient Movement
tration desk, where a case record is opened for him . At the appointment desk, his next stop, he is scheduled for an oral examination . The patient then undergoes, either on the initial visit or a subsequent one, a screening procedure enables the examination . This school to select patients with varied dental problems . Following the screening examination, the patient goes to the radiology clinic for full-mouth roentgenograms arid then to the diagnostic clinic for a thorough oral examination, performed by a dental student working under the direction of an instructor . When the examination is completed, the patient returns to the appointment desk where tie is referred for subsequent visits either to the general dental clinic or to one of the special clinics . On later visits, the patient reports directly to the waiting room of the clinic where lie will receive treatment . The reception area in the main waiting room is tire control center of the clinics, coordinating the flow of patients arid records to clinics in the treatment area . In addition, the work of tire appointment desk is closely coordinated with that of the clinic business office . Frequently the information. registration, arid appointment desks are combined, but they may be separate in large schools, or information and registration may be handled at one desk while appointments are made at a second . Similarly, one or more of these desks may be located either in the main waiting room or in adjacent roorns . The reception area will require a records office . The convenience with which records can Ire dispatched to the clinics is an important consideration in the location of the area . However, storage space for inactive records need not be provided here, as these are frequently microfilmed or moved after two years to storage rooms in other areas of the school . Reception and Screening Area
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
Fig. 9
Essential facilities in the The Diagnostic Clinic diagnostic clinic include operatories or exami-
Radiology Clinic Because roentgenograms are made for every incoming patient, the radiology
Dental clinic flow diagram.
For the screening of new patients, an examination room separate from the diagnostic clinic is desirable . This room should be equipped with dental chairs . Dental units are not necessary unless the room will also be used for emergency treatment . Emergency treatment rooms function as a part of the reception and screening area . Either a series of single-chair rooms or a large room with two or three dental chairs is practical . Although emergency treatment rooms are sometimes included in each of the clinics in the treatment area, the provision of central Screening .
Fig. 10
It is in the diagnostic and radiology clinics that the incoming patient's need for dental care is determined and a plan of treatment formulated .
nation rooms, a clinical diagnostic laboratory, and a treatment planning and consultation room . Faculty offices and faculty research areas should be provided nearby . Although multiple-chair rooms are sometimes used for examinations, a series of singlechair rooms assures privacy for the recording of patients' case histories. Each position should be equipped with an x-ray viewer . Estimating that 16 patients can be accommodated daily in each chair, an eight-chair facility could handle over 120 patients each day. In addition to dental chairs, the examination rooms should be furnished with desks for the convenience of those students who are recording case histories. The clinical diagnostic laboratory is used for hematological and other diagnostic procedures. It is equipped with laboratory benches similar to those used for the low-bench basic science disciplines, but since students are assigned here in blocs, eight positions are usually sufficient . Air, gas, and electricity should be available at each position, and both hot and cold water are desirable . A hand washing sink should also be provided . One stand-up laboratory bench should be located at the outer wall . Because patients seen in this laboratory are referred directly from the diagnostic clinic, no waiting room is needed . The treatment planning and consultation room, where students and instructors meet to discuss cases, should be equipped with a chalkboard, demonstration table, projection screen, and x-ray viewer, in addition to a dental chair and unit . The room can also be used for small-group demonstrations .
Radiology clinic .
facilities is more likely to assure that the rooms are not preempted for some other purpose. Examination, Diagnosis, and Treatment Planning Area
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS clinic is included in the examination and diagnostic area . However, the radiology clinic also serves all the other clinics, and patients undergoing treatment are directed here for additional roentgenograms . Shielding Against Radiation . Rooms containing x-ray machines must be shielded through the use of lead-lined walls and partitions or appropriate building materials of an adequate thickness. In addition, controls for x-ray machines should be located behind shielded partitions . In general, shielding should be sufficient to limit the exposure of personnel to a minimum amount of radiation, certainly no more than 0.1 roentgen per week . In rooms equipped with 90 kvp x-ray machines, for example, the walls should be shielded with 1 .2-mm sheet lead (3 Ib per square foot) to a height of 7 ft . Stone concrete at least 3 in . thick should be used for ceiling and floor. The Layout of the Clinic . Figure 10 shows the components and equipment of the radiology clinic . This plan includes eight rooms where the roentgenograms utilized in routine oral examinations are taken, and one extraoral radiology room . In the radiology rooms, the machine is located behind the dental chair and up to 20 degrees to either side, the recommended position . Observation of the patient is made through a lead glass viewing window which has a speaking slot. Each of the rooms is equipped with a small chalkboard, illuminator, lavatory, and shelf. Room A, slightly larger than the others, has a 4-ft-wide opening to facilitate handling of wheelchair and stretcher patients . The extraoral radiology room is of slightly greater depth than the intraoral, because a long-focus film distance is required for the facial-profile roentgenogram. Each of these rooms is lead-shielded, and the x-ray machine controls are located behind lead-protected partitions . Film Processing . A suite of rooms for film processing includes a darkroom, oversized to permit group instruction, a wet viewing and drying room, and a mounting room . A framed opening in the wall between the drying and mounting rooms is used for passage of film . The mounting room accommodates eight students . Each student position has a 14- by 17-in. view box built into the surface of the bench. Air conditioning in the darkroom and wet viewing room is desirable not only for the comfort of personnel but for the protection of exposed film . Maintaining air at positive pressure will prevent dust from entering around windows and doors. Ancillary Facilities. The special demonstration room, which accommodates 16 students, has provisions for movie and slide projection and closed-circuit television monitors. An exodontist's chair, a mobile x-ray unit, and a mobile lead screen are available for demonstrations. If ETV is used extensively for demonstrations, this room could be converted to a film library . The departmental research area includes a small darkroom . A conference room, suitable for seminars and equipped with chalkboard, projection equipment, and an illuminated viewer, and a group of faculty offices complete the radiology clinic .
desks and many of the other elements already described are considered a part of it . Treatment components include operatories, treatment planning and consultation rooms, supply and dispensing services, and sterilization and sterile supply facilities . Study and laboratory areas for the use of graduate students should adjoin . The operatories, or work stations, into which all the clinics are divided, consist of dental chairs and units, instrument cabinets, sterilization units, and other necessary equipment. Each station should be large enough to accommodate the patient, the student who is treating him, the supervising instructor, and frequently a dental assistant . Several fully partitioned work stations should be provided to accommodate patients whose emotional reaction to dental care makes privacy mandatory. The Special Clinics The special clinics-periodontic-endodontic, orthodontic, and othersare differentiated primarily by the type of treatment rendered . One, however, is distinguished by the type of patient treated-the chronically ill, the mentally disturbed, and others who are unable to receive treatment under regular clinical conditions. The same departmental facilities and most of the treatment facilities required in the general clinic are needed for each of the special clinics. Every special clinic should have at least one fully partitioned work station . Generally, each will have a small waiting room with control desks separate from the main waiting room . However, related specialties such as pedodontics and orthodontics often share a waiting room .
Treatment Area
The General Clinic Because the general clinic is typically the largest and busiest of all the clinics, the main waiting room and control
Fig. 11
Oral surgery department .
Specific Requirements . Except for some variations in the design of the instrument cabinet, the basic equipment of the special clinics is the same as that of the general clinic . Most of the special clinics are equipped with standard dental chairs and units. The pedodontic clinic, however, requires a smaller chair and the oral surgery clinic special chairs or operating tables . And a few of the special clinics require additional components and highly specialized equipment. Clinics where general anesthetics are administered must have recovery rooms and toilets. A ceramics laboratory is sometimes maintained in the crown and bridge clinic . The orthodontic clinic requires a number of special facilities . Among these are a measure room, a record room, a tracing room with a light table for routine tracing, and an office for technical personnel. This clinic usually contains two or more rooms with specialized equipment . At least one dental chair which can be used when general anesthetics are administered is required . Frequently facilities for periodontic and endodontic treatment and for oral medicines are combined in one clinic . If x-ray machines are provided, the clinic must be shielded in the same manner as the radiology clinic or a lead-lined partition provided around the x-ray machines . Oral Surgery Clinic : A Special Case . Perhaps the greatest variation in the components and equipment is found in the oral surgery clinic . Figure 11 illustrates an oral surgery department planned to accommodate blocs of eight students . Eight of its nine operatories are equipped for surgery requiring local anesthe-
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS sics . Six of these, grouped in threes, are semienclosed . Folding partitions make full enclosure possible . Of the three remaining operatories, the largest is equipped with an x-ray machine . Centrally located to the other operatories, this root" is lead-lined . The demonstration operatory is equipped for cases requiring general anesthesia as well as local . So is the adjacent operatory (upper right) . In addition, the cletnonstration operatory is designed for closedcircuit television . A glass-enclosed gallery can be used for observation of treatment procedures, or as a control booth for television . Both of the operatories equipped for general anesthesia are located adjacent to their supporting facilities . A scrub-up area is provided at the entrances . Nearby is the recovery area containing bunks and toilet facilities . A glasspartitioned nurse's station permits observation of patients. Also conveniently located are the sterilizing and sterile supply rooms, which serve only this clinic. Of the two rooms provided for storage of medication, one is used for narcotics and other medicines which must be keptlocked . Ancillary Facilities . Student facilities include a locker root" with toilet, located near the secondary exit from the main operational area . The combination graduate student study area and laboratory accommodates four students . It contains desks, lockers, and a laboratory bench with a sink and electrical outlets . Locating the two administrative offices at the entrance to the clinic permits greater control and accessibility . A departmental research laboratory is provided, as in other clinical departments . A patient waiting room seating 16 people would be adequate in a clinic of this type . Toilet rooms should be provided nearby . Although patients would normally enter and leave the clinic through the main waiting room, a secondary exit is provided for those requiring assistance after surgery .
Supporting Facilities
CLINICS : SPACE ALLOCATIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS Dental educators today favor the adoption of the cubicle clinic . The privacy of the cubicle, a factor appreciated by patients as well as students, and the overall atmosphere of the cubicle clinic engender self-confidence and efficiency on the part of the student . (See Figs . 12 and 13 .)
Planning the Cubicle Clinic
Influence of Dental Assistants
Cubicles accommodating the student-assistant team must be narrower and deeper than those in which a
9240 sq . ft . (96.3 Sq.ff/CNAIR) CLEAR SPAN-NO COLUMNS 9360 sq .ft.(975 sq ff/CNAiR) CENTER ROW OF COLUMNS
Fig. 12
Cubicle clinic .
Fig. 13
Variation of cubicle clinic .
Central Supply and Dispensing Services
Although each clinic in the treatment area will have its own small supply facilities, centralized service is necessary for the receiving and distribution of bulk supplies . Locating the central service near the clinics will permit greater efficiency . In a multistory building, stacking the smaller units on different floors will simplify the placement of service elevators and dumbwaiters .
Clinical Laboratories
Most schools today believe the provision of two large general laboratories of full-class size-one for the juniors, one for the seniors-to be the most effective . Small separate laboratories in each of the special clinics are also a possibility . Schools should make every effort to see to it that each junior and senior student is provided with assigned, individually locked cupboards and supply drawers . If the full-class laboratory for each of the upper classes can be provided, the design and layout will be approximately the same as that of the freshman-sophomore preclinical laboratories . Though no special demonstration position need be set aside, facilities for ETV should be included . The processing laboratory, which contains special equipment such as heavy duty ovens, boilout tanks, and packing and curing units, must be large enough to accommodate not only students but the dental laboratory technicians employed by the school .
student works alone . The size (7 ft 6 in . b y 7 It 6 in .) and the arrangement of the cubicle in Fig . 15a, with the instrument panel at the right of the operator, is satisfactory for the dental student working alone . The cubicles in Fig . 15h and c are planned for utilization of assistants . The cubicle in Fig . 156, which is 6 ft 9 in . by 9 ft 2 in ., is slightly narrower and deeper than the one in Fig . 15a . The added depth of the cubicle in Fig . 15h permits the location of the instrument cabinet and sink at the rear of the cubicle, convenient to the operator and the assistant . Figure 15c is another variation, adaptable to the 4 ft 8 in . planning module . A cubicle clinic designed for utilization of
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
Fig. 14
Cubicle clinic for utilizing dental auxiliary personnel .
auxiliary personnel is illustrated by Fig. 14 . The location of the main and secondary aisles permits the instructor to move from one work station to another without retracing his steps. Cubicle Dimensions Cubicles in existing dental schools range in size from 6 ft 4 in . by 7 ft to 7 ft a in . by 9 ft 6 in. Where dental assistants will be used, a cubicle of 6 ft 9 in . by 9 ft 6 in . i s desirable . For students working alone, a cubicle of 7 ft 6 in . by 7 ft 6 in . i s adequate . Cubicles may be either partially or fully enclosed . A partition height of approximately 5 ft is recommended for most cubicles . This provides privacy, yet allows for supervision and gives an impression of speciousness . A 4-ft partition topped by a 1-ft-high translucent plastic panel may be used . Allowing an open space between partition and floor facilitates cleaning . However, one or two fully enclosed cubicles are desirable in every clinic . Determining the Number of Clinic Positions
For the clinics as a whole, at least two operating positions should be provided for every entering class student--one in the general clinic and one in the group of special clinics. Every school should also plan additional clinic positions for its graduate and postgraduate students. The equivalent of one student module is desirable in the general clinic for even a modest program of advanced study. Additional positions will also be needed in the special clinics, with the number dependent upon the goals of the school and the particular dental specialities emphasized in its graduate curriculum . Estimating Space Requirements Space allowances for each operating position will also vary in the different clinics . The diagnostic clinic will require 85 sq ft per position, an allotment also sufficient for oral surgery .
In the radiology clinic, 115 sq ft per position should be allowed, and in the clinic for the chronically ill and handicapped, 125 sq ft . For other clinics, an allowance of 100 sq ft per student position should be adequate . Space allowance for some of the supporting facilities of the clinical departments will be fairly standard . For demonstration oporatories, for example, a uniform allowance of 200 sq ft each may be used .
INSTRUCTION ROOMS, STUDY AREAS, AND LIBRARY FACILITIES Seminars The seminar is e room especially planned to accommodate small-group instruction for 16 students or less, usually at an advanced level of training . In most schools, one or more seminar rooms will be needed for the use of each basic science department-- at least one for instruction and perhaps one for departmental conferences . In the clinical facilities of most schools, each of the special clinics will need one seminar room for treatment planning and consultation, and the general clinic will need more than one. In programming, a reasonable standard for the general clinic would allow four rooms for a class size of 96, increasing or decreasing the number by one for each 16-student module added or subtracted . Allow a minimum of 300 sq ft for each seminar room, with increments of 75 sq ft for every four students beyond the 16 accommodated in the standard room . Seating arrangements in seminar rooms are a matter of choice . Usually the instructor and his students sit around a central table, but sortie seminar rooms are furnished with standard tablet-arm chairs . Unitized folding tables and folding chairs permit maximum flexibility in seating arrangements, however, and their
use is increasing, especially in the seminar room used for showing slides, 16mm films, and other visual aids . If it is so used, a small adjoining room for storage of visual aid materials is also helpful . A seminar, like any other instruction room, should be equipped with a chalkboard . Lecture Rooms Although they accommodate a minimum of 50 People, all lecture rooms need not have the same capacity . The smallest should, however, sent at least a full class, plus an overrun of 20 percent. If the school expects a later expansion in class size, lecture rooms should be planned from the beginning to accommodate it, and the 20 percent overrun allowance should also be based on the larger figure . A good rule of thumb is to provide seating capacity for one additional 16-student module beyond class size in schools with 96 ECS. An allowance of 12 sq ft per seat (roughly 200 sq ft for a student module of 16) is sufficient to permit an adequate aisle on either side of the seating area and, in a large lecture room, a center aisle as well . A minimum of three lecture rooms should be provided, one for use of the basic science departments and located near thorn, one for clinical and preclinicalinstruction and accessible to the clinics, and one for special courses or for multiple use. In the school which will have no auditorium, the multiple-use lecture root" might be designed to provide 2'/, positions per ECS. All lecture rooms should be located so as to minimize noise and traffic congestion in the corridors . Layout. It may be difficult to decide whether the lecture room should be long and relatively narrow, like the usual hall, or wider and shallower, like an amphitheater . Because of its wide viewing angle, the amphitheater is not particularly suitable for the showing of slides and films. On the other hand, instructors favor-
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
however, programming committees will find it difficult to justify a large auditorium solely for the use of a dental school, since it is generally more economical to rent a hall for occasions such as graduations which require large seating capacity . If an auditorium is planned, it should be located on a ground floor . Direct entry from the outside is necessary, because the auditorium will often be used by the public when the remainder of the school is closed . Seating capacity should be sufficient to accommodate students enrolled in every program of the school as well as the total faculty . Auditoriums must have public toilets and cloakrooms ; a small lounge off the foyer is advisable . Areas for the preparation and storage of demonstration materials should be provided backstage, as should a toilet room . Areas for Study, Reference, and Research
Fig . 15 (a) Cubicle for student working alone. (b) Cubicle for student and assistant . (c) Variation for studentassistant team, ing the chalk talk technique often dislike a long room . Television monitors can be used in either type. Every lecture room should be equipped with a large chalkboard ; a minimum of 12 lin ft is recommended . If, because of the size of the room, a raised platform is provided, it should be long enough to extend 2 ft beyond each end of the chalkboard . Projection screens which can be automatically lowered and raised may also be a part of the permanent equipment. The floors of lecture rooms should be sloped or terraced slightly to provide a good view of the chalkboards and projection screen .
Some larger lecture rooms are split level or have a balcony . Whenever possible, students should enter from the rear . Furnishings . Fixed or movable tablet-arm chairs, or auditorium seats equipped with tablet arms, are commonly found in lecture rooms . If the latter are used, the aisle seat at the left of each row can be fitted with an outside tablet arm for the use of left-handed students . Writing counters with individual seats are also frequently used . Auditoriums . For schools that have ready access to them, auditoriums sometimes serve as lecture or examigation rooms . As a rule,
Study Areas Places for first- and second-year students should probably be located near the basic science laboratories, and those for thirdand fourth-year students near the clinics . If possible, they should be so situated that students will have access to them at all times, even when the rest of the school is closed . Space. About 19 sq ft per ECS should be allowed in planning standard study places for a school providing one study place for ovary two students . This type of study place can be in a common room, and is usually unassigned . However, some schools may prefer the partially partitioned cubicle . Requiring approximately 4e sq ft per student position, the cubicles are furnished with a desk and chair, a coat locker, and storage space for books, microscopes, and school supplies . Because a cubicle is permanently assigned to each student, space requirements are based on the total enrollment . Library The guidelines, Facilities following though general, may be helpful . Reading and Study Rooms . The main reading room should accommodate from 25 to 50 percent of the total number of students . Reading room exits should be controlled by book
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS charge-out or loan desks, and the card catalog and circulation desk should be nearby . Carrels . Unenclosed desk areas of about 12 sq ft are useful for individual study and should be available in the ratio of one for every 10 students . Small study rooms reserved for graduate and postdoctoral students are also an advantage. Either they should be soundproofed or located far enough away from the main reading room to permit students to use typewriters without disturbing others . Microfilm. Auxiliary facilities such as a microfilm reading room, a sound tape room, and a rare book room are also desirable . Stacks. Stacks should be arranged to facilitate both storage and use of books. The stacks should be located as close to reading rooms as possible, preferably at or below the level of the main reading room . Stack area varies in proportion to volumes. Generous allowances should always be made for future expansion . Stack sections are usually 3 ft in length and 7 ft 6 in . i n height, with a shelf depth of at least 10 in . One single-faced section 3 ft long will accommodate approximately 100 volumes. Service aisles between stacks should be at least 3 ft wide, and the main aisles at least 3 ft 8 in . wide . A microfilm room for processing and storage may be associated with the stack area . Other Facilities . Acquisition and catalog rooms should be near the public card catalog and have direct access to the stacks . Offices should be provided for the head librarian and an assistant, with the head librarian's office accessible both to staff rooms and to readers. Storage space for office supplies should be available . A library stocked with 25,000 volumes and amply supplied with space for reading rooms and auxiliary facilities would require approximately 10,000 sq ft for a school with 96 ECS.
Fig. 16
ETV and visual aids departments .
EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION AND OTHER VISUAL AIDS The location of the ETV department should be carefully chosen to hold distribution distances to a minimum. A top floor or penthouse would be a logical location . Preferably, the visual aids department should be nearby . The studio should not be less than 1,300 sq ft, completely visible from the control room . The ceiling height of the studio (13 to 14 ft) is another factor that must be considered in planning . One area of the studio should contain a dental operatory setup, with chair, unit, and instrument cabinet . A movable (on casters) laboratory demonstration bench will be required for demonstrations of experiments in the basic sciences . The televising of anatomical dissection will require a large overhead mirror . A smaller bench for dental technic demonstration, chalkboards, flip stand, and tack boards are additional requirements . Ample maneuvering area for the television cameras and operators must also be provided . Figure 16 shows an ETV department of approximately 2,500 sq ft . The control room should be elevated and built as close to the ceiling as possible for maximum visibility . Entry into the control room should be possible without going through the studio . Provision should be made for a film chain installation requiring a room approximately 12 by 15 ft . Kinescope recorders and videotape recorders should be planned for in areas adjoining the control room . The amount of prop storage space required will vary with the emphasis placed on television and on the availability of other storage areas. The director and assistant director will require office areas.
Visual Aids Department
The increasing use of ETV has not eliminated the need for a complete visual aids department, but has increased it . Figure 16 shows a visual aids department. In larger schools, 18 to 20 sq ft per ECS would provide centralized visual aids facilities for both the basic sciences and the dental science divisions . Graphic Arts. Drafting tables, plan file cabinets, and a sink or lavatory should be provided . Another room is needed for production of the three-dimensional models . A workbench with sink and utilities is required . Photography . The room provided for the photographic section should be large enough to permit the photographing of patients, photomicrography, copying, film processing and printing, and print and slide finishing . It might also include equipment for preparing and projecting printed pages and similar opaque materials. The studio should be not less than 12 ft wide and approximately 35 ft long for making 16 mm motion pictures and for their projection . Distribution and Storage of Visual Aids . Administrative offices are required for the maintenance of files and cataloging of material, control of distribution and the requisitioning of visual aids materials, and adequate space should be provided for storage of slides and films and for the storage, maintenance, and operation of all projectors . SUPPORTING SERVICES FOR LABORATORIES AND CLINICS The Feasibility of Centralized Laboratory Supply Services
Figure 1 7 is an example of a reasonable plan for a fully centralized laboratory service . Since the operation of four-student laboratories for all
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS ceiving of animals is simplified and the possibility of their escape minimized. The preferred location is on the ground level or in a properly air-conditioned basement area . Technical Shops The technical shops are responsible for the upkeep and repair of the more complex equipment and devices employed by the various school departments . They also design and fabricate unique apparatus required for research and experimentation. Though smaller shops of this type are attached to one of the basic science departments, the services of the central technical shops, with their larger staffs and more extensive equipment, should be available to all departments, including the basic sciences, of the dental school . Even schools which do not require these specialized technical activities will need to provide the modest facilities required for the routine maintenance and repair of standard dental equipment, such as engines, lathes, and dental chairs . Because major repairs of this type are ordinarily made under contract, only limited equipment is necessary. FACULTY FACILITIES Office Facilities A uniform allowance of 200 sq ft for each fulltime faculty member will provide enough space to assure an individual office for each teacher with the rank of instructor or above as well as sufficient additional space for department heads and others with administrative responsibility . Research Facilities
basic science departments requires that equipment and supplies be in the individual laboratories prior to the beginning of a scheduled experiment, the central service facilities make delivery by placing each laboratory's equipment and supplies on trays. The trays are then placed on carts which circulate between the laboratories on regular delivery rounds . Services Requiring Both Departmental and Central Facilities Animal Quarters Although holding rooms for small animals adjoin research and teaching areas, a dental school must still provide one large and centrally located animal area . To avoid the possible spread of disease, different species of animals should never be housed in the same room . Ideally, then, the central animal area should consist not of one large room but of a number of smaller ones . No room should be larger than 600 sq ft-a size which will amply accommodate 32 large dog cages. Space requirements for smaller animals vary, and the following table provides examples of the net footage needed : 7 per sq ft 2 per sq ft Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Per sq ft Rabbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Per 2 sq ft Mice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guinea pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In addition to this net space, allowance must be made for corridors and vestibules within the quarters, as well as for storage. Storage places no major demand upon avail-
able space. Adequate facilities permit the storage of bedding, housekeeping supplies, and enough food for one day near the central holding rooms. Bulk storage is not necessary. Ancillary facilities of the central quarters will, however, occupy substantial amounts of space. These should include a receiving or isolation room where animals can be held for observation during laboratory tests, and at least one adjoining small laboratory and perhaps more, depending upon the size of the school's research program. There should be a small room for preparing food for the animals, and a much larger area for washing and sterilizing cages. The washers and sterilizers used here must be big enough to accommodate the largest cage . (Fixed cages, which must be washed within the holding rooms, are so arranged that refuse can be washed into a gutter and then into a flushing drain.) Other facilities found in the larger animal quarters include animal surgery rooms, equipped with their own ancillary facilities for instrument sterilization and storage, recovery rooms, an autopsy room, an incinerator room, and a refrigerated storage area . Offices for a veterinarian and for an animal keeper are also provided . The planning of the central animal area should not be undertaken without thorough consideration of such factors as insect and pest control, the reduction of noise and odors, and the sanitary disposal of refuse . Animal quarters should not be visible to the public, and they should be arranged so that the re-
Space requirements for faculty research are particularly difficult to anticipate . An allowance of 100 sq ft for each full-time faculty member represents the equivalent of one small laboratory for each two teachers . Function and Location Faculty facilities are usually included in the area of major dental school activities, a location with obvious functional advantages (Fig . 18). If they are housed separately from undergraduate areas, however, future expansion of offices and research space is simplified . Also, if faculty facilities are grouped together in a separate area and their assignments controlled by the office of the dean, rather than by the department, the problem of transferring assigned facilities from one activity or faculty to another will be simplified . The relative merit of separate or departmentally integrated facilities should be carefully weighed before final decisions on exact locations are made . GRADUATE AND POSTGRADUATE FACILITIES In the basic science departments, an allowance of 150 sq ft per student will permit a twomodule office and a four-module laboratory for each four graduate students . In the clinical departments, an allowance of 100 sq ft per student will permit one small combination study and research area for each four students . Additional operatories will also be needed . Graduate programs should also be adequately provided with study cubicles and reserved library study rooms for the specific use of their students .
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS
Fig. 18
Depanmental office and research area.
AUXILIARY PERSONNEL Training Facilities for Dental Hygienists
Dental hygiene students may share classroom space, facilities of the x-ray department, and the library, for example, with dental students . If ample laboratory space is available in the dental school, this, too, may be shared, although a separate laboratory for hygiene students facilitates class scheduling for courses like dental anatomy and prophylaxis technics, which have heavy clock-hour laboratory requirements . The laboratory should be equipped with low benches having electricity, gas, and air outlets . Sufficient laboratory positions to accommodate an entire class are needed . A space allotment of 600 sq ft per 16-student module should be adequate . The clinic space for the dental hygiene program may be either in a section of the main clinic or in a separate clinic . If any increase in enrollments is planned for a later date, enough space should be allocated originally and utilities installed to provide for the added students, even though all space is not immediately equipped . Hygienists will require lounge, locker, and toilet facilities . In some schools, they will share these facilities with other women. The careful location of a hygiene clinic is one way of providing flexibility in school planning . If, at some later data, it should become necessary to expand the school's clinical facilities, the dental hygiene clinic can be relocated and its former facilities incorporated into other clinics . ADMINISTRATIVE FACILITIES One of the focal points of dental school activity is the administrative area . Though it should be readily accessible to visitors, it need not be
in a predominant location . In some schools, it is located on an upper floor, convenient to an elevator or stairway . In general most dental schools will to some extent undertake duties which fall into three broad categories-academic policy, student affairs, and business and personnel management . Academic Offices
In planning the office of the dean, space must be allotted for the dean's private study and for his secretary-with due regard paid to the need for bookshelves, filing space, and office supply storage. A conference room may also be necessary. In addition, offices will be required for an assistant or associate dean and his secretary . Whether or not the dean's offices should be grouped so that the secretarial staff may share a large single office is a decision for the individual school . In programming, approximately 1,500 sq ft should be adequate for these rooms. In larger schools, an office for another assistant dean may be needed . Where the programs warrant it, graduate and postgraduate divisions will have their own officers and offices, and extensive research activity will require a research coordinator, who will also need an office . Schools training dental hygienists or dental assistants will need office accommodations for the director of these programs . Some schools also include an office for part-time faculty members in the achninistrative area . In programming, allow 200 sq ft for each office and 300 sq ft for each conference room required in connection with these programs . Student Affairs
Schools which do not depend upon the university for such services will require a registrar's
office to process applications for admission, to supervise registrations, and to maintain student records. Many schools also offer active programs of student assistance, including counseling and advisory services, and office space is required for the professional personnel who conduct them . In some schools, offices are provided for the chaplains appointed to serve their students . All schools will probably need space to house expanding scholarship and loan activities, and, in some, additional space will be needed to handle student housing services . In small schools or in schools with very limited responsibilities for directing student affairs, these activities will probably be combined with those of a business or personnel office . Business and Personnel Management
Sortie schools have little more than a cashier's office and a minimum of clerical help . Others maintain a complex accounting and fiscal operation, headed by the office of the bursar . A public relations department, personnel offices, and stenographic-dictaphone pools may also be needed in larger institutions . Adequate space for stock rooms and administrative records is always essential . The advisability of employing an administrative director of clinics should be considered, and some schools today strengthen this service by adding a social worker . In some activities-printing and publications is one-the type of equipment largely determines space needs. Offset printing presses will be desirable in some schools ; others need little more than mimeograph machines, and their space requirements will vary accordingly . Mail rooms which consistently handle bulk mailing require a special space allotment . The actual allocation of space for the various business functions and for the administration
Health DENTAL SCHOOLS of student affairs will vary widely . For the average school, however, total space needs for these two groups of functions will probably be adequately met by an allowance of 25 sq ft per ECS.
STUDENT FACILITIES Bookstores
For most schools, an allowance of from 8 to 10 sq ft per ECS-with a minimum of 500 sq ftis a good preliminary estimate of bookstore apace. This will provide room enough both for open displays and for some storage. If possible, the store should be located near the student lounge or the cafeteria.
availability of similar facilities elsewhere on the campus does not, in this case, reduce the need for a lounge in the dental school itself. The lounge is the students' social center . Although the number of women enrolled in undergraduate dental schools is small, schools should provide separate lounges for their convenience . In some schools, women dental students will be able to share the lounges provided for student dental hygienists end dental assistants . In programming, the committee should estimate lounge space at 23 sq ft per ECS for a class size of 96 . For classes of different sizes, 200 eq ft should be added or subtracted for each group of 16 students . These amounts permit simultaneous occupancy by approximately 25 percent of the total enrollment .
Student Lounges
Locker Rooms
The student lounge is important -perhaps indispensable-to a dental school, and the
Adjoining the lounge areas should be adequate toilet facilities and-if feasible-the student
locker rooms. Locker rooms should at least be convenient to the part of the school where the student spends most of his academic daynear the basic science and preclinical technic laboratories for freshmen and sophomores, near the clinics and associated clinical laboratories for juniors and seniors. The locker room area required for male students can be estimated at 1,800 sq ft for an entering class of 48 (or three 16-student modules); this amount should be increased by 500 sq ft for each additional group of 16 students . As to the lockers themselves, the types chosen should depend on the use to which they are put. If dental students are expected to keep their instrument cases in clothing lockers, the size of the case should be established and e prototype made so that the suitability of the lockers can be tested before they are purchased . The lockers chosen should also be large enough to accommodate other dental equipment.
Health NURSING SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
This section deals with design for the following nursing programs, respectively : the diploma, associate degree, baccalaureate and graduate degrees, and practical nursing. In each section, a description is presented of special aspects of each program. A hypothetical school has been described and space requirements determined . No attempt was made to compare the space requirements of one program with another, since each has its special needs, precluding a common basis for comparative purposes. For example, each program differs in purpose, curriculum, and graduation requirements . The second half of this chapter sets forth planning considerations which will affect the architectural design of a facility . No attempt is made to outline finished plans since this should be the decision of the individual school, after a careful evaluation of various alternatives. Moreover, before the architect begins to develop his plans, the school must first establish its educational program. DIPLOMA NURSING PROGRAMS
The diploma nursing program is conducted by a single-purpose school and may be either hospital-sponsored or independently incorporated . This program serves the interests and needs of qualified high school graduates who want (1) an education centered in a hospital, and (2) an early end continuing opportunity to be with patients and with personnel who provide health services . (See Fig . 1 and Table 1 .) Program Characteristics
Diploma programs emphasize the basic scientific principles of nursing care and of recognizing indications of diseases, disabilities, and patient needs. The curriculum is planned to equip graduates with the skills necessary to organize and implement a nursing plan that will meet the immediate needs of one or more patients, to be responsible for the direction of other members of the nursing team, and, to the degree possible, to promote the restoration of the patient's health . Some graduates of diploma programs may wish to fulfill requirements for a baccalaureate degree in nursing. Admission is granted in accordance with the admission policies of the particular college or university they wish to attend . THE ASSOCIATE DEGREE NURSING PROGRAM
The associate degree nursing program is generally established as a division or department of a community junior college, although some are in four-year colleges or universities . This program is designed to fulfill the educational Nursing Education Facilities, Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C ., 1964 .
needs of qualified high school graduates who want (1 ) to prepare to practice nursing as registered nurses, and (2) to study in a college where they may share responsibilities and privileges as well as intellectual and social experiences with students in other educational programs . (See Fig. 2 and Table 2 .) Program Characteristics
The following characteristics identify associate degree nursing programs : 1 . The college controls, finances, and administers the program . 2. The program conforms with the overall standards and policies of the college and operates within the framework of its organization, administration, interdisciplinary curriculum committees, and the student personnel program . 3. The policies and procedures promulgated for faculty in other college departments also apply to the nursing faculty. 4. Members of the nursing faculty plan, organize, implement, and teach the nursing courses. They select, guide, and evaluate all learning experiences including those in the patient care areas. 5. The college, by means of written agreements with hospitals and other agencies in the community, provides clinical facilities essential to nursing education. 6. Students meet the requirements of the college and its nursing department for admission, continuation of study, and graduation . 7. The nursing program is organized within the framework of the community junior college curriculum pattern leading to an associate degree . Graduates of the associate degree nursing program are prepared to give patient-centered nursing care in beginning general-duty nurse positions . They are prepared to draw upon a background from the physical, biological, and social sciences in administering nursing care to patients . They relate well with people and are self-directive in learning from experience as practicing nurses . They are prepared to cooperate and share responsibility for the patients' welfare with other general-duty nurses, head nurses, supervisors, attending physicians, and others. As all other beginning practitioners, these graduates need to be oriented to new work situations and given time and opportunity to become increasingly effective in the practice of nursing. The program is complete for its purpose. Some graduates from associate degree programs may later wish to fulfill requirements for a baccalaureate degree in nursing .
BACCALAUREATE AND GRADUATE NURSING PROGRAMS Program Characteristics
A nursing program leading to a baccalaureate degree is conducted by an educational unit in nursing (department, division, school, or college) that is an integral part of a college or university and is organized Undergraduate Programs
end controlled in the same way as other units in the institution . (See Table 3.) The baccalaureate degree program is designed to serve the needs and purposes of persons who want (1 ) to learn and practice the humanistic and scientific bases for care of patients, (2) to prepare for nursing at the baccalaureate level, (3) to share with students preparing for other occupations all the general advantages of a college or university preparation, and (4) to acquire a baccalaureate education as a prerequisite for graduate study to prepare to practice in such specialties as teaching, administration, or research . Graduates of baccalaureate programs are prepared for nursing positions in community health services and may advance without further formal education to positions, such as head nurse and team leader, which require administrative skills . Graduates also have a foundation for continuing personal and professional development and for graduate study in nursing. Some graduates of associate degree and diploma programs in nursing may wish to fulfill requirements for a baccalaureate degree in nursing . Admission requirements vary with different colleges and universities . A graduate nursing program is organized similar to other graduate programs within the university . With only few exceptions, these are offered in conjunction with a baccalaureate nursing program . (See Table 4 .) The graduate program is designed to prepare nurses for leadership positions in teaching and administration in all types of educational programs. Such a program also provides an opportunity to study for supervisory and administrative positions in nursing service . Consultants, clinical specialists, and research workers also require graduate study. (See Fig. 3.) Graduate P(egrams
PRACTICAL NURSING PROGRAMS
Seventy-five percent of the state-approved nursing programs leading to a practical nurse certificate are controlled by educational institutions or agencies . The majority are under state and local boards of education. The remainder are mostly under the control of hospitals, with the exception of about six which are under other community agencies . (See Tables 5 and 6 and Figs . 4 and 5.) Program Characteristics
The practical nursing program which leads to e certificate or diploma is usually one year in length, self-contained, complete, and satisfactory for its own purpose, providing preparation exclusively for practical nursing. (California and Texas call these programs ''Vocational Nurse Programs" and license the graduates as Licensed Vocational Nurses .) This program's objective is to prepare a needed worker in nursing service who will share in giving direct care to patients . Graduates of practical nursing programs perform two major functions :
Health NURSING SCHOOLS TABLE 1 Space Requirements for a 3-Year Diploma Program with a Total Entering Class of 84 and a Total Enrollment of 148 Nursing education area Spaces
Number of rooms
Croup size, each room
1 2 3
75 38 16
Total net area (s (I . ft .)
j Remark,
I
__ Teaching --------
it, 330
-----------------
Lecture-demonstration room -------Classrooms- .___ . . .-_ . ------------------Conference rooms-------- . .------- ._- .---Multipurpose room with storage and utility __- .- . ._______ room _______ . Sciencelaboratories__ Science .----. . . . . .__ Storage-Leaching aids ------------------------------ . Library ----- . . .. . " Faculty . ------- . .-_- . .--------- .___
Offices. . . -------- ------ . . __ .- ._-___ ._ Conference room ---- _---------------------Lounge___ .. ------ .----------- --------- . Washrooms, toilets ------------- __ .-------Lockers ------------ --_ . --------------Administration_____---- .- . . . .________
-
1 1
-
=--
-
Additional squired in
hospital .
2,0009beds . optional, 120 ' 3,000 3,000books ;1,0o01touudpf "riodicalvolnnn"s.
~2 . -
151 1 20 1 1 -
11
377 300 100
Shared with administrative staff. 1 watcrdoset ftud'2laeatorios .
==- 1,660'
-
Lobby-reception area ------------------ . .-General office__ . .------------------------ _ Secretary-receptionist . Clerk-typists . Storage area__ . .- .- ..- ._________ .__-- . ._ Duplicating area .------------------------ . Director's office ------------ .--------------Director's secretary office- . .----------- .---Assistant director's office . .-____ _ .---- -_ _ Registrar's office and admissions office . . . . . . Students' counselor's office -------- .--------Students' health service -------- --- -- -----
-
lounge---------------- -__ . .------ -__
Staff Visitors' toilets : Men ._________ . . .________ . . . . .-__ . Women. . . . . . .__ .--------- .----------
-
Supporting ___ ._ .__ ._ ._____ .__-_ ._ .
-
1 1
-
100 400
1 I 1 1 1 l 1
-
120 1110 340 100 120 10 160 -
1 1
-
1
-
1 1
-
i
-
-
Students' toilets : Men Men-------- .
- . ._ ._ ._ . .______ _ __ _ Women_----. . . . . .-_ ._-_.------Studenta'lounge . --_ Lockers ------- . . Janitors' closets- .__- .--------_-._-_--_ .__ Coat alcoves --------------- .__.___------Vending machines-- .__________-__ . .____ _ Telephone booths___ .__ ._ .----.-------.--_ Drinking fountains ---- .-------- ._ . . General storage -------_ .------------ . .- . ..-
1
1,'.140 1,370 !)OO
40 40
-
With coat closet and toilet . Combined function . Shan"d with hospital a, reice, Shared with faculty .
employees'
health
1 watercloact, I lavatory . 1 watcrcloset, I lavatory .
-- --1,580 1
-
1 1
-
I
-
1
-
full1 watcrcloset, ) lavatory, including 10 fullsize lockers . 290 7 watercloacts, 7 lavatories. 300 240 :30 full-sizolockrrs . 40 1 Or as required . As required . As required . As required . \linhnumof4-rccvssedorasrequired . 000 120
14, 947 9, 9119 24,745 167, 2
Not area . For walls, partitions, corridors, stairs, and mechanical span ". Total gross area . Area per enrolled student .
It the sciences are taught in the home school, add the following: Teaching ----- .--------------------
Faculty --------------------------Offices---------- .-------------- .--------
-
1 2 1
Classrooms ------------------------- .._-_ Science laboratories ----------------------Storage and preparation room --------------
-
4,368 38
5
5oo 1
500 19,215 12,910 32,025
--------------------------Assembly room_____
1
-
648 ~Thcec should be added if the sciences are 3,6011 are taught in the home school . 120
200
Total net area . For walls, partitions, corridors, mechanical space. Total gross area .
216. 4
Area per enrolled student .
3, 000
Flat floor .
22, 215 14, 810 37,025 250. 2
stairs, and
Total net area . For walls, partitions, corridors, stairs, and mechanical apace . Total gross area . Area per enrolled student.
Health NURSING SCHOOLS
Fig . 1
Space relationships in the diploma program .
1 . Under the direction of a registered nurse or physician, they administer nursing care in situations relatively free of scientific complexity . 2 . In a close working relationship, they assist registered nurses in providing nursing care in more complex situations .
ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS The physical essentials of the various spaces required for any type of program of nursing education are briefly described in this section . All the spaces noted, however, are not necessarily required for all programs . Moreover, many of the spaces may be used in conjunction with other departments of a community college, a university, or institution to which the nursing education program is related . Where possible, variations are noted . The diagrams of teaching spaces are only suggestive of one method of arranging these spaces . The final scheme used by a nursing education program will depend on its particular needs expressed in the written program . The
degree to which the architect can effectively design a facility depends largely on how thoroughly the functional program of the proposed facility was prepared . Although each nursing education facility will find it necessary to determine its own space requirements in light of its own needs, the spaces required by most schools might be grouped under seven categories . These categories include teaching spaces, research facilities, faculty offices, administrative unit, students' facilities, supporting areas, and continuing education . Teaching Spaces Lecture-Demonstration Rooms The iecinre-clen,onstration room (Fig . 8) is used for the purpose implied in its narne . Factors to be considered in determining physical dimensions are requirements for the following : (1) teaching station, (2) demonstration area, (3) seating area, (4) projection space or room, and (5) storage closets . A brief description of each follows : Teaching Station . The teaching station should be equipped with chalkboards, tack
boards, projection screens, and map rails above to support diagrams and charts . Demonstration Area . The demonstration area in front of the teaching station should be large enough to permit the use of equipment such as an adult-size bed or movable sectional counter units which have locking wheels . These units, which have storage space underneath, provide greater flexibility than fixed counters, since they can be assembled into any arrangement or length and can be stored elsewhere when not in use . A lavatory will be needed in the lecturedernonstration area for use whenever a patient care demonstration is presented . The doors into this room should be a minimum of 3 ft 8 in . wide to provide an adequate passageway for a bed and other equipment used during a demonstration . Seating Area . Since good visibility of the instruction and demonstration area should be assured from all seats, a stepped floor should be considered . Steps should be so designed that each sight line misses the row ahead by 4 in . Fixed seats equipped with hinged or removable tablet supports for writing are recom-
Health NURSING SCHOOLS
TABLE 2 Space Requirements for a 2-Year Associate Degree Program in a Community College with an Entering Class of 64 and a Total Enrollment of 104 Nursing education area Spaces
Teaching -------- - ._-_ . .---- . .--__ Lecture-demonstration room -------------_ _ Clasarooma-------- .------------------_ Conference rooms ------.- ------- _ Multipurpose room with storage and utility moms ------- __ -_ . . ._ . . . ._ .___ ._ . Storage-teaching aids- . . ---Science laboratories-Library--_ _ .-_ ---- __ . .._ . . .----- -_ .- . Faculty_ . . .
------
Number of rooms
Group site, each room
Total I~ net area (sq . ft .)
-
-
6,120
1 1 3 1 l -
ofcee . . . .--------- . . .---__ . . . .-____ . . ._ Conference room .---------------- . . . .---Vunge .___ . .- ._______ ._ .- ._- .-_ . . . . . .-__ ashroom and toilets_Administration _ . .._ .__ . . .- .__
Storage area ------------------ - .- .- .- . . Duplicating area -------
-
Registrar's office--- . ----------- .-- . . -----------------Admissions office_ . Student counselor's office__ . _ ------Student.' health service . Staff lounge---washroom and toilet_ .-----Visitors' toilets : .. Men_ Women.---------. _ .-------- . .-------- .------ _
Students' toilets .___ . . >Ien'atoilet -Wunu'n'e toilcts . .____ . . .---Slode'nts' lounge . . .__ -----Lockers_-.- . . . ------ .---- .---Januors' closets ------- - . . . .... Cost akowVending machines . .------Teleplloru" booths Drinking fountains .General storage_ .-
10 1
-
I t
-
I
-
-
-
-
-
-_ .
1,000 400
.
In the college.
ISO , 1
100 320 I
3
_
I
340 With coatelosetandtoilet. In the college . ' In the college . In the college . In the college . In the college .
90
Inthecollege . In the college . I
-
_.
-
-
"4211
-
-
-
_
_
-
_
. .--- . . . . . .--__ ... .. .
_
1,590 1 20
840
Clerk-typista-------------------------
_
2,000 ,1. 9 beds . 120 ; In the college . In the college .
-
.
Lobby-reception . . . .__ . .- -----------General office .. . _____ . . . .-----__ . . . . ._ .Secretary-receptionist_----------------
Supporting . .
2, 300 9011 1 900 Additional required in hospital .
104 44 16
-
---------
Remarks
31111
1
1
watercloset . la~ntary, l urinal . S wnle "rcluscls, 5laratorics . hocated iu collcgr . 24(1' full-size lockers .. (Additional may be neexled ill the hospItal .) Ilr lla required . As regnlred . As rc"(pdr d . .4s required . Minimum of recessed or as regwred . 611(i 1
1
1111
As
=.-I I
:3
- II 1 1
9 .840 6, 560
..
5rt area . For malls, partitions, corridors, stairs, and mechanical space .
i 16, 400 ' Total gross area . l_ .. 1577 i Area per enrolled student .
mended . Ten percent of the seats should be for left-handed students . A projection room Projection Room . separated from the classroom is desirable because it eliminates such disturbing factors as noise and light . However, certain disadvantages of a separate projection room such as the need for an operator and for communication facilities between the operator and the instructor should be considered . In lieu of a projection room, a console for projection equipment is a good compromise . This console will contain all lighting and projection controls and will have locked storage space for equipment when not in use . If such a room is provided, it may also be used for editing and storing material to be projected . Provision, therefore, should be made for counters with storage space underneath . One of the counters should have a sink . Open shelves or well cabinets with glazed doors may be provided above the counters . The projection wall should have two small windows so that two projectors can show two images on the screens simultaneously . The width of the screen should be approximately
equal to one-sixth of the distance to the last row of seats . Projection screens can be the rollup type, either manually or mechanically operated, or the fixed type . Mechanical operation, although noisy, prevents accidental damage to the screen . closets with Closets . Storage Storage standard-height doors may be provided . Among other things, skeletons and full-scale models of the human body may be stored here if there is no centralized storage . The classroom (see Fig . 7) should provide an optimum setting for communication between the instructor and the students . The room's shape and size should permit easy visibility of written material on the chalkboard as well as the projected image on the screen . The need to maintain as close a verbal distance as possible between students and the instructor should also be considered . Acoustical treatment to support verbal communication and sound insulation to prevent the penetration of outside noises must be considered in selecting structural and finish materials . Clasaroorei
In addition to the floor area required for seating, space should be allocated for teaching and demonstration and for mounting a projector . If central storage of such teaching aids as skeletons and full-scale models of the human body is not provided, storage closets will be required in classrooms . A lavatory should be provided in the room near the teaching station so that it will be easily accessible for use whenever patient care is being demonstrated . The classroom door should be a minimum of 3 ft 8 in . wide to permit easy transportation of an adult-size bed which may be required for demonstration . Equipment which will be needed for classrooms includes chalkboards, lack boards, and projection screens . x-ray film illuminators, either portable or wall mounted, may also be used .
The multipurpose room (see Fig . 8) may be used for student practice of patient care as well as for classroom functions . Thus, the root" should accommodate : Multipurpose Room
Health NURSING SCHOOLS 1 . Adult-size beds which may be separated by curtains suspended from ceiling curtain tracks . 2 . A medicine preparation area including movable sectional counter units and fixed counters located at the wall, with sink and storage cabinets underneath and wall cabinets with glazed doors above . 3 . A handwashing demonstration unit and a minimum of three lavatory basins, with foot, wrist, or knee control . 4 . Dressing cubicles . One method for providing privacy is through the use of curtains suspended from ceiling curtain tracks . 5 . Storage closets for small equipment, linen, charts, and diagrams . These closets should have a full-size door and should be large enough to store skeletons and full-size models of the human body, if necessary . 6 . Chalkboards, tack boards, projection screens . 7 . Seating around tables for seminar-type lectures for 16 students . 6 . Space for projector mounting . X-ray film illuminators may be used in all teaching areas . They can be either wall mounted or portable . If portable, storage space should be allocated for them when not in use . Utility Room . The utility room can either be a part of the multipurpose demonstration room or may be separated by a solid partition . Although each facility must determine its own specific equipment needs, the following built-in features are recommended :
1 . A counter with sink and storage underneath with wall cabinets above 2 . Roughed-in plumbing to accommodate future fixtures Student conference rooms will be required in all programs . (See Fig . 7 .) The number of such rooms will depend on the anticipated enrollment . Major planning considerations include : " Seating arrangement at tables for group discussions or lectures " Placement of chalkboards and tackboards " Adequate sound isolation from one room space to another Students' Conference Rooms (Teaching)
Laboratories Students enrolled in associate and baccalaureate degree programs in nursing attend science courses with other undergraduates . The trend in diploma programs is to purchase instruction in the sciences from a local junior college, a college, or a university . To avoid the unnecessary duplication of expensive facilities, diploma programs should plan science laboratories only if such facilities are not available from other institutions . (See Fig . 9 .) Science
Library facilities are required in all nursing education programs . Wherever feasible, a library may be shared with other types of programs ; however, the diploma school will usually have its own library . An example of library facilities for a diploma program is shown in Fig . 10 . Library
The information presented is considered minimum for the needs of a nursing education facility whether it is part of a larger library or an independent library . In any event, future expansion should be a major planning consideration . Principal elements to be considered in designing a library include (I) the library room ; (2) the librarian's office ; (3) the librarian's workroom ; and (4) the storage area for audiovisual equipment and models . Library Rootn Reference and Study Area . Study space should accommodate a minimum of one-third of the total student body . Reference tables may be provided for one-half of these students and carrels for the other half . Teaching machines may be used in carrels . The reference and study area should occupy 55 to 60 percent of the total floor space of the library room . Service Area . Card catalog and circulation activities should be located near the library entrance and reading area . Storage Area . All nursing programs should have an adequate amount of space for stacks to accommodate necessary titles and bound volumes of periodicals . Appropriate filing arrangements should be provided for reports, pamphlets, bulletins, microfilms, microcards, and programmed material for teaching machines . For the diploma program, stacks should be provided for a minimum of 3,000 titles and 1,000 bound periodical volumes .
TEACHING SPACES l . CLASSROOM 2 . MULTIPURPOSE DEMONSTRATION ROOM 3 . PROJECTION ROOM 4 . LECTURE DEMO . ROOM 5-7 . STUDENTS' CONE . SUPPORTING SPACES 8 . U77WTY ROOM 9 . STORAGE ROOM 10 . MEN'S ROOM 11 . WOMEN'S TOILETS l2 . MECH . EQUIP . ROOM 13 . A . & V, STORAGE ROOM ADMINISTRATION SPACES 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 .
LOBBY GENERAL OFFICE DIRECTOR'S OFFICE TOILET CLOSET JANITOR'S CLOSET
FACULTY SPACES 20-29 . FACULTY OFFICES 30 . FACULTY CONF . ROOM 31 . COFFEE PREP . AREA
Health NURSING SCHOOLS TABLE 3 Space Requirements for a 4-Year Basic Baccalaureate Nursing Program with an Entering Class of 96 and a Total Enrollment of 240 Nursing education area space.
Number of rooms
Group size, each room
-
-
Teaching------------- ..---------Lecture-demonstration rooms_ _. . .---------Classrooms-----------------------------Conference rooms-_ _____. .___-_- . . ..--- --1 Multipurpose room with storage, utility, and observation rooms. . . _ ----------------Science laboratories------ . . __-----------Storage-teaching aide- .__ . .__ ._ ._ . .__ .__.. Reference reading room ----- . ._ .---- . . .__. Library
2 2 6
-
1 1
-
4, 608 2,200 3,696
-
8 beds. In the college. In the college .
3,980
27 I I t
Additional required in the hospital.
3,0011 I6o 400 -
16
-
Faculty --------- ----------------Offices __ .------------ . . ._ . .-------- _.._ . Research space added ----------------- ..-Graduate assistants' office __ .-_______.__ ._ Conference room . . -------------------- Lounge.._----------
14,1164
120 60 25
1
-
TotalRemarks net area (sq. ft.)
1 4 40
-
2,700 240 720 320 320
Depending on the program, Shared with lockers.
I
Administration .------ .___ ._ .__ .____ Lobby-reception----- .__ . _---------------- , General office ------------------ --------Secretary-receptionist . Clerk-typists . Storage area . . ------- -__ .__- .__ . ._ .____ --Duplicating area . -_ Mean's . Mean'secretary's office .-----------office --------.------------.----- -__ . . . . . . .__- . ._ . ._ . ._ . Registrar's office Admissions office_ _---. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-Student counselor's office Students' health center- - ._- . . . . . . . . . . .---Visitors' toilets. bten_ . . . . . ._ . .-------- .------------R'omen ......... Supporting__ .-------- .------------
-
- 1 1
-
1 1 1 I
-
720
I
340 100
so
-
-
-
-
-
Continuing education----------- . ._ .
-
-
Assembly room --------- .-----------------
2I
1
-
-
1 1
40
4~1
1,600
-
700
_
130 130 _
166 .97
be
separated from the library room by a glazed wall partition or a view window to enable the librarian to oversee activity in the library . The office
be sufficiently large to accommodate several people for an informal conference and should be equipped with necessary furniture should
including
bookshelves,
desk,
and typewriter
stand.
Librarian's Workroom The workroom should
be
adjacent
to
the
library room and to the librarian's office. Direct access should be provided into the corridor to permit easy deliveries by either a 3-ft 8-in . clear opening or double doors .
1 wstercloeet, 1 lavatory . 1 watercloset, 1 lavatory .
2,560
1110
40,073
should
college college. college. college.
1 lsvatory . 660 1 waterrloset ;l urinal . 13 watercloseta ;13lavatoriee . In the college. 600 2.50 full-size lockers or an required . 80 As required . As required . As required . ' As required. Minimum of7-recessed or as required . 600
24,044 16,029
Librarian's Office The librarian's office
the the the the
1,940
1
In In In In
-
-
With coat closet and toilet.
-
-
students , toilets -----------------------.__ Men----------- .----------------- ._ Women ----------------------------Students' lounge -------------------------Lockers__- _ Janitors' closets-------------------------Coat alcoves_ . ._ __ ____ . ._ ._ ._ .._ ._ .__ . . Vending machines . ----------------- ._ . .-_ Telephone booths ------------ .-----------Drinkingfountains_ ._ .------------------General storage___ .----------------- ._ .__'
Conference room ------------------------Lounge and reception area----------------Toilets. Men- .----------- .------ .__ .-------Women------ . .--------------------Drinking fountains -------- .-------- .. .___
Coo
9
80
-
-
5
1,500
-
1 2
staff-with
administrative
Folding partitions to divide the room into 4 spaces (optional) . Optional . 1 wnterclobet ; 1 urinal ; I lavatory, 1 watercloset ;2lavatories . Total net area . For walls, partitions, corridors, stairs, and mechanical space . Total groaa area . Area per enrolled 167 sq . ft .
The room should include: " Counter worktop with sink and storage cabinets underneath ; part of the counter should have knee space underneath " Storage shelves or wall cabinets above " Adequate number of electrical outlets " Space allocation for movable book carts Reference Reading Room
desk,
worktables,
Nursing education programs which use adja cent library facilities may need only a small reference-reading room in the nursing education facility . Standard references and professional periodicals should be kept in this room, where study space should also be provided . Equipment such as shelves, storage cabi-
student,
approximately
nets, reference tables, and seats around tables for 16 people should be provided . Storage Area Some nursing education programs
may wish
to centralize all teaching aids under the librarian's supervision . Such a center is sometimes referred to as the Instructional Materials Cen-
provisions for storing skeletons end full-scale models of the human body are not made elsewhere (i .e ., lecture-demonstration room, classrooms, or multipurpose demter (IMC). If
s central storage facility provided . This room should be placed close to the library and should be equipped with sturdy open shelving to hold onstration room), should
be
heavy equipment. In planning the space to be
Health NURSING SCHOOLS
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967
Transportation HELIPORTS
NOTES :
Fig . 5
1.
Markers used to define the takeoff and landing area of a turfed heliport should provide visible contrast against the natural background of the site .
2.
Flush-type markers may be located at the edge of the touchdown pad .
3.
Above-ground markers should not project more than 18 inches (45 cm) above the surface of the ground . Manmade markers should be solidly anchored to the ground to prevent their being blown about by rotor downwash . Raised markers should be located at the outer edge of the peripheral area .
4.
This drawing illustrates numerous types of markings that could be used to identify limits of a turfed heliport . It is not intended that a heliport owner use more than one type of marker .
Examples of markings for a turfed heliport.
Paved Takeoff and Landing Areas Paved takeoff and landing areas at ground-level heliports are usually developed to support heavier helicopters or to accommodate greater traffic volumes . While it is desirable to pave the entire takeoff and landing area, there is no operational requirement to do so . When it is intended for the helicopter to touch down on a designated takeoff and landing area, a paved touch-down pad located in the center of the area, the size of either a or b below, will suffice . a . Touchdown Pad The recommended dimension of a touchdown pad is equal to the rotor diameter of the largest helicopter expected to operate from the facility . b . Minimum Touchdown Pad At a heliport that has an extremely low level of activity or is subject to economic or aesthetic pressure, smaller paved areas may be used . Pad dimensions are based on rectangular configurations . A circular pad having a diameter equal to the longer side of the rectangular configuration set forth in (1) or (2) below is acceptable . Skid or float length should be substituted for wheelbase as appropriate .
968
(1)
(2)
Public-Use Heliports . The minimal-sized touchdown pad for a public-use heliport should have a length and width at least 2 .0 times the wheelbase and tread, respectively, or a diameter of 2 .0 times the wheelbase of the largest helicopter expected to use the facility . Private-Use or Personal-Use Heliports . The minimal-sized touchdown pad for a private-use or personal-use heliport should have a length and width at least 1 .5 times the wheelbase and tread, respectively, or a diameter of 1 .5 times the wheelbase of the largest helicopter expected to use the facility .
Parking Areas Requirements for physically separated helicopter parking areas will be based on operational needs . Each parking position, whether used for passenger boardings, helicopter servicing, or extended parking, is recommended to have a length and width or diameter equal to the overall length of the largest helicopter expected to use the facility . A minimum clearance of 10 ft (3 m) is recommended between adjacent parking positions or between a parking position and a fence or other object .
Taxiways Taxiways connect one operational area on a heliport with another . Most often, taxiways connect the takeoff and landing area with helicopter parking positions . Helicopters with wheel undercarriages normally are taxied in ground contact. Helicopters with skid or float gear must hover taxi . The minimum recommended paved taxiway width is 20 ft (6 m) . Paved taxiways are not required for hover taxiing . A lateral clearance of at least 10 ft (3 m) is recommended between the blade tip of the taxiing helicopter and any building or object . Heliport Buildings Heliports may require an administration or passenger service building, service and storage hangars, or maintenance buildings . The location and space requirements of heliport buildings will depend upon the extent of current and projected operations, HELIPORT VISUAL AIDS General Recommendations for marking and lighting of ground-level heliports are based on tests conducted for the FAA with the cooperation and involvement of civil and military helicopter pilots . For day VFR operations, it is recommended
Transportation HELIPORTS
that the takeoff and landing area be marked and that the heliport be equipped with a suitable wind direction indicator . For night VFR operations, it is recommended that the takeoff and landing area and the wind direction indicator also be lighted and a heliport identification beacon be installed.
FAA standards for marking heliports Marking serve two purposes . One type of marking serves to identify the heliport's designated takeoff and landing area and provides visual approach cues to the pilot. The second type of marking provides guidance for ground movement and helicopter parking . Markings may be painted on paved surfaces using reflective or nonreflective paint of the recommended color . A 6-in (15-cm), or wider, black (red for hospital heliports) border may be used to enhance painted markings . The marking of turfed heliports may be accomplished in a variety of ways .
Identification Markings Heliport markings identifying the takeoff and landing area are white . They are centered on the designated take-
off and landing area . Dimensions for these markings are shown on the referenced figures . The standard heliport marker (Fig . 4) is recommended to identify the designated takeoff and landing area of a heliport . While this symbol is widely used throughout the helicopter industry, a number of private-use and personal-use heliports are either not marked at all or utilize a company logo or some other marking recognized by the helicopter pilots authorized to use the facility .
to 10 cm) thickness of crushed stone is used for markings .
BoundTouchdown Pad Boundary Markings ary markings are white and are used to delineate the limits (edges) of the portion of the takeoff and landing area capable of supporting the helicopter. Paved surfaces may be marked by a solid or segmented white paint stripe at least 18 in (45 cm) in width . Black edging may be used to improve contrast . Turf heliport takeoff and landing areas may be delineated in a variety of ways . Figure 5 illustrates possible methods . Individual markers are spaced from 25 ft (7 .5 m) to 100 ft (30 m) apart as site conditions dictate . A soil sterilant or an impervious membrane should be used to deter vegetation when a 3- to 4-inch (7
Other Markings Passenger walkways and fire extinguisher locations should be appropriately marked.
Guidance or Position Markings All painted heliport guidance and positioning markings are yellow . These markings are primarily intended to assist pilots in ground movement and to aid in judging clearances between turning rotors and other aircraft or fixed objects . The markings are illustrated in Fig . 6 .
(1)
Walkways . Passenger ingress and egress routes must be marked to indicate the safe walkway . The width, location, color, and marking are at the owner's discretion . Figure 6 illustrates one method of marking . Walkways should be textured to insure positive footing .
(2)
Fire Extinguisher Locations . Fire extinguisher locations should be marked for ready identification . A bright red circle 3 ft (1 m) in diameter is suggested . Figure 6 illustrates one method of marking a fire extinguisher position on an access-controlling fence .
ELEVATED HELIPORT DESIGN General An elevated heliport, whether it be located on the roof of some building or parking structure or on a waterfront pier, presents unique design problems . Developing structural design and construction specifications for elevated heliports requires the services of qualified architects and engineers . This section is limited to covering, in general terms, the basic design features that are peculiar to an elevated heliport . Siting When a suitable ground-level site is unattainable, the alternative may be the development of an elevated heliport . Elevated heliports are found in many cities . Most would be classified as private-use or personal-use facilities . An elevated facility has two advantages for the proponent of a private-use or personal-use heliport . First, the facility provides more privacy and security than a ground-level site . Second, with the heliport at or above the level of most buildings in the vicinity, there are fewer problems in providing and maintaining suitable approach-departure paths .
Codes and Regulations Local, state, and national safety codes pertaining to building construction, occupancy, ingress-egress, fire safety, etc ., should be carefully reviewed to determine their impact on establishing and operating an elevated heliport . Early coordination of a proposed elevated heliport facility with FAA, state, and local authorities is recommended to insure that no pertinent code or regulation is overlooked .
NOTES :
1. 2.
3. Fig . 6
are in yellow . All markings for helicopter parking or ground guidance . Diameter of Stopping circle "A" is at least 3 feet (1 m) in diameter design the parking circle "S" is equal to the overall length of the m) . least 10 feet (3 "C" is at Clearance to objects helicopter . the owner's Passenger walkway widths, locations, and markings are at . discretion, the intent being to clearly delineate safe passageways Heliport guidance, position, and other markings.
The dimensions of the Takeoff and Landing Area takeoff and landing area of an elevated heliport are keyed to the size of the helicopter expected to operate therefrom . To the extent that circumstances permit, the recommended dimensions of the takeoff and landing area are identical to those of a ground-level facility . The takeoff and landing area, together with the associated peripheral area, may require the entire roof area or only a part of it. Elevated takeoff and landing areas
969
Transportation HELIPORTS having a long axis should have that axis oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds . Peripheral Areas In some instances, it is neither possible nor practical to provide the surface area required to permit the development of a takeoff and landing area and associated peripheral area . In some of these cases, it is reasonable to presume that the natural open space surrounding an elevated heliport will suffice as an obstruction-free area and the peripheral area requirement may be eliminated . To take full advantage of ground effect, the dimensions of the minimal takeoff and landing area should be 1 .5 times the rotor diameter of the largest helicopter expected to operate therefrom . A surface smaller than this may subject using helicopters to operational restrictions.
Load-Bearing Surfaces The entire rooftop surface designated as the takeoff and landing area, plus any helicopter parking positions, should be designed to support the static and dynamic loads imposed by the largest helicopter expected to use the facility . Where a touchdown pad or parking position is to be provided, and it is impractical to structurally stress the entire takeoff and landing area, then an area of at least the size of (1) and (2) below should be provided . (1)
(2)
Public-Use Heliports . A load-bearing area at least one rotor diameter in length and width, or a diameter of the largest helicop ter expected to use the facility, is the minimum recommended . Private-Use and Personal-Use Heliports. A load-bearing area having a length and
width at least 1 .5 times the wheelbase and tread, respectively, or a diameter 1 .5 times the wheelbase of the largest helicopter expected to use the facility, is the minimum recommended . Skid or float length should be substituted for wheelbase as appropriate . Approach Clearances Elevated heliports have the same requirements for approach clearances as a ground-level heliport . At an elevated facility, it is usually easier to secure unobstructed approach and transitional surfaces . This benefit alone may be quite significant to privately owned heliports since approach and transitional surfaces usually cannot be protected under the zoning powers of the community . In many instances, it will be difficult to prevent obstructions within the entire rooftop takeoff and landing area . Therefore, special consideration may have to be given to the presence of penthouses, air-conditioning towers, exhaust stacks, antennas, etc . The FAA should be contacted early in the planning stages to undertake a study to determine the effect of such objects upon aeronautical operations . Elevated heliports may also be subjected to turbulence . Flight tests are recommended to ascertain the effect of different wind conditions on the safety of flight operations . Construction-General Elevated heliport takeoff and landing areas present some special problems to the heliport designer who must consider the following factors . Construction Materials All materials used in the construction of the heliport should be noncombustible or fire-retardant. Most frequently used materials are portland cement concrete, asphaltic concrete, steel plates, or treated wood . Synthetic and resilient plastic coatings of different compositions have been proved to possess excellent characteristics for operating surfaces . All surfaces should be textured to have nonskid properties or have a nonskid coating applied . If night operations are contemplated, a light-colored surface is recommended to improve pilot depth perception . Treat the decking and supporting structure of a wood or metal load-distribution platform to make it weather-resistant . Perimeter Protection Safety nets, guard rails, or fences should meet requirements of local or state building codes . Guard rails or fences should not penetrate heliport primary, approach, or transitional surfaces nor should the installation create an actual or perceived psychological obstacle to pilots using the heliport . A safety net, Fig . 7, is recommended for touchdown pods raised above the level of the roof. These nets should be located below, and not rise above, the plane of the heliport primary surface . A net width of at least 5 ft (1 .5 m) is recommended .
NOTE :
Fig . 7
Platform heliports shall have two entry-exit points . The heliport perimeter lights and safety net should not project above the level of the touchdown pad .
Platform heliport showing lighting and safety net .
Surface Drainage The takeoff and landing area should be designed with gutters that would isolate the runoff of any spilled liquids. It is essential that these liquids be prevented from discharging into the building's drainage system . Local building codes should be reviewed to determine whether the proposed collection system complies with the applicable code provisions . Structural Implications The surface used for takeoffs and landings on elevated heliports should be an integral part of the building's design whether it is incorporated as a roof-level or plot-
Transportation HELIPORTS form facility . The actual landing surface should be constructed of materials that will not yield under hard landings . However, the heliport designer may take advantage of any energy-absorbing properties inherent in roof-decking materials or structural-framing techniques . Design loads other than those applied by the helicopter, such as snow, rainfall, wind, passengers and cargo, flight-supporting equipment, additional weight of the heliport, etc ., should be calculated in accordance with applicable building codes . An analysis of this magnitude requires the professional services of a qualified architect or engineer . Proponents of elevated heliports should consider the probability of future operations by larger helicopters when designing the facility . Marking and Lighting The basic marking and lighting for an elevated heliport are identical to that of a comparable ground-level facility .
TABLE 3
Marking An elevated heliport may be subject to an operational weight limitation. A red numeral on o white square is recommended to convey this information to the pilot of the approaching helicopter . The number indicates the helicopter gross weight the facility is capable of supporting . Lighting Because an elevated heliport takeoff and landing surface is likely to be size-limited, perimeter lights may be installed on supports extending beyond the edge of the touchdown pad . (See Fig . 7 .) Perimeter lights should be at or only slightly above the level of the touchdown pod . Under some conditions, a floodlighted touchdown pad with reflective markings may be acceptable as an alternative to perimeter lighting . Elevated heliport lighting plans should be discussed with the appropriate FAA Airports office . The recommended heliport beacon may be mounted on the
same or on an adjacent building as conditions dictate . Fire Protection Requirements for elevated and rooftop heliport fire protection are contained in the National Fire Protection Association's Booklet 418 (1973) . These requirements are set out in Table 3 . When local fire codes are more restrictive, the local code shall prevail . Personnel engaged in heliport operations should be instructed in the proper use of installed firefighting systems . The design, installation, and periodic performance testing of fire protection systems should be carried out by qualified persons .
NFPA Recommendations for Heliport Fire Protection-Rooftop Heliports (NFPA-418, 1973 Edition)t Water for foam production using protein or fluoroprotein foam concentratestt
Heliport category
Amount of water
Foam-compatible dry chemical (rating)*
Total rate of discharge
Additional water for foam if heliport is elevated
Gallons
Liters
Gpm
Liters
Gallons
Liters
H-1
None**
None**
None*"
None**
2-80B :C Extinguishers
H-2
5001
1,9001
100
380
2--80B :C Extinguishers or 1-160B :C Wheeled Extinguisher
10001
3,BOOt
H-3
15001
5,7001
200 from two 100 gpm nozzles or from one mobile unit with a turret
760
2-80B:C Extinguishers and 1-160B :C Wheeled Extinguisher
15001
5,7001
None** None **
* See Standard on Installation of Portable Fire Extinguishers (NFPA No . 10 ; ANSI Z112 .1) . ** Many times a water supply meeting the suggestions for Category H-2 may be readily available . In such cases it should be made available assuming personnel are available to utilize the equipment in event of on emergency . t This amount of water should be immediately available from a hydrant (standpipe), pressurized tank, reservoir, or mobile vehicle so that it can be dispensed at the rates indicated and at a satisfactory pressure . Additional water should be available to provide a continuing rescue and fire fighting capability wherever feasible . tt The quantity of water may be reduced one-third when aqueous film-forming foam concentrate is used . t Deviations and/or equivalent substitutions may be authorized by competent authority to comply with local fire codes or to meet unusual site or operational conditions .
Transportation STOL PORTS
DESIGN CRITERIA General During the process of developing these design criteria, certain assumptions had to be made because of the lack of commitment of large STOL aircraft to civil production . Therefore, these standards represent considered judgment of what constitutes a practical set of criteria considering available data, safety, noise, environment, and economics . It is apparent that the shorter the runway the easier it will be to locate a STOL port site, and the greater will be its compatibility with the local environment . On the other hand, the criteria cannot be so restrictive that aircraft manufacturers will be unable to produce a vehicle which can operate safely and economically from the STOL port .
Design Criteria The following criteria have been developed based on STOL aircraft, bidirectional runway operations, and a precision instrument approach . See Figs . 1 and 2 and Table 1 for illustration of specific dimensions .
Runway Length Determination A discussion of takeoff and landing runway lengths is needed to establish a common understanding of the terms used . This is particularly necessary for the case of the elevated STOL port, where reference to Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) field length cannot be considered in the same context as the conventional airport .
Microwave ILS Microwave instrument landing systems for STOL operation are currently being evaluated
Planning and Design Critoria for Metropolitan STOL Ports, Federal Aviation Administration . Department of Transportation, Washington, D .C ., 1970 .
Fig. 1
Dimensional criteria .
by the FAA . The type of equipment has been designed specifically for steep gradient approaches . The siting of the microwave system may be relatively simple since the localizer and glide slope functions may be collocated . (See Fig . 1 .) Offset instrument landing system (ILS) approaches would be advantageous under certain site conditions and are under study . Nevertheless, an offset approach should be considered only where obstructions in the approach would prevent a straight-in ILS procedure .
other hand, it is also recognized that the availability of a crosswind runway on a metropolitan STOL port will be rare . Accordingly, the designer should attempt to obtain maximum wind coverage . The minimum desirable wind coverage is 95 percent based on the total hours of available weather observations . In other words, the objective is to attain rnore than 95 percent usability (preferably 9e percent) . The allowable crosswind component will be determined by the crosswind capabilities of the most critical aircraft expected to operate at the STOL port .
Obstruction Clearance
Parallel Runways-STOL Port
The imaginary surfaces for protection of the STOL. port are shown in Fig . 3 .
General The surfaces have been defined on the basis of operational tests with the microwave ILS . The 15 :1 slope for the approach/departure surface is predicated on adequate obstruction clearance for steep gradient approaches and also for takeoff climb . Curved Paths For VFR (visual flight rules) operations, a curved path for approach or departure is quite practical and may be necessary in some cases to provide a suitable route . For example, an IFR (instrument flight rules) procedure may be feasible from only one direction . Under adverse wind conditions, it would be desirable and perhaps necessary to con, plate the IFR approach, transition to VFR and land from the opposite direction . The radius of the curved path will vary according to the performance of individual aircraft and the angle of bank used . For planning purposes, a radius of 1,500 ft may be used . Runway Orientation One of the primary factors influencing runway orientation is wind . Ideally, the runway should be aligned with the prevailing winds . It is recognized that the limited number of STOL port sites will minimize the opportunity for the runway to have optimum wind coveragge . On the
For simultaneous VFR operations on a STOL port, the minimum separation between the centerlines of parallel runways should be 700 ft .
Runway Capacity The capacity of a runway is the number of aircraft operations (landings and takeoffs) that the runway can accommodate in a limited period of time . The operational capacity of a STOL runway will be lowest during IFR conditions . To obtain maximum IFR capacity, the STOL runway should be equipped with a microwave ILS and radar surveillance (including an air traffic control tower) . A method for calculation of capacity values is given in Advisory Circular 150/5060-1A . This publication discusses the numerous factors which must be considered in a capacity analysis . However, as a general guideline, with current procedures, the IFR capacity of a single STOL runway will be approximately 45 operations per hour. It is expected that this capacity will be considerably expanded when adequate data have been collected and analyzed .
Potential Configurations In many metropolitan areas, siting of a STOL port may necessitate an elevated structure . At such sites, the designer should strive to achieve vertical loading and unloading of pas-
Transportation STOL PORTS
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Protection surfaces .
Isometric of protection surfaces .
CROSS
SECTION
Transportation STOL PORTS TABLE 1
Design Criteria for Metropolitan STOL Ports' Recommended criteria
Design item Runway length at sea level and 90 F Runway width .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
1,500 to 1,800 ft 100 ft
. . .
Runway safety area width.
200 ft
Runway safety area length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taxiway width . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., .
Runway CL to-| taxiway CL
200 ft
Runway CL to edge of parked aircraft . . . . . . . Runway CL to building line . . . . . . . . . . Taxiway CL to fixed obstacle . . . . . . . . . Runway C7, to holding line Separation between parallel runways . . . . . . Protection surfaces : Primary surface length . . . . . . . . . . Primary surface width . . . . .
1,700 to 2,000 ft 60 it
. .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Approach/ departure surface length . . . . Approach/ departure surface slope . . . Approach/departure surface width at: Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 feet Transitional surface slope Transitional surface maximum height . . Clear zone : Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner width Outer width . . . . . . . . . . . Pavement strength . . . . . . . . . . . .
250 ft 300 100 150 . .
ft ft ft . .
Runway length plus 100 ft on each end 300 ft
. . . . . . 10,000 ft . . . . . . 15 :1
.
300 ft 3,400 ft 4:1 . . . . 100 ft
. . . . . .
750 ft 300 ft 532 ft 150,000 Ib gross weight on dual tandem gear
Comment Correction for elevation and temperature to he made on the basis of individual aircraft performance . Widening may be desirable if wind coverage is less than 95 per cent . Widening may he desirable if wind coverage is less than 95 per cent . If elevated, a 300-ft width is recommended for the structure. If elevated, the structure would be within this range. Based on expected configuration of second generation aircraft . Based on expected configuration of second generation aircraft . Based on expected configuration of second generation aircraft . Height controlled by transitional surface. Based on second generation aircraft . Based on second generation aircraft . See text .
Based on the use of microwave instrument approach equipment.
Approach/ departure surface is 765 ft wide at 1,500 ft from beginning
Begins at end of primary surface . Based on second generation aircraft . Also see paragraph headed "Structural Design ."
`The criteria are subject to change as further experience is gained . -|- C / . centerline sengers and cargo ; i .e ., from one level to another . Such a design will allow an operational area that is virtually free of fixed obstacles . Each STOL port should be designed with due consideration of local conditions, particularly the configuration of the land available and surrounding land uses . Figure 4 shows one possible layout of the staggered runway concept . One runway is used primarily for landing and the other for takeoff . This configuration allows a considerable reduction in the total operational area by eliminating parallel taxiways . Also, the flow of traffic is optimized, since no aircraft backout or turning around is involved . Figure 5 shows the tandern runway concept . Again, one runway is used for
landing and the other for takeoff, but not simultaneously . Spacing must be provided for taxiing past parked aircraft and aircraft backout for turning around . The figures are intended to illustrate the new approach which must be taken in the planning and design of STOL ports ; they are not intended to require a parallel runway configuration .
ELEVATED STOL PORTS General The siting of a STOL port involves a series of tradeoffs . One of these is the optimum site for the origin/destination of passengers versus
availability of a practical and economic site . In metropolitan areas, this causes a detailed look at elevated STOL ports . For example, in New York City, several waterfront sites on Manhattan Island have been studied . In Los Angeles and San Francisco, sites have been analyzed over railroad yards . All are intended to provide air transportation integrated with surface transportation . Such a facility appears to have a great potential for accommodating the shorthaul air passenger demand . However, since it is elevated, there are some unique design problems which must be recognized .
Operational Surface Essentially, the same standards are used for elevated STOL ports as surface facilities . Nevertheless, the question arises as to what is the recommended minimum .
Length of Structure
The length of structure recommended is a range between 1,700 and 2,000 ft .
Width of Structure
Fig. 4
Potential layout.
The recommended width of the structure is 300 ft for the runway operational area . However, this is dependent upon the emergency arresting system selected for lateral containment, the degree of wind cover-
Transportation STOL PORTS
Fig. 5
Potential layout .
age, and the need for a parallel taxiway . The lateral arresting system may require a greater or lesser area width, adjacent to the runway . Also, if the runway is not aligned with prevailing winds, it may be appropriate to have a wider runway . For most STOL ports, a parallel taxiway will be needed . In this case, the structure should be at least 400 ft wide . Structural Design
The landing area should be designed for the largest aircraft expected to use it . The maximum weight aircraft anticipated by 1985 is 150,000 lb . Other types of loads, such as snow, freight equipment, etc., should be considered in the design of the area and the structures as appropriate . Emergency Equipment
Provision should be made for equipment on the operational area to handle emergency medical and fire situations . Consideration should also be given to some type of built-in hydrant system . Aircraft Maintenance and Fueling
Due to the limited parking space available, it appears logical to plan only for emergency maintenance. The decision to install an aircraft fueling system will depend on several factors, among which is the requirement of the local building code . Floating STOL Port
A STOL port located on water (floating or semisubmersed) is not truly an elevated facility .
However, many of the operational problems associated with a floating STOL port are the same as for an elevated STOL port . For example, emergency arresting systems should be provided to ensure that the aircraft does not fall into the water. On the other hand, wind flow should be considerably less of a problem. In many metropolitan areas, a floating facility, on either an interim or permanent basis, may provide the best solution to establishing STOL service . TERMINAL AREA General
The primary purpose of the terminal area on a STOL port is the same as the terminal area on a conventional airport --to provide for the transfer of passengers and cargo from one mode of transportation to another. However, due to the specialized function of the STOL system, attention should be given to possible innovations in the terminal area, such as gate processing and vertical movement of passengers . The STOL system, which is aimed at short-haul, highdensity air transportation, must be efficient in every aspect . Terminal Building
The terminal building should be designed to accommodate a steady flow of passengers rather than long-term holding of passengers . This means secondary features of the terminal, such as concessions and eating facilities, should be minimized . To aid in efficient passenger handling, consideration should be given to passenger processing at the gate . Since the majority of short-haul passengers are business-
oriented, time-conscious, and carry relatively little baggage, gate processing should be quite feasible . Also, mutual-use (or common use) gates appear to be a requirement . Vertical Movement
On elevated STOL ports, it may not be feasible to locate the terminal on the same level as the operational area . This would, of course, require vertical movement of passengers and baggage. Several methods of accomplishing this have been studied. Among these are escalators, elevators, and loading bridges . The escalators would involve the least cost but would create a fixed obstacle in the aircraft maneuvering area . The elevators can be located on the side of the structure but are expensive and preclude a steady flow of passengers to the aircraft . The loading bridges completely protect the passenger from the weather but are expensive and create an obstacle . At surface STOL ports, vertical movement of passengers may be feasible between mass transit vehicles and the aircraft gate area . This should be given careful evaluation during the initial planning of the terminal . Capacity
The size of the terminal is determined by the peak-hour volume of passengers and cargo . The forecast of the peak-hour volume must be made recognizing the maximum capacity of the runway (in VFR conditions), the aircraft passenger capacity, the aircraft load factor, and the frequency of service . Further, an analysis must be made of the maximum capacity of the surface access systems. Surface congestion has a direct effect on the efficiency of the air transportation system .
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS
SITE SELECTION
portent safety factors involved, such
Water Areas In selecting an adequate site within the areas deemed feasible for water flying, it will be necessary to choose one having the proper water-area dimensions, depth, and approach or glide path ratio for the types of planes to be accommodated . Table 1 shows by comparative groups the recommended minimum standards for water landing areas . Generally, most localities will not be concerned with lengths of water areas of 5,000 ft or more . Larger installations are primarily for large commercial aircraft and military operations . Prevailing Winds The direction and velocity of prevailing winds over the surface of the water will be the controlling factor in determining the direction of water lanes . It is not necessary to consider winds of 3 mph or less when making these determinations . When the water landing area consists of a single lane (covering two wind directions) the greatest percentage of wind coverage should be obtained . In many cases these singlelane operating areas cannot be oriented to take maximum advantage of the prevailing winds . In this regard, a shifting of the direction of the water lane should be effected so as to utilize the greatest possible wind coverage in conjunction with water currents and approach conditions . The influence of approach zones and currents is explained under these two respective headings that follow . Where all-way landings and takeoffs can be provided, a study of the wind conditions will indicate the primary and secondary water-lane directions . Approach Zones For seaplane operations the ideal approach zone is one which permits unobstructed approaches over water at a ratio of 40 :1 or flatter, with ample clearance on either side of the approach zone center line . The width of the zone should increase from the ends of the water lanes so that at a distance of 1 mi from the end of the water lane, the zone is approximately the width of the water lane plus 1,000 ft . Under favorable temperature conditions a water-borne aircraft will leave the water and fly level for approximately 4 seconds and a distance of about 400 ft before starting to climb . The rate of climb after this 4 second period is about 20 :1 . Where commercial operations are anticipated, it is recommended that the approach angle should be 40 :1 or flatter . The approach zones should be over water wherever possible, thereby permitting a reasonably safe landing in the event of power failure during initial climb or landing approach . Furthermore, for obvious safety reasons, climbs and approaches should not be made over populated areas, beaches and similar shore developments. Apart from the all-im-
Civil Aeronautics Administration, Department of Commerce, Washington,
U . S. D C.
maneu-vers can createillwil and antagonism on the part of local inhabitants and boating interests . Where a suitable water area exists and the shore and surrounding development prohibits straight-away approach zones, it may be possible to establish operations in which an overwater climbing turn or let-down procedure is used . Currents and Water-Level Variations Current and changes in water level usually will not be great enough to cause construction or operational difficulties. Only under extraordinary conditions will currents affect size requirements of the water landing area . Landing and takeoff operations can be conducted in water currents in excess of 6 knots (7 mph) but any taxiing operation between the water lanes and the shore facilities will usually require the assistance of a surface craft . Currents in excess of 3 knots (3 .5 mph) usually cause some difficulty in handling seaplanes, particularly in slow taxiing while approaching floating docks, or in beaching operations. In some cases undesirable currents may be offset to some extent by advantageous prevailing winds . Locations of the following types should be avoided : (1) Where the currents exceed 6 knots (7 mph) ; (2) where unusual water turbulence is caused by a sharp bend in a river, the confluence of two currents, or where tide rips are prevalent . As a general rule if the change in water levels exceeds 18 in ., it will be necessary to utilize floating structures or moderately inclined beaching accommodations to facilitate handling of aircraft at the shoreline or water front . Where water-level variations are in excess of 6 ft, special or extended developments
TABLE 1 .
to accommodate the aircraft must be made . These developments might require a dredged channel, extended piers or special hoisting equipment depending upon the slope of the shore . It follows that the greater the water variation, the more extensive will be the facility requirements . Water-Surface Conditions Open or unprotected water-operating areas may become so rough under certain conditions of winds and currents as to prohibit operations ; hence, the varying water conditions at the proposed site must be investigated . The average light plane (3,000 Ib or less), equipped with twin floats, can be operated safely in seas running to about 15 in . measured from crest to trough, while 18-in . seas will restrict normal safe operations of these aircraft . Larger float-equipped or hulltype aircraft ranging in weight from 3,000 to 15,000 Ib can generally be operated safely in seas running as high as 2 ft measured from crest to trough. At the other extreme, smooth or dead calm water is undesirable because of the difficulty experienced in lifting the floats or hull from the water during takeoff. The most desirable conditions exist when the surface of the water is moderately disturbed, having ripples or waves approximately 3 to 6 in . high . Locations at which excessive ground-swell action may be encountered should be given careful consideration to determine the effect of such action on the intended operations . Another consideration which must be taken into account, when examining the water conditions, is the presence of floating debris . Areas in which there is an objectionable amount of debris for considerable periods of time should be avoided.
Recommended Minimum Standards for Water Landing Areas'
Minimum length in feet (see level)
Minimum width in feet
Minimum depth in feet
Turning basin in feetdiameter
2,500
200
3
None
Minimum for limited small float plane operation . Approaches should be 20 :1 or flatter for e distance of at least 2 mi .
3,500
300
4
None
Minimum for limited commercial operation . Approaches should be 40 :1 or flatter for a distance of at least 2 mi .
5,000
500
10
1,000
Minimum for extensive commercial operation . Approaches should be
40 :1 or flatter for a distance of et
_
10,000
Remarks
least 2ml .
700
15
2,000
Unlimited . Approaches should be 50 :1 or flatter for e distance of at least 2 mi
'The lengths indicated above are for glassv water, no wind, see level conditions at standard temperature of 59°F . The lengths shown will be increased at the rate of 7 percent for each 1,000 ft of elevation above sea level . This corrected length shall be further increased at the rate of one-half of 1 percent for each degree that the mean temperature of the hottest month of the year, averaged over a period of years, exceeds the standard temperature . See Fig . 1 .
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS Sheltered Anchorage Areas A cove, small bay, or other protected area is desirable for use as a seaplane anchorage or mooring area in order to relieve floating-dock or onshore parking . A sheltered area that is protected from winds and currents is required, particularly if overnight or unattended tie-ups are to be made at locations where sudden and sometimes unexpected storms or squalls develop . Appreciable currents and winds in the anchorage area make the approach and picking up of a buoy more difficult and at times will call for the assistance of a boat . The anchorage area should be within sight and calling distance of the floating dock or ramp if possible . It also should be located so as to permit unrestricted maneuvering of the aircraft when approaching the buoys . Bottom Conditions The type and condition of the bottom at the proposed seaplane-facility site can influence the arrangement of the various components thereof, the means of construction of the fixed structures, and the water operations to and from the shoreline . Reservoirs and other artificial bodies of water often are flooded natural-land areas and frequently are not grubbed (stumps and logs This situation removed) before flooding . causes anchors and anchor lines to foul and, over a period of time, can create a hazard if these submerged objects rise to the surface and remain partially or totally submerged . Obstructions which project from the bottom and constitute a hazard should be removed or, if this is impractical, must be suitably and conspicuously marked to indicate their presence to those utilizing the water area . A hard bottom composed of shale or solid rock formations will make the construction of fixed offshore structures difficult and costly . Anchors also tend to drag over this type of bottom . Unless specially designed mooring anchors are used, precautions should be taken
Fig . 1
by selecting a more suitable anchorage area . Where boulders are found on the bottom, some construction difficulties may be encountered and anchor lines may tend to foul . Mud bottoms ordinarily present little or no difficulty . The Onshore Facility No site for the onshore development should be given serious consideration until it is known that adequate room is available for all of the space-taking elements required . Determination of size will require a knowledge of (1) How many planes will need hangars or tie-down space ; (2) how many car parking spaces will be necessary ; (3) how many patrons will use the facility ; (4) whether a small office will suffice or whether an administration building with facilities for eating, refreshments, and other nonaviation activities is required ; (5) how much outdoor common space, such as for lawns, walks, terrace, etc_ is needed . Answers to numbers 1 and 2 can be fairly accurately measured while 3, 4, and 5 will depend upon local conditions varying from a very simple installation, in remote recreation areas, to large installations in metropolitan areas. Minimum unit requirements are as follows : Minimum Unit Requirements for a Single Onshore Facility Area, sq ft Item Facility 1 plane . . . .
. . . . Hangar or tiedown space 1 car . . . . . . . . . . Parking space Office . . . . . . . . . . Small building Walks, lawn, Common outdoor or open space space
3,000 250 80 20 percent of above total
To compute the number of square feet for a given facility, multiples of the above criteria
Effect of elevation and temperature on water-lane lengths .
May be used . For example, a facility basing 15 aircraft in the water and 6 on land would need a maximum of 21 car-parking spaces (one for each plane) during maximum use period, plus one for each employee ; i .e ., approximately 25 cars or 6,250 all ft of area . Hangar or tie-down space for 6 planes would occupy 18,000 sq ft . One small office building with food counter would require another 400 sq ft. Finally, the common outdoor use space would occupy about 4,930 sq ft (this figure representing 20 percent of the sum of the other areas) . Accordingly, the total area would amount to about 29,580 sq ft or about seven-tenths of an acre. In addition to being adequate in size, the shore facility should be located reasonably close to the water-operating area to eliminate long taxiing operations . The availability of utilities such as electricity, water, telephone and sewage should be investigated . The basic installation may not require all utilities, but water and sanitary facilities of some sort should be provided for at all locations . In remote rural areas, established water lines and sewerage facilities will be out of the question . If such is the case, well water and chemical toilet units are feasible. State or local sanitary codes must be respected when it is planned to install water and sanitary facilities of this nature . The most desirable sites have a moderately sloping shoreline and a water depth suitable to permit aircraft taxiing operations as close to the shoreline as possible . Excessive fluctuations in water level are not desirable since this condition requires expensive shoreline installations . Care should be taken to determine whether the water level offshore will permit aircraft operations when the water level is low . In all cases, the area for a seaplane facility should be sufficient in extent to form a complete unit without any interior private holdings
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS and with good boundary alignment for complete land utilization and protection . It may also be desirable in some cases to secure a liberal setback from the highway in order to protect the project and adjacent property from noise and glare and to provide room for widening any highway paralleling the property line. If sufficient land is available, a greenbelt all around the project will enhance the desirability of a seaplane facility in a neighborhood area .
General Planning Considerations
Having determined the best site available from the aeronautical point of view, other elements of community, county and state planning should be considered . These elements are accessibility and land use .
Accessibility
Probably the most obvious consideration influencing the location of a seaplane facility is its proximity to the ultimate destination and source of the users . The ability of the airplane to cover long distances in a short space of time often is cited as its outstanding attribute . To retain this advantage, every effort should be made to locate the facility convenient to good streets and rapid or mass transportation facilities in urban areas, and to major highways or good roads in rural areas . Utilization of speedboats and other surface water transportation should also be carefully explored . If these associated means of access and transportation are overlooked, minimum use of the facility can be expected . In rural or recreation areas where the seaplane is used primarily for sport, location of the facility with regard to access will not be a serious problem except that the means of access or transportation for fuel, repairs, and supplies must be adequate .
Land Use Locating a facility in a residential neighborhood where let-down and takeoff procedures occur over homes may be a source of annoyance to residents in the area . Unless flight traffic procedures can be developed which will eliminate the objection of takeoffs and landings of this nature, the planner should seek a location where the existing land use will be benefited by seaplane activities . Personal seaplane flying is desired in certain neighborhoods where boating and seaplaning are of mutual interest . Here the seaplane facility will be as much an asset to the community as a yacht club . The onshore development might well include a combination office and club house for seaplane and boating interests . Normally there will be little use for a personal seaplane facility in an industrial area where local truck and auto traffic congestion make access time-consuming and undesirable . Every effort should be made to recognize existing conditions and future proposals so that the seaplane facility can take its proper place in the community .
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The Water-operating Area Most natural water areas will provide, without modification, the required dimensions neces. sary for seaplane operations . Where the available water area is limited, the minimum wateroperating area must consist of one water lane for landings and takeoffs and a taxi channel . A turning basin will be necessary in cases where turning must be confined to a restricted area because of water depth requirements or
Fig. 2
General operating area .
for the segregation of other water surfacecraft activities . In some cases anchorage areas may be necessary .
Water Lanes
Minimum dimensions of water lanes necessary for seaplane operations are set forth in Table 1 . Inasmuch as elevation and temperature affect water-lane length requirements, these factors must be considered and the lengths adjusted accordingly . Figure 1 presents a chart showing the effects of these factors on certain basic lengths . A typical layout for a single water-lane operating area is shown in Fig . 2 .
Taxi Channel
For small seaplanes the taxi channel should have a minimum width of 125 ft, although a width of 150 ft or more is preferred . These channels should be located to provide direct access to the onshore facility and when possible should be so oriented that approach to the ramp or floats will be into the prevailing wind . They should provide e minimum of 50 ft clearance between the side of the channel and the nearest obstruction .
Turning Basins
Turning basins will be required where the use of water area is restricted . A minimum radius of 125 ft should be available for surface turns . These turning basins should be located at both ends of the water lanes and adjacent to the shoreline area . The same minimum clearance criteria, i .e ., .50 ft, should be used for the separation between the side of the turning basin and the nearest obstruction .
Anchorage Areas
Where anchorage areas are required, they should be located so as to provide maximum protection from high winds and rough water . The space requirements for an anchored aircraft, and the number and size of aircraft to be accommodated, will determine the size of the anchorage area . Each aircraft will swing around the mooring while anchored . To determine space needed, one must know the wingspan and length of aircraft, the length of line and bridle, and the lowest water level . The length of anchor line should be at least six times the maximum depth at mean high water at the anchor location . In cases where the aircraft swing space is limited, the length of the anchor line may be shortened to not less than three times the high-water depth, provided the normal anchor weight or holding capacity is doubled . Short anchor lines cause hard riding and should not be used where
swells or heavy wakes from boats are common . Center-to-center spacing of anchors, where small twin-float aircraft are to be moored, should not be less than twice the length of the longest anchor line plus 125 ft . For larger types of aircraft, including flying boats and amphibians this spacing should be increased by an additional 100 ft . A general layout of anchorages is shown in Fig . 3 .
The Shoreline Area Shoreline installations are partly on land and in the water . They are required to perform two general functions : (1) to provide servicing, loading and unloading, handling and tie-up facilities for seaplanes without removing them from the water, and (2) to provide haul-out facilities for removing seaplanes from the water . The types, size, and arrangement of these installations will be determined by water conditions, the topography of the land adjacent to the water . the configuration of the bottom of the water area, the number and type of planes to be docked or removed from the water, and wind conditions . The installation will vary from a simple wood-plank platform to the more elaborate ramps with railway facilities, piers, and floats .
Ramp$
The simplest form of ramp consists of a wood-plank platform approximately 15 by 20 ft, laid on a sloping shore, with half its length in water . A device such as this will allow a small float plane to taxi up and out of the water . The use of such a ramp is predicated upon a relatively constant water level and the shore slope no steeper than 8 to 1 . The slope of any ramp should not be greater than 7 to 1, with gradual slopes down to 10 to 1 being preferred . Slopes less than 10 to 1 usually are too long and hence costly to construct . Figure 4 shows the maximum draft of seaplanes of various weights and types . These data are useful in determining the depth to which the submerged end of a ramp roust be lowered . A depth of ramp toe of 4 ft will provide sufficient depth for most types of waterborne aircraft in use today ; a depth of 3 ft will permit handling of all but the heaviest type of amphibians . For small, light, float planes a depth of about 18 in . i s adequate . In all cases, this dimension should be established for mean low water . A ramp width of 15 ft is the minimum for small twin-float or amphibian aircraft opera-
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS
Fig . 3
General layout of anchorage areas.
lions when the water and wind conditions are relatively calm . 8y adding 5 ft to this minimum width, practically all water-borne aircraft of gross weights up to approximately 15,000 Ib can be handled with safety, and pilots of small seaplanes can make an unattended ramp approach under adverse conditions . In figuring the ramp width, the outside-to-outside float dimensions of twin-float aircraft and the treads of amphibian aircraft are important factors and for reference are shown in Fig. 4. The maximum dimension--based on the largest aircraft to be accommodated--plus additional space on either side to allow for drift when approaching, and safe working space for personnel
Fig. 4
when handling an aircraft on the ramp, determines the minimum practical width . Rampwidth determination does not necessitate con . sideration of wheel tread of present-day float plane dollies. Normally, the dolly wheels are spaced to fall between the floats, and in cases where the wheels are outside, the tread is 16 ft or less . Piers or fixed over-water structures can be utilized where the variation in water level is 18 in . or less . The pier should extend into the water to a point where the water depth is adequate for the types of aircraft to be handled. The usual design for a pier incorporates an Piers
Water-borne aircraft dimensional data by aircraft weight groups .
access walk approximately 5 ft in width with hand railings on both sides and an open-decked handling area approximately 30 by 50 ft at the walk's end . An open-docked area of this size will provide tie-up space for four small or three large seaplanes. On long piers, where the walking distance is too great for convenient handling of service equipment, a small storage shed may be located near the open-decked area . Fueling and lubrication facilities should also be located at the end of the pier . Floats offer the greatest and Gangways flexibility in providing docking facilities . This type of unit rides with wave action and is equalFloats
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS ly satisfactory in areas of great or negligible water-level variations . Universal action must be provided in anchoring or attaching floats together . Figure 5 shows various types of floats for docking . A float which provides an unobstructed wing clearance of 17 ft will permit practically any twin-float seaplane or small amphibian aircraft to come along its side safely . Floats are usually connected to the shore or pier by booms and a gangway . The maximum water-level variation dictates the length of the gangway . In no case should gangways be less than 15 ft in length and should be at least 5 ft in width . Hand rails, preferably on both sides, should be provided to assist persons using the way . A 2 .75 : 1 slope ratio is the maximum
for safe and easy walking and to prevent the handrails from becoming an obstruction to wings . In some locations it may be desirable to anchor the float offshore with anchors and anchor lines with connection to the shore by a floating walkway . A floating walkway 5 ft or less in width must have outriggers spared longitudinally approximately every 10 ft . Outriggers 8 to 10 ft long will prevent excessive rolling of the walk . Spacing The desired clearances between the various docking units and ramps obviously will have a decided influence on their arrangement and location . Each docking unit should
be so located that an aircraft may approach and tie up in any one of the units when adjacent units are occupied . When aircraft are operated between the various units under their own power, the recommended minimum separation between the near faces of piers . floats, ramps or marine railway is 50 ft because a waterborne aircraft can normally be taxied safely past obstructions as close as about one half of its wing span . Where aircraft are moved between units by hand, the separation between the units may be less than 50 ft to facilitate handling . A minimum of 100 ft of unobstructed water should be available directly offshore from a ramp in the direction from which approaches normally will be made . Floating Be rages The lease or purchase of land for a seaplane-facility site may be a problem at some desirable locations and yet pier or gangway rights may be easily obtained . At such locations a floating barge, anchored offshore, makes an excellent facility . An office, lounge, and service shop can be included "aboard" and by adding a floating dock alongside and ramps at the ends, a very practical and efficient facility results . The floating barge may be anchored direct to the shore or a pier by booms and a gangway, or anchored offshore in e fixed position . Some operators prefer to silo- the barge to drift downwind or downwater from a single anchor . Boat transportation will be needed if the unit is mobile and moored offshore . The very uniqueness of this type of installation will, in some localities, attract many persons otherwise not directly interested in water flying . The possibility of organizing this activity on a club basis should not be overlooked . This type of installation can be made more attractive by appropriate use of paint, colorful deck chairs, awnings, marine appointments, and recreation facilities . Some units are in operation today where an entire barge is floating but is attached to the shore . Large logs are decked over and form the base for the entire structure, which is in some cases 150 ft long by 100 ft wide, in a series of flexible units . The Service, Tie-down, and Storage Area This element will occupy more space than any other onshore facility . For safety and convenience, it should be separated from other incidental activities on the site, either by adequate buffer space, fencing, or both . Every effort should be made to locate floating docks and piers so that access to them by the public will not require crossing the apron or hangar area . (See Fig . 6 .)
Fig . 5
Various types and arrangements of floats .
Hangars Both storage and repair hangars should be located so as to permit the off-site delivery of repair material and use by service personnel over a route as direct as possible and without interference with the movement of aircraft . The service and storage hangar area should be located in such a position in relation to the ramp or marine railway that aircraft may be moved there as directly as possible, with the least possible amount of disturbance to tied down aircraft or aircraft already in repair parking spaces . The amount of space required for apron tiedown and hangar facilities will depend upon the number and types of aircraft that are to be accommodated . Dimensions of various aircraft are shown in Fig . 4 . This information can be used to determine the space required for taxiing, turning, and storing . Hangars should be located in an orderly and functional relation to haul-out and ramp facilities, and to eliminate as much noise and con-
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Seaplane slipway .
Typical layout a1 onshore and shoreline development
Transportation SEAPLANE TERMINALS
Fig. 8
Typical layout of onshore end shoreline development .
Fig. 9
Typical layout of onshore and shoreline development .
fusion as possible should be sufficiently separated from the administration building and common public-use areas. The Administration Building and Common-Use Area
In simple installations, it may be necessary to utilize a hangar for both aircraft service and office space. In larger projects a separate administration building may be required to provide adequate space for the manager's office, passenger and pilot lounge, display space, restaurant or snack bar, and observation deck . A community room for public use, such as for lectures, meetings and classes should not be overlooked if needed . The building should not be oversized or monumental in character . Only a simple, functional design, adequate to take care of the estimated needs, is required . The location should be in a prominent position on the site, readily accessible to aircraft arrival and to customers and visitors from the onshore approach . Like airport administration buildings, visibility of the water area from the administration building is needed for the control of aircraft at locations where traffic in and out requires two-way radio communications . Ample outdoor space reserved immediately adjacent to the administration building for public use is desirable . This space may consist of a small lawn or paved terrace on the water area side or, in more sizable installations, a larger section broken down into recreation areas, an outdoor dining terrace and lawn . Access to the land area, both for customers and for service and delivery, should ordinarily be a two-way, all-weather road . However, when a long access road is required and the traffic to and from the facility is not seaAccess
sonal but relatively constant and without peaks, a one-way road will suffice . In such cases, turn-outs should be provided at convenient intervals. The plan should be designed for one traffic connection with the main highway or street, in order that its free-way may be preserved. A public highway should never be used as a part of the road system within a project if public use for through traffic is to continue after the project has been put into operation. Through traffic will unduly congest the land facility, could be hazardous to pedestrians, and splits the property into two separate units which is undesirable. Vehicular circulation must be provided for deliveries of gasoline, oil, fuel, and for refuse removal. These routes will influence walks and interior road system and to some extent the pattern of the master plan . In order to reduce development costs and maintenance, it is advisable to concentrate buildings for certain uses in areas with servicing facilities such as a service road, on one side . When topography and shape of tract are favorable, this type of plan effects economies . Roads should be planned economically, but must be adequate in width to serve the anticipated traffic, to permit easy circulation and safe driving . In some instances, they may afford parking space on one or both sides, depending on the solution of a particular site problem. Some service roads may be desired for limited use . i n such cases the entrance can be barred by removable posts or chains .
Roads
Provision of parking areas for cars must be made . As previously mentioned, one should allow one car for each based aircraft, one car for each employee, plus a ratio of visitors' cars commensurate with the judgParking Areas
TS
ment of local interest in the use of the facility. An overall space of 250 sq ft of area will be required for each car . The type of parking space layout will, of course, depend upon the space and shape of the area available for the installation . Parking areas should not be located so that pedestrians must cross a public road to reach the facility proper . This creates an unnecessary hazard, particularly to unescorted children who might dash across the public highway. Parking areas should be located convenient to the onshore and shoreline facilities . In no case should the pedestrians be required to walk a distance greater than 200 ft from the parking area or service road to reach buildings or shoreline.
All walks should be laid out for direct access to and from the facilities to be reached . Like roads, they should not be oversized in the interest of economy of construction and maintenance . Recommended walks widths are: Capacity Width, ft Walks
Public walk serving less than 100 persons . . . . . .
3
Normal standard walk .
. . .
4
. . . . . .
5
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Walk serving over 400 person . . . . . . .
All walks should clear obstructions (as planting, fences, etc.) by 2 ft . Avoid steps in walks; single risers should never be used in public walks. Avoid stepped ramps. A 10 to 15 percent gradient is preferred to steps. Figures 7 to 9 show layouts on three distinctly different shapes of land area . These layouts indicate the inter-relationship of each use area . From arrangements such as these, studied in accordance with the previous discussion on the master plan elements and the general water-operating area shown in Fig. 2, the master plan is developed.
Transportation BUS TERMINALS
By JULIUS PANERO, Architect and Planning Consultant
INTRODUCTION The growth and development of bus transportation has closely followed advances in automotive technology and the improvement and expansion of the national highway network. The first bus routes were originated by individual entrepreneurs using converted passenger automobiles. These routes were short and service was generally unreliable . As the highway network expanded and more suitable bus equipment became available, these short, disconnected routes were merged into larger consolidated operations providing more reliable through services over longer distances . Our modern express highway system and the development of more comfortable and efficient high-speed buses have made bus transportstion the leading means of public transport in the United States . Over the past decade bus services have evolved into several general operational categories and characteristic terminal types. TERMINAL TYPES Intercity Bus Terminal The intercity terminal is usually found in the downtown core and is accessible directly by local transit, taxi, and auto . It differs from other terminal types in that it includes longhaul service in excess of several hundred miles and provides for a much greater number of bus movements. Land costs normally dictate ver. tical expansion capability in the denser city areas. (See Fig. 1 .) More elaborate "package express" facilities are provided in the intercity terminal and a greater amount of concession and rental space is provided to defray higher terminal construction and operating costs. Airport-City Bus Terminal
The airport-city bus terminal provides primarily for the transportation of airline passengers from an urban center to the major airports it serves . Usually located in the urban center, the terminal is accessible by local transit systems, taxis, and autos. Oriented to departing and arriving flights, the terminal normally has provisions for arrival and departing flight information as well as preticketing and check-in facilities . Urban-Suburban Commuter Terminal
This type of facility may be located within the downtown core, as a central passenger collection and distribution node, or on the periphery of the core, as a rapid transit feeder station . It is characterized by a diversified bus route structure and high-turnover commuter-type bus operations . Bus accessibility is an important consideration . Grade separated access by underpass or overpass connections and exclusive bus lanes on connecting highways are desirable to maintain schedule efficiency .
Fig. 1 Terminal types. (a) Urban located intercity terminal . (b) Airport-city bus terminal. (c) Urban-suburban commuter terminal . id) Suburban-interstate terminal .
Transportation BUS TERMINALS Suburban Interstate Terminal The suburban interstate terminal is a peripheral type designed to avoid the traffic congestion and heavy investment associated with central city and/or airport terminal facilities . The terminal is usually located adjacent to interstate highway connections with major cities or regional airports and in many instances serves the increasing outlying "urban sprawl" areas . In an increasing number of cases terminals of this type serve a commuter-type function where the daily journey to work in the central city may take as long as 2 hours . Sometimes referred to as "park and ride" terminals, because access is primarily by auto, these facilities are provided with open, paved parking spaces . Investment in waiting-room and bus-berthing facilities is minimal . The terminal is usually a one-story building of simple construction .
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS PLANNING CRITERIA General functional organization of the terminal is determined by site configuration, the volume and type of bus operations, and passenger and bus traffic circulation . Although all terminal types to some extent share common planning problems, there do exist some significant differences in design rationale . One of the most complicated terminals is the intercity type, since it is often found in a dense, developed area in the heart of the central city and its general configuration is too often inhibited by existing construction and high land costs . Moreover, the underlying design rationale should maximize provisions for short lines of flow and communication between ticketing and baggage functions and the bus interface . An island plan with the functional elements radiating from the core allows for maximum efficiency. Such a relationship would allow the "waiting" areas to serve as the central focal point, with all bus berth positions being equidistant . As the terminal becomes more linear in plan, functional elements begin to lose their cohesiveness and often require duplication . Although the design of all terminal types is largely dictated by bus and passenger volumes, this consideration becomes even more significant in the design of high-volume commuter bus terminals . In such facilities the design is controlled more by bus and passenger volumes, traffic circulation, and the resultant space demands for large numbers of bus berths, while baggage handling provisions are minimal or nonexistent . These space demands may dictate a vertical, multiple-bus-level solution, with intermediate passenger circulation concourses . Traffic access, by direct exclusive highways on the bus side and by feeder transit, auto, and taxis on the passenger side are important elements of this type of terminal . Generally, with regard to the airport-city terminal, the primary planning considerations include provisions for efficient check-in facilities, baggage handling, and flight information . Moreover, counter space requirements are usually more extensive and should include weigh-in provisions and conveyors for handling of baggage . Adequate provisions should also be made for limousine, auto, and taxi access . The suburban interstate terminal is perhaps the simplest of the terminal types . The most
Fig. 2
Flow diagram.
significant planning requirement is adequate provision for parking . Many, if not most of the passengers drive to the facility and park their cars until their return in the evening, while others may be driven to the facility and discharged . In many instances access to the terminal may also be via local bus service and taxi . It is essential, therefore, that the parking facilities be located so as to minimize the walking distance to the terminal and that egress and ingreg% be planned to avoid traffic congestion along nearby arteries . If possible, some covered walkways should be provided leading from the parking field to the terminal building . Since there will be movement of both vehicles and passengers at the same level, provisions must be made, for obvious safety reasons, to separate the two as much as possible . Terminal requirements should include provisions for ticket sales, vending machines and/or small snack bar, toilet facilities, office, baggage and/or storeroom . (See Fig . 2 .)
Space Requirements Public Seating
Seating in any of the terminal types may be provided in the form of a separate waiting room or, in a more open plan, in the form of a simple seating area within a larger public space . This function should be directly accessible to the concourse area and should be provided with drinking fountains, trash baskets, ash urns, and clocks . The amount of public seating varies depending on individual circumstances, terminal type, and economic priorities . As a general rule of thumb, however, an allowance of one seat for every three passengers would be adequate for an intercity terminal . The passenger quantity is calculated by multiplying the number of loading berths by an average bus capacity of between 35 and 37 people . A 10-berth loading platform therefore, would result in terminal seating of between 117 to 124 . In a high-volume commuter terminal, seating accommodations may be reduced considerably since in-terminal waiting time is much less . This would also hold true for the suburban interstate terminal .
Ticketing Facilities
The trend in ticketing facilities in the modern terminal, regardless of the type, is toward open counters in contrast
to the antiquated caged windows . In the larger intercity terminal, where more than one carrier may operate, separate self-contained glasswalled ticket offices may be provided, each housing their individual open ticket counters . The number of selling positions or agent stations varies with the individual operations policy of the carrier and the particular terminal type . Perhaps the greatest number of selling positions are required in the intercity terminal . On the average, one position should be provided for each 25 to 30 waiting room seats . The lineal feet of counter space depends on individual carrier operation and the type of ticketing equipment used and may vary between 3 to 5 ft per position and/or about 50 to 60 sq ft per position . The height of the counter is usually 42 in . In the airport-city terminal the ticketing facilities are usually in the form of continuous counters with a certain number of selling positions allocated to each airline . The length of each position is determined by the type of electronic equipment, TV equipment, and scales to be housed and usually varies between 4 to 5 ft .
Baggage Boom
Baggage room requirements vary significantly with terminal type and operation . In the intercity terminal and the airportcity terminal, the baggage handling problem is more severe. Ideally, in both cases, the sooner the departing passenger and his baggage are separated, the better . In the airport-city terminal this usually occurs at the ticket counter where the baggage is sent by conveyor directly to the loading platform or to a staging area or baggage room, where it remains before it is placed on board the bus . In the intercity bus terminal the baggage is normally hand-carried directly onto the bus or to the baggage room, and from there it is placed on the bus . The baggage room should be accessible from both the public area and the concourse and have an area equal to about 10 percent of the total building or contain about 50 sq ft for each bus loading berth, whichever is higher . The baggage room should also be equipped with standard metal racks about four or five tiers high for baggage storage . A portion of the baggage room may be used
Transportation BUS TERMINALS for a package express service, which and should function without interfering with concourse traffic. A separate package express counter should be provided . The length of the counter depends on the scope of the operation, which varies with each location . Public Lockers and Telephones Lockers and tele . phones are revenue producing, and the quantities to be provided depend to a great degree on their potential earning capacity . Dispatch Oflice The dispatch office controls all bus movement and consequently should be located on the concourse so that it can observe all loading berths . The size of the dispatch office may vary anywhere from 50 to 150 sq ft . Offices All terminals regardless of type require a certain amount of office space. The specific area to be provided depends on the terminal size and type . Although usually offices for the terminal manager, passenger agent, and switchboard are sufficient, in larger terminals more elaborate facilities are required . Rental Space The amount of rental space to be provided for stores, shops, concessions, ate ., depends primarily on the earning potential involved and the amount of space available .
By JOHN J. FRUIN, Ph .D.
PEDESTRIAN DESIGN FOR PASSENGER TERMINALS The design of pedestrian facilities for passenger terminals is dependent on the category of terminal and its pedestrian traffic patterns . Commuter passenger terminals, with extreme but short peak traffic patterns and repetitive users, can be designed for lower standards of service than long-distance terminals, where the users are generally unfamiliar with the facility and peak traffic levels may be sustained over several hours. Detailed photographic studies of the use of pedestrian facilities indicate that maximum capacity coincides with the most crowded pedestrian concentrations, representing a poor design environment . Many of the elements of aesthetic design are lost in this type of crowded environment, as the pedestrian becomes preoccupied with the dif. ficulties caused by the close interaction and conflicts with other persons. The challenge to the terminal designer is to balance the space requirements for a comfortable and aesthetically pleasing human environment against the space restraints caused by building configuration and cost . The most recent approach to the design of pedestrian spaces has been the use of the level-of-service concept. On the basis of this concept, a qualitative evaluation is made of human convenience at various traffic concen . trations and this is translated into appropriate design parameters . For example, it has been found through detailed photographic analysis that the maximum capacity of a corridor is ob-
From "Pedestrian Planning and Design," ® (Copyright) by John J. Fruin, Ph .D .
tained when average area occupancies are about 5 sq ft per person and human locomotion is limited to a restricted, shuffling gait . Pedestrians require an average of more than 35 sq ft per person in order to select their normal walking speed and to avoid conflicts with other pedestrians . Human locomotion on stairs and the convenience and comfort of pedestrian waiting areas is similarly related to average pedestrian area occupancy . Corridor Design Minimum corridor widths are based on the pedestrian traffic flow volume less appropriate allowances for disruptive traffic elements such as columns, newsstands, stairways, window shoppers, etc. Where the corridor is also used as a waiting area to accommodate standing pedestrians, the maximum potential accumulation and safe human occupancy of the corridor should be determined . (See "Queuing Areas," below.) The maximum practical flow through a corridor is approximately 25 persons per foot width of corridor per minute (PFM) . The flow volume that allows for the selection of normal walking speed and avoidance of traffic conflicts is equivalent to 7 PFM (or less). This standard would be used in passenger terminals that do not have severe peaking patterns or space restrictions . Where severe repetitive peaks and space restraints occur, such as in a commuter terminal, the more stringent standard of 10 to 15 PFM may be used . This standard allows the attainment of near-normal walking speed but does result in more frequent traffic conflicts with other pedestrians. Entrances The criteria utilized for corridor design can be roughly applied to the design of doors. The maximum capacity of a free-swinging door is approximately 60 persons per minute, but this capacity is obtained with frequent traffic disruptions and queuing at the entrance section . A standard of 40 persons per minute would be representative of a busy situation with occasional traffic disruptions. Where free-flowing traffic is desired, a standard of 20 persons per minute should be adopted. Stairs Human locomotion on stairs is much more stylized and restricted than walking because of the restraints imposed by the dimensional configuration of the stairs, physical exertion, and concerns for safety . As with corridors, capacity flow is obtained when there is a dense crowding of pedestrians combined with restricted, uncomfortable locomotion . The maximum practical flow on a stair is approximately 17 persons per foot width of stairway per minute (PFM) in the upward or design direction. An average of about 20 square feet per person or more is required before stair locomotion becomes normal and traffic conflicts with other pedestrians can be avoided . This is equivalent to a flow volume of about 5 PFM. This standard would be used in terminals that do not have severe peaking patterns or apace restrictions . In commuter terminals, the more stringent standard of 7 to 10 PFM would be acceptable. Riser height has a significant impact on stair locomotion . Lower riser heights, 7 in . or less, increase pedestrian speed and thus improve traffic efficiency . The lower riser height is also desirable to assist the handicapped pedestrian .
Queuing Areas A number of different pedestrian queuing situations occur in terminals which affect their functional design . Linear queues will occur where passengers line up to purchase tickets or board buses. Care must be taken that these lines do not disrupt other terminal functions . The length of a linear queue may be estimated on the basis of an average per person spacing of 20 in . The presence of baggage has little effect on this spacing because baggage is placed on the floor either between the legs or at the sides. Bulk queues may occur within a passenger terminal where passengers are waiting for bus arrivals or other services . Where no circulation through the queuing space is required, area occupancies as low as 5 sq ft per person may be tolerated for short periods. This allows standing pedestrians to avoid physical contact with each other. Where movement through the queuing space is required, such as in a passenger waiting concourse, an average area of 10 or more sq ft per person is required . Human area occupancies below 3 sq ft per person result in crowded, immobile, and potentially unsafe queues, particularly where pedestrians may be jostled off platforms. Escalators and Moving Walks
The high costs of escalators and moving walks present difficult design quality decisions. The units are generally designed close to their practical operating capacities even though this practice causes pedestrian delays and queuing . Escalator and moving walk manufacturers will rate the theoretical capacity of their units on assumption of uniform step or space occupancies, but detailed photographic studies of pedestrian use of these units show that, even under the most crowded conditions, pedestrians will leave vacant step positions or gaps, thus reducing effective capacity . This is caused by the pedestrian's own personal space preferences and momentary hesitation when boarding these units, particularly when they operate at higher speeds . This had led to the use of a nominal or practical design capacity of 75 percent of the theoretical as shown in Table 1 .
TABLE t Nominal Capacity-Escalators and Moving Walks Capacity, persons per minute T ype of unit 32-in. 48-in . 24-in . 30-in .
escalator escalator walk . . . walk . . .
Speed-90 fpm Speed-120 fpm . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. 63 . 100 . . . . . . . .
84 133 60 1 20
Stationary stairs should be located in close proximity to escalators and inclined moving walks to allow for their alternative use in cases of mechanical failure. With a rise below 20 ft, pedestrians will also make alternative use of these stairs if escalator queues become too long . With high-rise applications above 20 ft, virtually all pedestrians will use the escalator, causing long queues and delays in the heavier traffic applications . Space for pedestrian traffic circulation and queuing should be allocated at all lending areas.
Transportation BUS TERMINALS
By JULIUS PANERO, Architect and Planning Consultant
BUS GEOMETRICS
Bus Date Bus geometrics, or the physical dimensions and maneuverability of the bus, determine the width of roadways, shapes of platforms, column spacing, ceiling heights, and other aspects of bus-level design . The apparently insignificant detail of the right-side loading of buses often restricts terminal design possibilities. Swept Path When a bus turns normally, it always turns about a point which is somewhere on the center line of the rear axle . This is true whether motion is forward or backward . The turns required to accomplish the movement and positioning of buses are variable and differ considerably with the equipment encountered. The turning template provides a convenient graphic method to determine minimum clearances required . (See Fig . 3.) ROADWAY RAMPS
SWEEP
Fig. 3
Bus data .
PATH
40' BUS
90 ° TURN
Bus Roadway Widths Ten-foot-wide single lanes will suffice for 8-ft-wide equipment. Eleven-foot lanes are preferable where ample terminal space is available and especially to accommodate equipment 8 ft wide, the use of which steadily is increasing . Double-lane runways, enabling standing buses to be overtaken by other buses, provide a great advantage over one-lane runways because of the increased flexibility of operations that is made possible . For the purpose of merely overtaking another
Transportation BUS TERMINALS
CLOCKWISE
SINGLE Fig. 4
Bus loading plans .
MOTION
COUNTERCLOCKWISE
ISLAND BUS RAIL TRANSFER (b) PARALLEL LOADING
PLATFORM TYPES Parallel Loading
" Requires excessive amount of space . " Buses must usually wait until first bus exits. " Large terminal requires pedestrian under/ overpass facilities to protect passengers while crossing lanes .
Right-Angle Loading
" Disadvantages include : 1 Outswinging bus door which forms a barrier around which passenger must pass . 2 Bus maneuvering difficult .
STEPPED
MOTION
PARALLEL
Straight Sawtooth Loading
" Efficient-employed where lot is comparatively narrow and deep . " Passenger has direct approach to loading door . " Baggage truck can operate between buses for side loading . Radial Sawtooth Loading " Most efficient buses swing into position along natural driving are. " Space required at front is minimum-wide space at rear making maneuvering easy . (See Fig. 4.)
Transportation BUS TERMINALS
Fig. 5
Bus roadway widths .
bus or row of buses having no appreciable tailout, double-lane runway widths should be at least 20 ft and preferably 22 ft, especially if extra-wide equipment is to be accommodated -immediately or in the future . However, for a flexible operation under which departing buses may pull out from the platform around a standing bus, the runway width and the amount of lineal space at the platform for the pull-out maneuver are directly related . This relationship is indicated by Fig . 5, from which it is seen, for example, that a 40-ft bus having a 16-ft clearance ahead actually uses 22 ft of runway width for the pull-out . This would indicate, for practical purposes, a runway width of at least 24
ft . Also, a total minimum berth length of 40 ft plus 16 ft, or 56 ft, would be required . Obviously, the shorter the berth length allowed, the wider the runway must be, and vice versa . Ramping Where roadway ramping down or up, at entrances or exits to runways is necessary, care should be taken to avoid sharp grade changes which will result in discomfort to passengers or rough treatment of equipment, particularly when heavily loaded . Here again, where this factor is involved, tests should be made with buses and allowance made for possible future vehicles having a longer wheelbase and overhang . Because of the longer
wheelbase of buses, critical attention should be paid to the vertical clearance where a sag curve exists, since required bus clearance will be greater . Where buses are to enter terminal buildings, doorways and other structures should allow sufficient side clearance to permit free movement of vehicles and to avoid damage and delay . Door headroom should be at least 12 ft for typical equipment, allowance being made for any use of the terminals by deck-anda-half or double-deck buses . Actual dimensions of equipment to use the terminal should be checked before fixing critical dimensions . Minimum side clearance to all structures along the roadway should be at least 12 in .
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS
A truck terminal is a highly specialized facility, designed for a specific function and operating plan in terms of the service standards it must meet, the area it serves, and the volumes to be handled. The objective of this article is to explain the planning required to assure that the facility will be adequate for: 1 . Dock design and yard layout . Provide sufficient space for trucks to maneuver in and out quickly and for parking equipment . Protect freight and personnel from the weather . Design docks to provide ready access for moving material into trucks . 2. Number of dock spots. Provide the appropriate number of doors to enable trucks to load and unload without undue delay. 3. Accumulation space. Space is required immediately behind shipping and receiving spots for accumulating shipments so that vehicles can be processed quickly . The complete design of the truck terminal, of course, depends upon first establishing the operating plan and mission. Evaluation and considerations of alternate handling systems and building designs are beyond the scope of this article. Possible future changes must be thoroughly analyzed in establishing the design year requirements . Facilities are designed for the future, and they must be able to handle peak loads . Although the data gathering and analytical techniques required to accurately establish a design basis appear complex, they are necessary . Only with this information can the designer assure that the facility will operate as planned. DESIGN YEAR REDUIREMENTS
The planning starts with a 5-year forecast . The planners have established the specific mission of the facility and have thoroughly estimated the needs of the future including : 1 . Inbound and outbound destinations to be served 2. The nature of the workload to be handled 3. The terminal schedules required The objective of the planning analysis is to establish a few numbers such as pounds per hour which describe what the terminal will have to do during the peak period of the design year day. The designer must know whet the workload availability will be in terms of truck arrivals, dispatches, loading, and unloading times for peak operations . 1 . Determine design year peak . Historical data are of interest only as they relate to the future . Usually, current information must be collected to describe the details of the present terminal workload, so that the data may be adjusted for the future . Determine how this current test period relates to the normal seasonal peaks and valleys encountered during the year . If the terminal is a new facility replacing en existing one, then data can usually be col-
Shipper-Motor Carrier Dock Planning Model, The Operations Council of the American Trucking Associations, Inc., Washington, D.C,
lected for one point. If the terminal is replacing two or more existing terminals or has an entirely new mission, then information may be collected for several points . The designer, of course, would like to have complete information available to make his forecast, but he must be practical and use whatever information is at hand . The type of information which can be used for evaluating seasonal peaks and valleys is : a. Number of shipments b. Pounds handled c. Revenue dollars d. Number of loads 2. Tabulate and analyze peak period. Establish a logical basis for a peak period . Planning the facility to handle the absolute peak day 5 years in the future is not logical. This would mean unnecessary building cost . Select a peak period somewhat lower then the average, depending upon evaluation of daily or weekly variation. For a small facility, a 40-door terminal or less, a good rule of thumb is to take an average of the 10 highest consecutive weeks during the year and use this as a base to compare other periods of the year for which you are collecting detailed information. A larger facility deserves detailed analysis . Tabulate the daily or weekly data on a bar chart. Examine it, and establish some logical cutoff for the peak period. Usually a design base which will accommodate the volume of 85 to 90 percent of the working days of the year will be suitable . 3. Establish the design year planning base . The new terminal should be planned for 5 years hence. Site and yard space requirements should be planned for 10 to 20 years in the future to allow for expansion of the platform facilities and other facilities beyond the design year . Design year peak should include the following : a. The current planning base b. Forecasted growth for inbound-outbound transfer and interline freight c. Acquisition of operating rights within present system including new distribution points and peddle routes d. Mergers with other carriers and possible consolidation of terminals in the same city a. Change in the freight pattern The design year daily volume should be in pounds . Be careful in projecting growth based on pest revenue increases, because these usually reflect rate increases, not actual growth of traffic. The final figure established should represent the planned peak design year day in terms of total pounds handled. Detailed infor. mation on current workload can therefore later be adjusted to reflect a future planning base . 4. Tabulate data on workload availability . Set up the teat period and accumulate 4 weeks of data by maintaining daily activity logs and records. The objective of this analysis is to provide complete information on all elemedts of the workload, to determine the time of its availability and what must be done with it . Daily activity logs should be maintained for: a. Inbound arrivals by origin point b. Delivery loaded by route and interline carrier
c. Inbound break-bulk by origin and destination points d. Interline and cartage received by carrier e. Pickup unloaded by route f. Outbound loaded by destination The availability logs should show the workload arrivals in terms of units (or trucks), shipments, and pounds, and when it arrived . At the end of each day, summarize the information on the logs to show the workload availability by hour . At the end of the 4-week test period, summarize the vehicle and freight activity for the entire period in hourly increments . Review the daily results for a consistent pattern of vehicle and freight arrivals and for variations from the pattern. 5. Evaluate future changes. Before establishing the design year workload characteristics and specific terminal mission, determine those workload availability changes which might occur in the interim, either through management direction or from other sources . Key factors to consider are: a. Different closeout times at origin terminals b . Changes in routing between origin and destination terminals which may alter travel time c. Changes in cutoff times for interline freight d. Feasibility of replacing single trailer with double trailer operations, to reduce elapsed loading or eliminate combination loads e. Possibility that double trailer combinations may mean earlier arrival at new terminal f. Break-bulk traffic patterns may change by review of system operation For new areas to be serviced by acquisition of additional rights or by merger with other carriers, estimate the workload availability based on the location of possible new terminals and estimated freight volumes to be handled. Evaluate all of these factors, and establish the design year workload availability for the new terminal . 6. Establish service objectives. The planner now has available a good description of the new terminal workload in terms of its content and availability . The next step is to establish two key factors : a. Required cutoff times for outbound loading b. Required time that delivery vehicles should be available on the street The planner, therefore, will know when the workload is available and how much time the dock crew will have for processing the workload . 7 . Establish distribution of traffic by out. bound destinations . The objective is to estimate the amount of traffic to be loaded over the platform to each outbound destination to be served . Tabulate the daily average test period weight in pounds to each destination . The procedure is as follows: a. Tabulate daily average weight in pounds to each destination . b. Apply the forecasted growth factor to each destination for design year daily average weight . If forecasts are not available by destination point, use the same growth factor for all points .
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS c . List all new destination points acquired through operating rights or mergers with other carriers . d. Determine design your daily average outbound weight for each new point. A similar analysis should be prepared for inbound traffic . List all present routes, including commercial consignees and interline carriers . Evaluate these routes end determine whether future plans will call for rerouting and handling additional volume by more routes, improved delivery load averages, or more trucks on the some routes . Tabulate the expected volume of freight for each route . At this point, the planner should have a complete description of the future workload, when it will be available, where and how it must be loaded, and what the loading and unloading-overall handling capacity required -will be for the design year day .
NUMBER OF DOORS The number of loading and unloading doors required is based on the peak period during the design day. The peak doorway requirement may be for the inbound operation or a peak where the inbound and outbound overlap . The planner has already established the volumes to be handled, the destinations to be sorted, and the availability of freight to be unloaded . The number of doors for a given workload will therefore depend upon the number of destinations to be loaded inbound and outbound as well as the rates at which freight can be loaded and unloaded through a door . Typical truck terminal unloading and loading rates are shown in Table 1 . These may be used if the planner has not already established loading and unloading rates for his own operation. The rates shown are based on the number of pounds per hour which normally can be loaded and unloaded through a doorway based on a oneman operation . The rates also include time for spotting equipment . 1 . Calculate outbound doors required. For outbound, obviously the minimal requirement is one door per destination . Additional doors will be needed for destinations which have a greater volume of freight then can be loaded through a door in the required time period . Let us say that a carrier has four destinations and can load freight through a doorway at a rate of 6,000 lb per hour. The design year requirement for the peak period during the design day has been established . The calculation is as follows . Example : There are four destinations, and the average loading rate is 6,000 Ib per hour.
Destination A 9 C 0
. . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . Total
. . . . .
Pounds per hour to be loaded
. . . .10,000 . . . . 4,000 . . . .25,000 . . . . 2,000 . . . .41 .000
Number of doors calculated
Number of doors allowed
1 .7
2 1 4 1 8
0 .7 4 .2 0 .3 6 .9
As a rule of thumb, when determining the number of doors for each destination, round all decimal values of 0 .3 to the next higher whole number, and drop all decimal values less then 0 .3 . When calculating the number of outbound doors, be sure that all destination points are well defined . For example, Chicago might be a destination . There may be additional subdestinations required such as Chicago proper, Chicago interline, end Chicago route truck . Each of these would have to be treated as
TABLE 1
loading and Unloading Rates' Shipments overage p ou nds
Type Very small shipments* Small shipments . . . . Average shipments . . . Large shipments . . . . Unit loads§ . . . . . . . Containers1' . Conveyor loading . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
150 . . . 300 . . . 500 . . . 3,000 . . .
. . . . . . . .
Pounds per hour t 2,000- 4,000 4,000- 5,500 5,500- 6,500 6,500- 8,000 22,000-30,000 17,000-21,000 9,000-11,000
'Rates based on steady flow of freight to or from doorway . Pounds per hour will decrease if freight flow is interrupted to pick or detail inspect shipments and to travel long distances between storage and shipping or receiving area . percent to 60 percent . t Rates are based on one-man operation . With two-man operation rates will increase 50Minimum service time is 6 minutes *Includes large percentage of minimum shipments and one shipment delivery or pickup. per vehicle . § Includes pallet loads, skid loads, clamp loads, and slip sheet loads . Includes cages, metal, wood, end plastic containers . separate destinations if the freight is sorted for them and loaded separately . 2 . Calculate number of inbound doors. The number of doors for local delivery will depend upon the number of routes and the method used for servicing the route . Before calculating the number of doors, the operating plan must be established . The planner must know : a . The number of dropped trailers or trucks for interline or large customers b. Whether the plan calls for flooring freight and loading all trucks in sequence, or whether the inbound operation will be all or partially a cross-dock or direct-loading operation c . Whether all delivery vehicles will be dispatched at once or whether there will be a second wave of local delivery Use the planning data developed to determine the volume of freight for each route . Develop the operating plan, end provide enough truck spots for each route to be loaded at any one interval of time . 3 . Calculate number of doors required for unloading . The calculation of the number of doors required for stripping or unloading inbound trailers or pickup and delivery vehicles is relatively simple . From the design day peak workload analysis, the planner knows the volume of traffic, its availability and how much must be stripped in a given number of hours . The only additional information needed is at what hourly rate he can expect a dockman to unload freight through a doorway. Example A carrier's daily peak period is during the inbound operation . The plan calls for dock crews to start in force at 2 A .M . and complete unloading inbound trailers by 7 A .M . Workload availability analysis shows that 300,000 Ib of inbound is available for stripping during this period. The elapse d time for the operation is 5 hours . Stripping is planned at a continuous level rate ; then the crew has 5 hours to complete the unloading . The plan will require stripping inbound vehicles et a rate of 60,000 Ib per hour . Delivery can be loaded at an average rate of 4,000 Ib per hour through a door ; then the number of doors required for stripping is : 60,000
- 15 doors required 4,000 Similar calculations can be made for stripping pickup vehicles . Important factors to know are when the pickup is available, and at what continuous rate stripping should be planned in order that the unloading be completed in time to close out the outbound equipment on schedule .
SHIPMENT ACCUMULATION SPACE Accumulation space is needed to stage shipments so that they are ready for the pickup vehicle and for placing goods received prior to disposition . Shipments should be staged in an area convenient to the truck dock . Accumulation space may contain storage aids such as racks, bins, or shelves . Shipments may be accumulated on pellets, skids, carts, trucks, or in containers . The apace might also be occupied with conveyor banks to accumulate orders or merely contain cartons stacked on the floor . In an operation in which all freight is moved directly into vehicles spotted at the dock, accumulation space is not needed . In this case, the vehicle serves as the accumulation area, and having been filled with freight, is replaced with an empty . The 1 . Determine peak accumulation . accumulation space should be calculated for the design year . Adequate space must be available for the total shipment accumulation volume for the peak hour of the day . The warehouse is picking orders at a certain rate and loading trucks at certain times . The accumulation space requirement, therefore, must provide storage for the cumulative total of orders picked during the day minus the cumulative total of orders loaded out . By tabulating both of these cumulative volumes by hour, the planner can determine when the peak will occur as well as what the peak volume needing to be stored will be . The peak accumulation for most facilities will generally occur sometime in the early afternoon, just prior to the peak arrival period for carriers . 2 . Calculate space required . Convert the maximum accumulated volume for the peak into cubic feet . Convenient conversion factors can be established for converting pounds or cases into cubic feet . Finished goods, however, are not accumulated in one solid mass . Additional space must be provided for access and for separation of shipments by carrier . For most conditions, the allowance for additional space is usually about 2'4 to 3 times as great as the actual cube of the product. Therefore, multiply the finished goods cubic feet by the storage space utilization factor of 2A to 3 to obtain total storage cubic feet required . 3 . Prepare block layout . The next step in planning the shipping accumulation space is determining the number of square feet . The procedure is as follows : a . Determine the overall stacking height for the shipment to be stored . b. Divide the total storage cubic feet by the stacking height .
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS The result will be the storage area in square feet. Additional space must be provided for access aisles . Depending on the storage aide used, area requirements for aisles will range from 50 percent to 150 percent of the storage area, according to the size of the storage bank, type of equipment used, and whether aisles are used for more than one purpose . In most cases, the allowance for aisles is equivalent to the storage apace available . Prepare a typical layout for one bay . Measure storage space and, based on aisle space needed, multiply the storage ores in square feet by a factor of 1 .5 to 2.5. The total square feet should provide adequate space for shipment accumulation . Draw a layout of the configuration of the area, giving the required number of square feet, and arrange the storage blocks on the layout as they actually will be . If adjustments must be made in space allowances, make them at this time .
DOCK DESIGN AND SPECIFICATIONS The third major element in planning the shipping facility is to see that docks are the proper height for loading and unloading vehicles, that people and freight are protected from weather, end that adequate apace is allowed for access and perking . Once again, plan for the design year and allow for expansion . 1 . Determine vehicle parking requirements . Estimate the following for the design year : Company or contract carrier vehicles a. If company trucks or contract carrier vehicles are used for distribution, determine the maximum total number and type of vehicles on site. This maximum number will generally occur on a weekend or over a holiday . b. Multiply the number of each type vehicle -such as 40-ft trailer, 18-ft straight truck, tractor with 40-ft trailer-by the square foot allowance for each different length of vehicle . Parking space for a vehicle should be 12 ft wide, end the length of the space should be the overall length of the vehicle plus 20 percent . Parking space per vehicle, sq ft = (overall length, ft X 1 .2) X 12 ft c. Add total space requirement for all vehicles. d. Subtract space for number of vehicles to be spotted at the dock. e. Calculate truck apron area, employee parking area, and service road area . Total area for combined facilities . Common carrier vehicles a . Estimate the maximum number and size of vehicles which could be waiting for a door position, and provide space for these vehicles . b. Keep apron and dock approach area clear to permit rapid removal and spotting of vehicles at the dock . 2 . Provide adequate maneuvering space. The length of a vehicle's parking space or dock approach is the greatest length for the tractor-trailer combination (stall length) and the apron length necessary to maneuver the vehicle in and out of the parking spot . The apron is measured from the outermost part of the longest vehicle to be accommodated or from the outermost part of any obstruction, such as a post or part of a building structure in front of the dock . As a general rule, the dock approach should be at least twice the length of the longest tractor-trailer combination . The width for each new parking spot or stall should be 12 ft to accommodate the longer and
wider tractor-trailer combinations . This width can be used for outside parking or parking in an enclosed dock area . Use Table 2 as a guide .
TABLE 2 Minimal Parking Space or Dock Approach Length and Width (Width-12 ft) Overall length of tractor-trailer, feet
Apron length, feet
Dock approach length, feet
40 45 50 55 60
43 49 57 62 69
83 94 107 117 129
3. Plan for good traffic flow. When preparing the plot plan, include : a. Vehicle movement on site. Vehicles should circulate in a counterclockwise direction . Making left-hand turns with large vehicles enables the driver to see more easily the tail end of the vehicle . b. Service roads . For two-direction traffic, roads should be 23 ft wide . This will allow for a 3-ft clearance between passing eh-ft-wide vehicles with a 1 h-h side clearance . For oneway roads, the minimum straightaway width should be 12 ft . c. Roadway approaches and intersections . Gates and approaches to roadways should be at least 30 ft wide for two-direction traffic and at least 20 ft wide for one-way traffic. For a right-angle roadway intersection, a minimum radius of 50 ft will be satisfactory for most vehicles . However, if the road is wider than 20 ft, the minimum radius may be decreased to 35 ft . d. Pedestrian lanes . These should be located adjacent to a service road, but separated from the roadway by a physical barrier. The width of the lane can range from 4 to 6 ft, depending on the volume of pedestrian traffic . 4 . Provide proper dock height. Truck-trailere and pickup and delivery vehicles are not built to any specific bed height ; therefore, docks for vehicles at plants and distribution centers cannot be constructed to one specific height . For most trailers designed to handle dry merchandise, the vehicle bed height will vary between 48 and 52 in . For some high . cubs trailers with smaller wheels, the bed height will be less than 48 in . Truck chase!* with a "reefer" body will increase the bed height up to 6 in . Pickup and delivery vehicle bed heights will vary between 44 and 50 in . Vehicles with capacity loads can compress springs and change the bed height . A singleaxle trailer bed height can change as much me 6to8in . To provide the best dock height for a facility, a survey should be made of the type of equipment used to determine the bed height of vehicles servicing the plant or distribution center . Different heights may be provided if all straight trucks arrive et one dock location and all trailers arrive at another . In general, selecting a dock height lower-rather than higher-will enable the driver to open or close vehicle doors while the truck is at the dock . 5 . Avoid pits and ramps . If at all possible, grade the approach and apron area for the proper dock height and keep equipment near level . If loading pits and ramps cannot be avoided, use the following guidelines : a . If a ramp is needed, grade the approach to the dock so that the truck or trailer Is nearly level . Equipment parked at a steep angle is unsafe to load and unload . If the front end of the truck or trailer is elevated too much, the truck
roof may strike the building when backing in . b . Although most loaded trucks are designed to pull a 15 percent grade, the start-up grade for pulling away from a dock is much lower. In addition, dock facilities even if covered cannot be kept dry in wet weather . A 3 percent grade is the maximum allowable for pulling away from a dock . 6 . Specify door height and width. Almost all shipper-consignee facilities should have truck dock doors to provide security and dock area protection from wind, rain or snow when vehicles are not at the dock . For most installations, a 9-af door width is recommended for vehicles not perfectly spotted . Trailer widths may increase in the future to 102 inches . Door widths greater than 9 ft will cause excessive lose of heat or refrigeration ; doors less than 9 h wide will require extra maneuvering of vehicles for spotting at the dock . To determine door heights, subtract the dock height from 14 ft . In most cases the door height will range from 9 ft 8 in . t o 10 ft . This height will accommodate up to 13-ft 6-in .-high trailers . If only straight trucks deliver and pick up freight at the dock, the height of the door will range between 8 ft and 9 ft 4 in . 7 . Install permanent, self-leveling dockboards . Installation of dock levelers enables faster turnaround of trucks and contributes to increased dock productivity . Permanently installed boards are safer to use than portable boards . The one exception to the use of dockboards would be for facilities exclusively utilizing conveyors to transport freight out of or into vehicles. The dockboard specification will depend on the following factors : a . Greatest height difference between the dock and bed of trucks or trailers serviced b . Type of materials handling equipment used c . Type of loads handled into and out of vehicles d. Type of vehicle road equipment picking up or delivering freight After determining the maximum height difference from dock level, the length of the clock. board can be calculated by using the allowable percentage grade for the type of handling equipment used . Allowable grades are shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3 Percent of Grade for Material Handling Equipment Allowable percent of grade'
Type of equipment Powered handtrucks . . . . . Powered platform trucks . . . Low-lift pellet or skid trucks Electric fork trucks . . . . . . Gas fork trucks . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
3 7
10 10 15
Contact manufacturer and check manufacturer's specifications belore operating beyond allowable percent of grade . Most standard truck dockboard lengths range from 6 to 10 ft . For most applications, dockboards should be 6 ft wide . Use 7-ft wide dockboard for loading or unloading unit loads with fork truck . 8 . Provide area for access to trucks . A minimum area measured inside the plant from the edge of the dock should be kept clear end unobstructed for the movement of freight and materials handling equipment . The depth of the area must allow for maneuverability of materials handling equipment in end out of vehicles and for two-way cross traffic behind the dock . If dockboards are used, provide a minimum
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS depth of 12 ft behind the inside edge of the board . If dockboards are not used, allow 15 ft from the dock edge . If conveyors are used to load and unload all freight, the requirement for a clear distance behind the dock edge will not apply . 9 . Provide for weather protection . An alternative to a fully enclosed dock is the installation of dock shelters and canopies completely enclosing the space between the building and the rear of the vehicle . Dock shelters provide a closure between the truck and dock doors . Canopies provide a roof over the dock and should be extended over the dock's entire distance . In order to reduce the effects of wind, rain and snow, the installation of canopies should also include side panel walls extending from the building at each end of the dock area . Most shelters are designed to accommodate vehicles ranging from 10 ft to 13 ft 6 in . high . Dock shelters should be considered for plants and distribution centers which have the following characteristics : a . Plant site is located in cold, windy or wet climate . b . A large concentration of people work in the area and the adjacent dock area . c . Female employees, performing stationary tasks, are located near the dock area .
d. Long loading and unloading time intervals occur et the dock . e . There is a limited range of vehicle sizes picking up and delivering freight . Canopies should extend a minimum of 8 ft out from the building to provide adequate protection over the rear end of parked vehicles et the dock . For level driveways, the outside edge of the canopy should be no less than 1 5 ft high to accommodate 13-ft 6-in . trailers . If the height of all vehicles using the dock is less than 13 ft 6 in ., locate the canopy 1'h ft higher than the highest vehicle . 10 . Evaluate fully enclosed dock . The initial cost of constructing a completely enclosed dock facility, compared with an outside dock facility, may be justified if : a . Maximum security is needed . b. Plant site is located in cold, windy or wet climate . c . Vehicles are dropped for overnight loading . d . High value merchandise is handled . e. Merchandise handled is sensitive to temperature and water . f. A large concentration of people work in the area and the adjacent dock area . If a dock is completely enclosed in a building, the width of each dock position should be a
minimum of 12 ft wide . The overall clear height in the vehicle docking area should be a minimum of 1'h ft higher than the highest vehicle or legal height . For most installations, this will be a 15-ft overall clear height. The back-in type enclosure is the most common type of completely enclosed dock facility . For this enclosure, each vehicle dock position has its own doorway for direct access to the outside as shown in Fig . 1 . The distance from the leading edge of the dock to the inside of the doorway where the vehicle backs in should exceed the maximum length of the vehicles using the facility or the maximum legal length of the vehicle combination by at least 5 ft . For most installations receiving tractor-trailers, an overall length of 65 ft will meet this requirement .
DOCKING FACILITIES The primary consideration in planning modern loading and unloading facilities for motor transport equipment is to provide adequate space for efficient maneuvering into and out of loading position at properly constructed docks . No one plan will fit all requirements, but careful study of present needs and future possibilities will determine the type and size of facilities essential to efficient operation . There is, of course, no set of standard dimensions covering the space required for maneuvering the many possible combinations of tractor-trucks and semitrailers into and out of loading position at docks or in stalls and driveways . However, the maneuvering space required is largely dependent on three factors : (1) overall length of the tractor-trailer unit ; (2) the width of the position in which the vehicle must be placed ; and (3) the turning radius of the tractor-truck which pulls the unit . Inasmuch as a tractor-trailer uses slightly more space to pull out than to back in, all reference to maneuvering apron space is based on the requirements for pulling out . Length of Tractor-Trailer Unit The length of tractor-trailer units to be accommodated will vary in accordance with state laws and differing types of operation . Analysis of the specific problem will determine the largest vehicle to be considered . For the purposes of this discussion tractor-trailer units of 35, 40 and 45 ft are considered to be the most prevalent overall lengths . If an appreciable volume of traffic is handled by "for hire" motor transport, it may be expected that the unit length to be accommodated will approximate the legal limit in the state concerned, usually between 45 and 50 ft . It is obvious that commercial haulers will use the maximum size tractor-trailer practical for efficient operation within state limitations . In general, it may be assumed that straight trucks can be accommodated in the space required for tractor-trailer units inasmuch as it has been impractical to build trucks even approaching the length and cubic capacity of modern trailers . In some states trains of more than one trailer are permitted . Such equipment is not being considered as it is assumed that each trailer in a train would be spotted separately . Width of Position
Fig . 1
Back-in type enclosure .
The maximum allowable width of a truck or trailer is 8 ft and it may be assumed that virtually all units (other than those for light city delivery) are built to take full advantage of this dimension .
Transportation TRUCK
TERMINALS
NOTES :
Fig . 2
(A) Should be at least 6 in . over legal height for level area, more for slope. (B) Dock height, 1,8 to 52 in . for road trailers, 44 in, for city trucks . (C) Concrete apron of the dimensions shown will accommodate trailers from 22 to 40 ft long . (D) Additional slab length recommended to support tractor wheels . (E) General rule for distance required : total length of tractor-trailer times 2. Trailer width-8 ft Trailer stall width-10 ft mininnunl, 12 ft reeoniniended.
Recommended dimensions and clearances for truck loading docks .
The consensus among transport and traffic men interviewed is that 12 ft is a very desirable width for stalls or truck positions . Slightly narrower position widths can be utilized when necessary but should be avoided in order to reduce the possibility of damage to equipment and loss of time for jockeying into position . Also, as position width increases, the apron space required for maneuvering will decrease .
Trailer Dimensions
Average dimensions of large trailers are shown in Fig . 2, along with recommended dimensions end clearances for dock structures .
made to determine the space required . Units utilizing cab-over-engine truck-tractors have somewhat shorter turning radii for the same lengths and consequently require less apron space than units with conventional tractors . Many of these tractor-trucks are in use, but few shippers can count on their exclusive use . Apron Space Required The apron space required to maneuver tractortrailer units into or out of loading position in
Turning Radii of Tractor-Trucks The turning radii of tractor-trucks have a definite bearing on the apron space required for maneuvering equipment . However, because of the variation in this dimension among trucks of different types, capacities and makes, a high average turning radius has been used in arriving at recommendations regarding space requirements . The requirements of heavy-duty units with extremely long turning radii call for special consideration . If such equipment is a factor in any operation, a special study should be
When designing for ramps, dips, or crowns in the terminal area, special care must be taken to provide clearance at the points indicated in the diagram. Actual dimensions must be obtained . Cab clearances are more critical when the combination is jackknifed . Landing gear height (A) may be as low as 10 in. Fig. 3
Critical points for clearance .
Fig . 4
Apron space required for various conditions .
one maneuver has been worked out in practical tests with standard equipment handled by experienced drivers . Inasmuch as a high average turning radius has been arbitrarily used to provide a margin for differences in equipment, the variable factors were overall length and position width . The apron space required is measured out frorn the outermost part of any vehicle or other possible obstruction in the area of the maneuver (Fig . 4) . In the case of a single-position unobstructed dock (Fig . 4a), the distance would be measured straight out from the dock . However, if a canopy or roof, supported by posts (Fig . 46) should be present to protect the loading area, the distance would be measured out from the posts . If it is necessary to spot a trailer alongside another vehicle (Fig . 4c), the distance would be measured from the outermost point of the vehicle obstructing the maneuver . When a stall or driveway is involved (Fig . 4d), the distance would be measured from the outermost obstruction, such as a curb, pole, or vehicle, ate . It is highly recommended that at least the minimum apron space be allowed and that it be kept clear for the approach and maneuvering of transport units . In locations where the proper space is not available for parking in one maneuver, trailers can be jockeyed into position . This, however, is a time-wasting, costly, and unsatisfactory process for both commercial and private transport operators .
Overhead Clearance Standard trailers vary in height up to 12''A ft . Consequently, it is recommended that 14-ft clearance be provided at docks or in yards, driveways, doors, stalls and interior roadways . Special transportation conditions such as delivery of large machinery may require greater clearance .
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS and obstructions . Railroad crossings, automobile traffic, parked vehicles, and material carelessly stored outside all contribute to delays in pick-up and delivery. If a right-angle turn must be negotiated in a narrow driveway, extra clear apace should be provided on the inside of the turn to eliminate maneuvering . For instance, in a driveway 12 to 14 ft wide, the triangular area, formed by the inside corner of the turn and the two points 24 ft on each side of the corner, should be left clear . This will allow proper clearance for the turning radius of the tractor-truck and the cut-in of trailer wheels .
Turning Clearance (see Fig. 5) Site Fig. 5
Turning clearance for driveway.
Drainage Roofs or canopies over loading docks should be constructed so as to avoid drainage into the loading area. This precaution will reduce the hazards of mud and ice and the resulting loss of traction . It is particularly important to prevent ice formation on the pavement where tractor and trailer are coupled .
Traffic Congestion So far as possible, loading areas and approaches should be free from general traffic
Location : In selecting a site, consider the following factors : l . Proximity to pickups, deliveries, and connecting carriers 2 . Accessibility to main traffic arteries 3 . Obstructions such as bridges, underpasses, and railroad crossings 4 . Zoning 5 . Urban and regional plans ; future growth pattern of city 6 . Transportation facilities for employees 7 . Utilities Grade : Site should be approximately level : maximum slope 3 percent ; minimum slope for drainage, 1 percent . Storm drains recommended 60 to 75 ft on centers, 100 ft maximum .
Pavement: 6-in. concrete slab reinforced with 6 by 6 in . No . 6 gauge welded wire mesh ; expansion joints 30 ft on centers . Fence : 2-in . wire mesh No . 9 gauge, 7 ft high including several strands of barbed wire at the top . Protect the fence from damage by trucks by placing bumpers or 2-ft-high earth curbs 5 to 15 ft from the fence, depending upon the type of truck using the yard . In car parking areas place bumpers at least 3 ft from the fence .
Dock Building Orientation : If possible, place the long dimension of the building parallel to the prevailing storm winds . Column spacing : Depends upon stall width . Recommended stall width 12 ft, column spacing 24 ft . Width of building varies from 45 to 70 ft, depending upon the type of operation : usual figure is 60 ft . Height: Minimum clear interior height, 12 ft . Foot overhang or canopy projection-3 ft minimum, no maximum (the longer the better) ; usual figure, 12 ft . End walls : May be extended a similar distance for better weather protection . Doors : Overhead type, 8 to 10 ft wide by 8 to 9 ft 4 in . high ; the larger sizes are more usual . Floor : Reinforced concrete designed for a live load of 150 to 250 par ; nonslip finish (float or abrasive) . Bumpers : Wood usual ; steel or rubber may be used . Steps : Iron bar rungs set in concrete dock front are less expensive than stairs ; provide one set of steps per four stalls . Light: 15 footcandles recommended ; skylights optional . Floodlights arranged to shine into truck or trailer bodies are required, also floodlights for the general yard area . Heat : Required in northern areas ; suspended unit heaters or radiant heat in floor slab may be used . Ventilation : Mechanical ventilation required if fork-lift trucks are used . Sprinklers : Recommended for entire dock area . (See Figs . 6 and 7 .)
Offices The office facilities of the following :
may include any or all
General office Message center Billing office Cashier Telephone room Foreman's office Office manager Terminal manager Operations manager Salesmen's room Record room Heater room Central checking Drivers' locker room Transportation department Dormitory Cafeteria Drivers' ready room
Other Facilities
Fig. 7
Truck terminal dock plan for fork-lift truck and pallet storage.
Maintenance shop Fueling area (near shop) Weighing area Truck and trailer parking area (two parking spaces per dock stall recommended) Employee and visitor parking area
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS Truck Types and Dimensions
Fig . 8 "How Blg Is a Truck-How Sharp Does If Turn, "The Operations Council of American Trucking Association, Inc ., Washington, D .C ., 1974 .
Transportation TRUCK TERMINALS Truck Types and Dimensions
Industrial
INDUSTRIAL PARKS
1001
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
1007
INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
1020
RESEARCH LABORATORIES
1026
WAREHOUSES
1028
WAREHOUSES, WATERFRONT
1041
AIRPORT INDUSTRIAL PARK
1045
INDUSTRIAL PLANTS--PARKING
1049
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PARKS
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Site Planning-Some Physical Design Guidelines Planning specific building sites in industrial developments requires a number of considerations . These considerations include setback requirements, truck loading and maneuvering depths, vehicular parking needs, building coverage, and rail service requirements . Building setbacks from the fronting street will vary between setting the building on the property line and therefore having a zero front yard, to a setback of 50 ft or more . If vehicular parking is placed in front of the buildings, and allowed on one side only, 40 to 45 ft should be provided for the driveway and parking stalls . If parking is allowed on both sides of the driveway, 60 to 65 ft should be provided . Side and rear building setbacks usually will be less than front setbacks. They typically range from no setback required to 15 ft . Truck and rail loading needs may control building setbacks along side and rear lot lines. Truck loading and maneuvering depths from edge of dock to edge of maneuvering area are variable depending upon anticipated traffic . Successful warehousing operation can occur with as little as 85 ft of truck docking and maneuvering depths, whereas the recommended depth for trucking terminals for larger trucks (45-ft trailer length) is as much as 129 ft . (See Fig . 1 .) Vehicular parking needs will depend on building use . Warehousing generally will have fewer occupants which enables auto parking to be accommodated near the front end of the truck loading area . Higher densities will require devoting as much as one side of the building to vehicular parking . Seventy-five feet should be allowed for parking and landscaping if one aisle, and parking stalls on either side, are considered sufficient . The ratio of parking spaces required to building will relate to employee densities and to employee commuting habits . Keeping the area of pavement to the minimum required to accommodate parking needs will have significant effect on storm drainage design . The developer, users, and public agencies will be well advised to design parking standards with this objective in mind and to provide minimum parking with initial site development with provision for additional expansion as empirical studies indicate .'
SOURCE : Industrial Development Handbook, ULI--The Urban Land Institute, Washington, D .C ., 1975. ' Special Tmtfp'c Generator Study-Industrial Generations, Report no . 2 (Dover, Delaware : State of Delaware, Department of Highways and Transportation, 1973) . This report prepared detailed analyses of 22 industrial users, the parking ratios ranged from 0 .21 spaces per 1,000 square feet of floor area to 20 spaces per 1,000 square feet of floor area. The firm with the lower ratio manufactured chemical products; the firm with a higher ratio was a clothing manufacturer . Of the 22 industrial firms studied, 11 had ratios of less than one space per 1,000 square feet of floor area; six had ratios of less than two spaces per 1,000 square feet of floor area ; and only five had over two spaces per 1,000 square feet of floor space and with the exception of the one with 20 spaces per 1,000 square feet of floor area, all of these were below a four-to-one ratio .
may range from 500 to 700 ft in depth . Establishing lots for such depths will permit later introduction of a short cut-de-sac street to break these deeper lots into two medium-depth parcels . Cul-de-sac streets should end in a paved turnaround 100 ft in diameter. This diameter will accommodate larger trucks, including 45-ft trailers, and will allow a 180-degree turn without backing . A further objective of lot layout should be to minimize the number of at-grade rail crossings of major roads within the development . In areas with high density uses, such vehicular traffic interruptions are particularly annoying ; and automatic crossing protection is often required at the devel-
To provide maximum return on investment, building coverage which gives the highest percentage site coverage is generally desired by the developer. However, building coverage may be limited by zoning or by parking needs of the occupants. Building coverage above 50 percent often can be achieved for warehouses whereas offices and light manufacturing, with their sizable parking needs, may be in the 30 percent range of building coverage. Rail service requires about 15 ft from the centerline of the spur track to the rear property line when the drill or lead track is centered on the property line . If, however, the rail drill track is in its own right of way, then inside building rail service is most economical of land and improvement costs if the building can be constructed to the property line . An allowance of 150 feet should be made for bringing the rail from the lead track to a point parallel with the building . This is important in planning the distance from the building to the side property line because rail spur geometrics will require an easement on the property next door if the building must be set near the side property line . Building dimensions are variable ; however, most structures fall within the square to two-toone ratios of length to width .
oper's expense . Submittal of a preliminary plan to the community reviewing agency will establish a pattern for the orderly submittal of record plots . While practices vary, it is desirable to make a minimum initial commitment when filing a record plat of roads and parcels. This minimum commitment will retain flexibility and will provide control over the amount of funds paid in filing fees, when these fees are based on area recorded . (See Fig . 2 .) Rail Service When rail service to industrial developments is contemplated, the developer should contact the railroad company's industrial development department as early as possible to determine which provisions are necessary for service . As ULI Industrial Council member O . G. Linde points out, such things as reciprocal switching limits, frequency of switching service, car supply, and general rate considerations, can be very important . He suggests, "A project might experience slow development simply because the development is located
Platting Techniquffs A primary objective in preparing a preliminary plan for industrial development is to provide maximum flexibility . Because the needs of prospective users cannot be known in advance, the layout of streets and rail leads must be done to create a plan which provides lots of various depths . Lots 200 to 300 ft in depth are popular. Large lots
55' FOR 55' LONG 65' FOR 65' LONG
40' MINIMUM (FOR COUNTERCLOCKWISE TRAFFIC FLOW ")
17 0 17 17 17 D D 4D 444DDDDDDDDDDDDD MANEUVERING
100' MINIMUM ( FOR CLOCKWISE TRAFFIC FLOW ns) Fig . I
LOADING
AREA
WAITING
Truck loading and maneuvering configuration .
AREA
AREA
TRACTOR/TRAILER TRACTOR/TRAILER, ETC .
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PARKS
Fig. 2
Utility and pavement relationship in an industrial park in St . Louis County, Missouri .
outside reciprocal switching limits, thereby making it unattractive for industries to locate at a local station on one railroad when a significant share of their rail traffic originates or is destined on other railroads ." Assuming the desirability of rail service has been determined and the mix of land to rail served versus nonrail has been determined by market studies, several engineering and design factors must be considered-including topography, soil conditions, drainage, existing improvements, right-of-way access, building setback requirements, operational requirements, elevation and alignment of existing tracks, desire for in-plant rail service, and most suitable point(s) of intersection with existing tracks . As ULI Industrial Council member Otto Pongrace points out, "The location of rail access and the direction of that access from the main line must be discussed with the serving railroad since they may object to the point and direction of service that is most desirable for the developer ." While procedures vary, the cost of the lead track through the development is generally borne by the developer including the switch and spur track up to the property line of the individual tenant ; the tenant generally pays for the remaining spur length . The railroad may participate in the costs of providing lead tracks to serve the several industrial sites within an industrial development through refunds to the developer based on car loadings . Switching tracks, sidings, and yards for storage may be necessary if required by the railroad . This additional trackage is of considerable value to the railroad since it facilitates operations . The developer should negotiate the cost of such additional trackage with the railroad . Historically, the community has not been involved in the provision of rail service. It has been
the function of the developer to work with the railroads and share the costs based on mutual benefits. This function is in contrast to other onsite and offsite improvement such as streets and utilities. Frequently, communities have lent public powers such as improvement district financing in order to provide these facilities to further development of an employment and industrial tax base for the community [sic] . All rail service must conform to the requirements of the railroad company which will be operating over the facility. Also, rail service is subject to public service commission requirements . Many states have rules and regulations prescribed by lawful authority for clearances to or under adjacent buildings, structures, or physical obstruction of any kind . Approval of railroad plans and construction is at the discretion of the railroad company. Close contact with railroad officials is desirable throughout all phases of planning, design, and construction . Agreements must be made between the railroad company and owner for operation and maintenance of private tracks . The railroad company may furnish guidelines and standards for design . Every effort should be made to obtain the required information prior to any detailed layout . For design purposes, the following information should be obtained from the railroad : . maximum horizontal curvature and minimum tangent distances allowed for the type of layout, . maximum grades allowed for transfer and storage, . vertical curve requirements and maximum rate of change of grade, . standard vertical and horizontal clearances-for lateral clearances, between centerlines of track and to fixed objects,
. turnout numbers to be used from the existing track and within the proposed layout, . lead distances for the turnouts to be used, . weight of rail for existing track and for proposed track, . typical sections for roadbed width, slopes, ballast, ties, and rail configurations, and . technical specifications. Track design standards, such as standard rail section, turnouts, guard rails, frogs, plank crossings, signals, and others, are available from the railroad company. Other design considerations include drainage, earthwork, slope stability analysis, crossings, rights-of-way, and special conditions required for the project. (See Figs . 3 to 8.) Whether done by the railroad or by the developer, the construction of all tracks and appurtenances should conform to the best construction practices as prescribed by the Manual of the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) . As a rule-of-thumb, when a development is railserved : (1) the rail lead track and nearby street elevations will generally approximate one another ; (2) the minimum radius of curvature of the track will be between 350 and 400 ft ; (3) maximum permissible gradients along spur tracks will be about l'/2 to 2 percent ; and (4) the dock height should be set from 3.5 to 4.0 ft above top of rail of the spur track. In deciding whether to provide rail service, and what portion of a development should be rail served, it is important to consider the amount of land in an industrial development which would be consumed by rail service. Admittedly, some of this land would be in required yard setbacks but this area could be used for parking, truck loading, or in some instances, structures-if not required for rail.
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PARKS
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PARKS
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PARKS
TYPICAL PLANS FOR INDUSTRIAL TRACKS typical Roadbed and Ballast Section
*American Railway Engineering Association **If natural ground does not provide good drainage, 8" of porous material must be installed . Note : No draining to be diverted to railroad ditches without consent of railroad and agreement with railroad .
TYPICAL CLEARANCE SECTION INSIDE BUILDING
*Minimum distance can be reversed, as long as 6'-6" minimum + "X" is maintained on one side . Note : "X" = Add 1" per degree of curvature until car is totally on tangent track .
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PARKS TABLE 1
Land Use
Traffic Generation Vocabulary
Density (Employees/Acre)
Traffic Generation Rate (Vehicle Trips Per Day) Number/1,000 Sq . Ft . Floor Area Number/Acre Range Typical Range Typical
5
2-8
4
0.2-1.0
0.6
5-20
6-30
16
0.4-1 .2
0.8
Industrial tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5 acres) (machinery factory)
20-100
30-160
70
0.6-4 .0
2.0
100
150-200
170
3-8
Mixed central industry . . . . . . . . . . . small industrial plants
Varies
Highly automated industry . . . . . . . . low employee density (refinery, warehouse) Light service industry . . . . . . . . . . . . single-lot industry (lumber yard)
Office campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . research & development (research industry)
10-100
4
1-4
SOURCE : National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Report 121, "Protection of Highway Utility."
Trofc Generation
Understanding the nature and extent of traffic generated by various uses of land is important to the industrial land developer in providing for adequate roads. Small land developments may not in themselves generate sufficient traffic to create an overload of the existing road network. On the other hand, industrial plants often generate substantial traffic which must be accommodated by the road system . Standard values for the amount of traffic generated for various uses of land are not available; however, typical values, based upon experience, can be used . The traffic generated is generally expressed in terms of the number of trips per acre, or per 1,000 square feet of gross floor area .
In traffic generation studies for industrial areas, the principal measure of density is employees per acre . The operations with lowest employee density are highly automated industries or warehouses supporting fewer than 5 employees per acre . A second class is light service industry, gen. orally located on small parcels and having 5 to 20 employees per acre . An industrial tract in a larger development with more intensive employment may have from 20 to 100 employees per acre . One of the most intensive industrial classes is office industry (research and development). An industrial site of this type may support more than 100 employees per acre . A fifth class is mixed industrial development which has a variable employee density. Traffic generation rates are indi-
cated in vehicle trips per acre and in vehicle trips per thousand square feet of floor area . (See Table 1 .) As a general rule, one lane of pavement will handle from 800 to 1,200 trips per hour within the development . The actual number of cars accommodoted within these limits is a function of several parameters including street layout, traffic control at intersections, and adequacy of highways serving the site. Therefore, all complex traffic movement should be analyzed by a traffic engineer to assure adequate design .
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
By FRANCIS W . GENCORELLI, RA, AIA
ESTABLISHING LIAISON In most building types, the initial step is site selection . In the new-plant project, a considerable amount of time must be spent in establishing liaison with the client's organization and explaining the relevant problems to the client's planning team . The fact that most plant construction will be done by corporate clients makes it imperative that the source of respon'sibility be clearly established . This will make it possible to avoid misunderstandings about the relation of the proposed type of plant to its site, to its output, and to the future potential of the business . As the first step, an organization team consisting of responsible production and engineering people should be established . Qualified outside counsel should then be selected . The learn of internal production and engineering people should be freed from all routine duties so that they may concentrate on the new construction program . This is vitally important, since no one can do the kind of creative thinking and reacting to creative thinking that a new project calls for if he is surrounded with the routine that is a necessary feature of every management procedure . An orientation period is necessary to tune everyone in to the right point of view . A general consensus about the project should prevail . Everyone should be made to realize that decisions On site selection and plant building design will have an immense influence on operating costs and plant maintenance . It is ir»por . tant that the internal organizational team set itself to gather all necessary input information concerning the company's past growth, so as to have available necessary documentation for the future steps in the design . (See Fig . 1 .)
THE SECOND STEP-SELECTION OF PLANT SITE To a larger degree than is readily apparent, the site has a direct influence on the ultimate efficiency of the plant through the effects of site factors on plant design and construction . The consultant should be selected before a site decision is made . In many cases management selects the plant site, pays for it, and then requests the outside consultant to design the plant . The outside consultant must then design around the site conditions . The owner and his internal organization, together with the outside consultant, have many factors to consider in the survey of possible sites : physical, economic, legal, social, site size, climate, land topography, soil conditions, availability of raw materials, etc . These are too numerous to consider in detail . They are provided for in the following Plant Site Analysis Input Sheets used by the author's firm in the past (see Table 1 and Fig . 2) .
THE THIRD STEP-PREPARING THE FUNDAMENTAL LAYOUT The design of an effective plant layout is a problem of defining and responding to the analysis .
It is a system of rational three-dimensional analysis and evaluation . From the input developed by the internal organization, the outside consultant can analyze the existing flow activ . ity space requirements, primary and secondary adjacencies, etc . It is imperative that the outside consultant be made fully aware of the idiosyncrasies of a particular product and a number of products produced in similar processes . A plant can have a layout based on production or on a process . If a company produces a large quantity of a few products, then you function on a product layout . If a company produces a great number of products, each with relatively small runs but similar processes, then you design on a process layout. In developing a new-plant project, it is obviously very unwise to consider immediate needs only . The wise management will consider its needs on a long-range plan . The entire plant site should be laid out for at least a 25-year
Fig . 1
period, with the particular building project built to serve only the needs of the next 5 years---all of which can only be projected from sales reports and anticipated markets . Expansion by growth can be a fairly accurate projection ; however, expansion by acquisition cannot be easily determined . In one instance, a project increased by 300 percent during the construction period because product lines were added through company acquisitions . The following is the initial breakdown of area allocations : Administration Employee facilities Research and control Manufacturing Warehousing Internal engineering External engineering
1 . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Figure 3 shows area relationships .
Organizational chart .
TARI F 1
Ratina Summarv" S ite element
Labor supply and union history . . . Public utilities and water . . . . . . . . . Freight and transportation . . . . . . . . Tax conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Site characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . Population mix, growth, and projection Human transportation . . . . . . . . . . Protection : fire, police, legal . . . . . . Local politics and attitude . . . . . . . . Local industrial mix . . . . . . . . . . . . Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Local living facilities . . . . . . . . . . Local educational facilities . . . . . . . Local recreational facilities . . . . . . Freedom from natural disasters . . . . .
Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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.
20 12 10 6 7 6 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 4 _3 100
' Factors poor, 1 ; laic 2, good, 3 ; excellent, 4. To evaluate site, multiply point rating by factor . Site should rate 80 percent overall and rate at least "good" in those elements that are of special importance .
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
N
.Y
z
N
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
!V
O C O O Î-. d
N
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
N
Cm w C O.
N W
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
N
N W
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
a
N
N W
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
N
N d iâ.
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
Fig . 3
Fig . 4
Basic area relationships .
Office areas.
1 . Administration The following organizational relationships must be worked out before the planning of this area can be developed! a . Reception Room Number of seats Receptionist-special or part of the general office, extra duties (typing, etc .), equipment b . Executive Area Private Offices-number, occupant of each, size of each, furniture and equipment for each, closets c . Departments and/or Divisions Accounting, bookkeeping, production, etc . d . Private Offices in Each Department Number, occupant of each, size of each, furniture and equipment for each, closets e . General Work Areas in Each Department Personnel in each, equipment in each, storage requirements for each f . Special-Purpose Rooms/Areas Conference room library Projection room Mail and shipping Reproduction room Secretarial pools Telephone equipment rooms Hospital areas PBX room--type of board number of positions IBM room File room Private toilets and showers Stock and storage rooms Rest rooms g . General Information Interrelationship of person and department Clothing space Time clocks Water coolers
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL Special lighting requirements Plumbing requirements-special etc . Intercom requirements
sinks,
Our experience has shown that a study of Ih requests for space by department heads in pre posed administration areas has resulted i subjective judgments based on ego-orients requirements for space rather than objectiv judgments of function . The apace standard shown in Fig . 4 should be used in planning th administration facilities . In order to develop plans as accurately a possible, the following program must b initiated : t . Survey of existing personnel, furniture and equipment 2 . Determination of approximate squar footage of each department 3 . Space analysis interviews with depart ment supervisory personnel to determin existing space problems, their views on futur projections, and the functional adjacencie of the departments 4 . Review of factors which would have a~ effect on both immediate and future depart mental space requirements 5 . Area standards recommended 6 . Determination of square footage requires for all departments with an itemized breakdowi by type of space, i .e ., private office space general office space, and miscellaneous area, The projected requirements developed ar based on the assumption that present policeand procedures will continue to apply in the future . Obviously, the company will initiate new policies and procedures and introduce new methods of operation . However, the exten to which any such changes would affect th projected area requirements could only be con jeclured . Therefore, to minimize arbitrarl judgments which would tend to dilute the validity of a study, consideration should no be given to such possible eventualities. 2 . Employee Facilities Both the quantity and the quality of the produc depend not only on the sequence, precision and efficiency of the factories, tools, and me chines but on the proficiency, pride, and fit ness-both mental and physical-of the per sonnet . The development of factory desigr in recent years has become more end more concerned with creature comforts for the employees . The facilities should be near the work space that no time is lost getting back and forth but go they should be sufficiently insulated from the sights and sounds of the work area itsell so that a real change of scene is provided . 11 a pleasant outside view is available, it should obviously be used . (See Fig . 5 .) A clear distinction should be made between quiet lounging places and recreation and cafe teria areas . The problems are interesting, the solutions may be various, but the reigning criteria seem to be constant-cheerfulness, comfort, and durability . The areas in this category include the fol. lowing : Cafeteria and kitchen Coffee lounges Recreation areas (indoor and outdoor) Quiet lounges Factory men's and women's lockers and toilets Office men's and women's lockers and toilets Meeting rooms First Ail wnrl n-swn ~tatinn
TABLE 2
Minimum Toilet Fixture Requirements (New York State Labor Code)
No . of
Water
MEN
Closets
Urinals
Water Closets
No . of
WOMEN
1-9 10-15 16--40 41-55 56-80
1 1 2 2 3
0 1 1 2 2
1-15 16-35 36 55 56-80 81--110
1 2 3 4 5
81 100 101-150 151-160 161-190 191--220
4 4 5 5 6
2 3 3 4 4
111-150 151 190 191-240 241-270 271-300
221-270 271-280 281 -300 301 40 341 360
6 7 7 8 8
5 5 6 6 7
390 400 4 .50 460 480
9 10 10 11 11
7 1 8 8 9
481--520 521-540 541-570 571-580 581 630
12 12 13 14 14
631 640 641 -660 661 . 700 701 -720 721-750 751 761 811 8 ,21 841
361 391 401 451 461
760 810 820 840 880
881 900 901-930 931--940 941 990 991-1000
No MEN
Wash
or WOMEN Basins 1 21 41 61 81
40 40 60 80 100
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
101 125 126 150 151 175 176 200 201 225
6 7 8 Q 10
301-330 331-360 361 390 391 420 421 450
11 12 13 14 15
226 251 276 301 326
250 275 300 32S 350
11 12 13 14 15
451 481 511 541 511
480 510 540 570 600
16 17 18 19 20
351 376 401 426 451
375 400 425 450 475
16 11 18 19 20
9 10 10 10 11
601 630 631 660 661-690 691-720 721 750
21 22 23 24 25
476 501 52o 551 1176
500 525 550 575 600
21 22 23 94 25
15 15 16 16 17
11 12 12 13 13
751 781 811 641 871
180 810 840 870 900
26 '17 28 29 30
n01 625 69c, 650 o51'615 o7e, 100 if) 1 125
26 27 28 29 30
18 18 19 19 20
13 14 14 15 15
Q01 931 961 991
930 960 990 1020
31 32 33 34
796 750 751 775 776 800 801 825 826 850
31 39 33 34 35
20 21 22 22 23
16 16 16 17 17
851 876 901 926 951 916
36 37 38 39 40 41
875 900 995 950 975 1000
WASH FOUNTAINS REQUIRED Number of
Fixtures
Persons Accommodated By 54' CIRCULAR (8 each)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
54' SEMICIRCULAR (4 each)
1 175 176 375 376-575 576 775 776 975
1 81 176 276 376
976
476 575 576 675 616 115 176 875 876 975
1175
80 175 275 375 475
976-1075
36" CIRCULAR (5 each) 1 101 226 351 476
100 225 350 475 600
601 725 726 850 851 975 976 1100
36"
SEMI
CIRCUI AR (3 e(ich) 1 61 126 201 276
60 125 200 275 350
351 426 501 576 651
495 SOO 575 650 725
796 800 801 875 876 950 Q51 1025
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL
Fig . 5
Employee facilities flow .
Fig . 6
(a) Layout by product . (b) Layout by process.
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL 3. Manufacturing
Fig . 7
Location of internal engineering .
The trend toward automation has had a profound effect on plant design . Automation reduces employee density while increasing output . In terms of building area required, manufacturing space has diminished by some 50 percent in the last 10 years for the same process . Needless to say, productivity has increased by close to 400 percent . As discussed previously, a plant can be designed under two different concepts, depending on the product and the number of products . Product layout can be said to be linear while process layout is parallel . This can best be decided by a flow-activity study showing number of products and the quantities of each . (See Fig . 6 .) The importance of flexibility in internal construction cannot be stated strongly enough . Except in factories producing one product (e .g ., automobile assembly plants), the need is mandatory . When a manufacturer is producing several products and one succeeds far in advance of the others, his plant must be flexible enough to handle this emphasis . The other product lines must be held back until an expansion program is begun . The following is a list of criteria for production-line evaluation : I . Ease of flow of materials 2 . Degree of flexibility 3 . Ease of expansion 4. Ease of personnel movement 5. Ease of supervision 6. Least initial investment The outside consultant, working with the organizational team, can synthesize the above criteria to produce an effective plant layout . In any plant design, it is essential that the outside consultant have available the detail for the present and projected manufacturing machinery . From this, the experience, knowledge, and imagination of the designer will yield the dividends . As used in the design of the administration spares, templates or space standards per machine must be established, - arranged, and rearranged to produce the beat organization of equipment and spaces . 4. Research and Central Facilities
Fig . B
Boiler room clearances .
In the modern plant areas for research (product development) and control, laboratories are a must . As the size of the plant-and, in turn, laboratory facilities-increases, a strong case can be made for separating the two, which are basically similar installations . In the case of chemical, pharmaceutical, and dermatological plants, adjacent to each research laboratory should be a pilot plant installation which can produce, on a smaller scale, simulated manufacturing processes . In extremely large manufacturing plants, the research and product development facility should be in a separate building . Flexibility is mandatory in the layout of research and development facilities . Any research program can be maneuvered to concentrate on a particular channel once the manufacturing advantages of a particular area of research are promising . To effect this, all or most of the research personnel will be concentrated on this product development . An inflexible laboratory layout can preclude this possibility . It is becoming more and more prevalent in industrial research and product development installations for e large company to take research contracts from smaller companies in
Industrial INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, GENERAL This scheme has worked, especially in a preexpansion condition. The traditional warehouse location should also permit initial expansion of manufacturing into its area . Since warehousing is the least expensive capital construction, it is reasonable to build the warehouse after manufacturing has expanded . Rarely does the structural layout differ in manufacturing and warehousing. 6. Internal Engineering
Fig. 9
Location of external engineering .
the same industry . With the scarcity of professionally qualified research people, this may be the only way for a relatively small industrial firm to get the necessary research work done . Control laboratories, on the other hand, must be immediately adjacent to the manufacturing space and in many instances located in the manufacturing area . Recent federal regulations place an inspector in the manufacturing area, and he, therefore, is readily available to the control facilities . 5. Warehousing The warehouse is the first area to feel the growing pains and therefore must be designed to signal the anticipated expansion program. It must be compressible . As the raw materials and packaging materials supplier simplifies his materials handling problem, so he creates
a stocking problem for the manufacturer . Manufacturers, realizing the economies of carload or large-lot purchasing, are forced to make large capital investments in warehouse facilities in order to take advantage of these buying economies . There is, however, a point at which the law of diminishing returns steps in and no further economies can be expected . With the increase in automation control of a warehouse, the concept of a public warehouse becomes more realistic . Where the product permits, a completely flexible warehousing operation should be used . Not all the buying is done at the same time, and it is possible that, as raw-material needs increase, the seasonal storage of finished products may be on the decline . A flexible warehousing concept would permit intermingling of raw materials and finished products and create an efficient though seemingly unordered warehouse.
The single greatest error made in plant design is the placement of the internal engineering facilities . Invariably the inexperienced designer will centralize the heating and air-conditioning plant. But whet is today centralized may, tomorrow, be right smack in the middle of your expansion direction. The centralization concept grows from a desire to cut down the service runs of this equipment. It is a false economy. In an earlier diagram the use of a fixed facade, where no expansion takes place was pointed out. The internal engineering facility should be placed in a linear relationship to this fixed facade, and preferably at its extremity . What is extreme at first construction is centralized in your future expansion. In many industries the development of rooftop combination air-conditioning and heating units is the answer . However these units are not developed for highly sophisticated climate control and often prove too limiting . They should only be contemplated where comfort conditions (75 ° to 80 ° dry bulb, 40 to 50 percent relative humidity) are adequate . Where a boiler plant is required for process work, its dual use for heating should be carefully analyzed. A complete engineering feasibility study is required to determine what system or systems should be utilized . (See Figs . 7 and 8.) It is most important to build internal engineering spaces 100 percent larger than initially required . Adequate space for mechanical and electrical installation is a prime and vital consideration in industrial design . 7 . External Engineering By external engineering I mean all the outside utilities and storage facilities required for a plant to operate properly . Parking, truck docks, tank farms, sewerage disposal plants, electrical transformer pads, pumping stations, water storage facilities for sprinkler systems, and industrial waste disposal plants are a few of these requirements . (See Fig . 9.) Since these are by nature permanent and expensive installations, they should not be placed in the way of any possible expansion . As in the case of the internal engineering, this external engineering facility should be placed along the fixed facade.
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
By RICHARD MUTHER
Features most likely to be involved in a layout problem include : " Special or general-purpose building " Single or multistory construction " Shape of building " Basement or balcony " Windows " Floors " Roofs and ceilings " Walls and columns In addition to these, features of the site on which the building stands often affect the layout. Where this is so, the layout engineer must of course include them in his planning . These site features include : " Rail lines and siding " Highways and roadways " Canals or streams " Bridges " Yard areas for storing, parking, lawn, gardens " Outbuildings, such as storage tanks, water tower, well, pump house, incinerator, dump or burning area " Platforms, docks, ramps, pits, truck or rail wells SPECIAL OR GENERAL-PURPOSE BUILDING The layout engineer should decide right away whether he wants a building custom-made or "bought off the shelf." Special buildings generally cost more and are less negotiable . They also have a way of becoming out of date as the product and facilities grow or shrink or change with new conditions . Yet, for many industries special buildings are essential if the plant is to operate economically . Plants having relatively simple forming, treating, or assembly operations, as is the case with most consumers' goods industries, favor the general-purpose building. Here is the general type of building that can produce several different products with equal ease . Generally, this building is more permanent than its equipment or layout . The initial cost is less because of standard designs, standard building materials, and regular construction methods. These buildings can incorporate-just as well as the special plant-the "standard" good features that an industrial building should have, regardless of the type of production . In addition, general-purpose buildings can be converted readily to new products and equipment, to changing production requirements, or to new owners . This adaptability and resale potential gives the multipurpose building the edge . This means : use a special building only when necessary . But layout men can check this decision by reviewing the following list : Use general-purpose, or multipurpose, building when these following items are important: " Initial cost " Possibility of selling it later for profit, a better location, foreclosure
Practical Plan Layout, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1955 .
" Frequency of changes in products, materials, machinery and equipment, processes or methods " Speed of getting the layout into production SINGLE OR MULTISTORY CONSTRUCTION Early factories were generally three or four stories high . Because of limited transportation facilities they had to be built in cities, where land costs were relatively high . Also, their builders who used brick had to make walls thick enough to stand up . Therefore, they reasoned, "Why not use this structure to support upper floors?" With the coming of inexpensive and widespread transportation for employees and of steel reinforcing or supports for buildings, companies began to build out of town . Land values were lower and the plant could spread out. Today's trend toward large one-story buildings is thus a product of changing conditions . This does not mean that every new plant should be one story high, as some industrialists advocate . Plants built around a higherthan-one-story process should certainly have upper floors . Manufacturers who decide the advertising value of a downtown plant is important will have to use several stories to utilize their land economically . And we cannot underrate gravity, even though power costs may be low. Again, when products are small and relatively valuable, as in diamond cutting or watchmaking, there is considerable saving by concentrating rather than spreading out. Use single-story construction, possibly including balconies and/or a basement, when the following conditions exist: " Product is large, heavy, or relatively inexpensive per pound " Weight of equipment causes heavy floor loads " Large, more or less unobstructed space is needed " Land value is low " Land is available for expansion
" Product is not adapted to gravity " Erection time is limited " Frequent changes in layout are anticipated Perhaps the most universally economical plant today is the so-called one-and-a-half-story plant (see Fig. I) . This is basically one story but may include balconies or basement . SHAPE OF BUILDING Early buildings were narrow because they needed natural light. They expanded by extending their ends and by adding cross buildings in a rectangular fashion. Today artificial lighting is relatively less expensive. The number and frequency of production changes are greater . Therefore, emphasis today is on plants that are relatively square and not "honeycombed'' or obstructed by walls . Such plants are built in rectangular sections, and expansion is by building additional sections onto the sides or end (see Fig. 2) . Where land is limited, as in river valleysor where property lines run at curious anglesthe building must suit the limitations of the land itself . Dirty, odorous, noisy or vibrationproducing operations should be segregated in separate buildings . Hazardous operations with fire or explosion possibilities also fall in this class. And service buildings used for administration, sales, personnel offices, and power plant---buildings that do not directly participate in the flow of production--can also be set apart. Use the following lists to guide your decision in the matter of building shape . Use a relatively square building when there are: " Frequent changes in product design " Frequent improvements in process " Frequent rearrangement of layout " Restrictions on building materials or savings desired in amount of materials used (see Fig. 3) Use other shapes or separate buildings when there are: " Physical limitations of the land " Property lines at curious angles
Fig. f Features of the one-and-o-half story building : (a) Rail siding with car floor at level of plant floor . (b) Truck tailgate level with plant floor. (c) Shallow ramp down to basement; low ramp up to floor level . (d) Windows for basement lighting . (a) Balcony or mezzanine for supporting activities and/or production . (f) Two-story office building with entrance at ground level .
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS " Buildings that house operations that cause dirt, odors, noise, vibration " Buildings that house operations not part of production " Buildings that house operations susceptible to fire or explosion
BASEMENT OR BALCONY Fig. 2
Planned expansion of early and modern plant buildings .
Fig. 4
Basic use and arrangement of basement and balcony.
A plant can hardly avoid having a basement when it is built on land that slopes . And this has very practical advantages . Some plants are built on the side of a hill for the express purpose of having motor-vehicle entries to each floor. This offers the advantage of entry to two or more levels with a minimum of ramp construction, and it allows receiving at one level and shipping at another with flow through the plant in a U-shaped path in the vertical plane. If you decide to have a basement, or if your new building has a basement, check to be sure it has these desired basement features : " Ample headroom " Good ventilation " Sound foundations " Ample lighting " Waterproofed walls " Floors free of groundwater seepage or flooding Partial basements may be of real value when a basement for production purposes is not needed . Heating plant, compressors, pumps, and other auxiliary equipment are well suited to location off the production floor. This also applies to other services such as washrooms and locker rooms, toilets, transportation aisles for material handling or personnel, storage for slow-moving parts, overruns, inactive tools, dies, fixtures, patterns, and the like . Certain processes may need a basement, as in large stamping-press work where special foundations are desirable and scrap collection is a big factor . It may be easier to excavate and build up machine foundations than to break out pits or install each foundation from floor level. Especially tall equipment may be placed in a basement so that its working level will be on the main floor. In fact, there are some plants whose main operating floor is little more than sheet-metal plates for machine tenders to stand on ; all the machinery rests on a basement floor. On the other hand, where ample headroom over equipment is required, the layout should not be confined in a basement . Extremes of this are in large equipment manufacturing or ship construction . Here cranes and large materials prohibit basement use. Yet these industries often make use of balconies for their smaller, lighter work (see Fig . 4) Typical cases where balconies are used include : " Subassembly operations with final assembly of large units on ground level " Assembly operations with heavier forming machinery below " Light-machine operations with heavier machines below " Treating operations with forming operations and assembly of bulky units on ground level " Supporting activities of all kinds to men, materials, or machinery-storage, washrooms or locker rooms, production offices, and the like---that can be kept off the production floor " Operating or servicing upper parts of tall, high machinery " Material storage and preparation area, including bulk material blending or packingbox making and distribution
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS WINDOWS Old factories had to have small windows because of the cost of construction . The introduction of large, steel-sash windows brought their cost down . Today windows are often cheaper than walls. On the other hand, windows make buildings more subject to changes in outside temperature. Plants having products or processes especially subject to changes in temperature, light or humidity find it better to have no windows at all. Chocolate factories, for instance, have to watch temperatures . Many of these plants control this condition by ventilating and air conditioning . Their light is artificial . Other plants reject windows because of the dust they let in, even with slightly pressurized air inside . The layout man who must contend with windows recognizes that they may both help and hinder his arrangement (see Fig. 5) . The following is a list of points to check where windows may affect the layout: " Brightness or glare " Angle of light-morning and evening, winter and summer " Heat effects to personnel and/or materials from sun on windows " Resistance to wind, shock, fire, acids, rust " Drafts on personnel when opened " Access for washing or repair
FLOORS The levels and strengths of floors are the most important floor influence on layout . Adjoining buildings, and even those far removed that may someday be connected to the main plant, should have floors at the same level. Handling systems can then be tied in without ramps or elevators . As for floor strength, it should be checked with the architect. Early factories had dirt or wood floors . Today, various combinations of steel and concrete give the least expensive floor. It wears well ; it is strong and easy to clean. But workers who stand or walk a great deal object to the hardness of concrete floors . Also, certain materials dropped on concrete are likely to be damaged. Concrete is difficult to cut into to rearrange wiring or piping in the floor. Workers' foot fatigue is overcome by providing wooden or rubber mats. The objections of damage to dropped parts and difficulty of rearrangement can be met by covering the concrete with wood block, wood flooring, or composition block or coating. The following list gives floor characteristics desired, though no floor will have them all: " Various buildings at the same level " Strong enough to carry machines and equipment " Made from inexpensive materials " Inexpensive to install " Immediately ready for use " Resistant to shock, abrasion, conducting heat, vibration " Not slippery under any condition " Noiseless and sound absorbing " Attractive to the eye " Numerous colors available " Unaffected by changes in temperature and humidity, or by oils, acids, alkalies, salts, solvents, or water " Odorless and sanitary " Resilient enough to seem soft underfoot and to minimize damage to articles dropped on it
Fig . 5 Good natural lighting relates to both window and roof design . Windows in a monitor roof (a) give good uniformity and intensity . The use of roof lighting obviates the need for wall windows and is useful in large building areas and where there will be future expansion. The windows in a sawtooth roof give reasonably uniform light, especially when arched . But they cast shadows (h). At the left the worker stands in his own shadow ; at the right his machine blocks the light . Nevertheless, where direct sunlight should be kept out, northerly directed windows of this type are not out of order. (From George Nelson : "Industrial Architecture of Albert Kahn . Inc ," Architectural Book Publishing Co .)
TABLE 1
Generally Recommended Ceiling Heights
Type of production
Without overhead installations'
Small-product assembly on benches ; offices . . . . . . . . . . 9-14 it Maximum height of Large-product assembly on product + 75% floor or floor fixtures Small-product forming. . . . . . . . Height of machinery +- 100% Large-product forming . . . . . . . Height of machinery 4 125%
With overhead installatiunst 10-18 ft Maximum height of product + 125% Height of machinery +- 150% Height of machinery + 125%
'Other than lighting and sprinkler . tAir ducts, unit heaters, conveyors, etc.
" Easy to fasten machines and equipment to " Will dissipate static electricity and is nonsparking when struck " Easily kept clean " Large sections easily and quickly removed and replaced ROOFS AND CEILINGS Roofs and ceilings affect layouts chiefly by their height above the floor. Table 1 has some generally recommended heights for use as a rule of thumb. Roofs and ceilings are also affected in many cases by the type of construction . Figure 6 shows the several types of roof construction most commonly used . The usefulness of overhead space may be limited by what can be attached to the roof or ceiling. Very few plants hang their machinery from the roof or ceiling . But a great many suspend material-handling equipment, service pipes or wiring, and other equipment. Such considerations as natural light, heat conduction, and dust accumulation also relate to the type and condition of the roof .
WALLS AND COLUMNS Unlike early plants which depended on thick stonework or masonry to hold up their walls and roofs, modern buildings place their load on beams and supportmg structures, generally of steel or reinforced concrete . This way, the column carries the load and no wall is needed, except to keep out the elements . This is a great help to production for it means large, unobstructed working areas. Inner walls today are only partitions . When certain operations must be segregated, partitions that are generally built up in standard sections can easily be installed or removed. They can be made as high as necessary to shield or protect the area or can be suspended from the ceiling. This latter type of baffle keeps the floor area free but holds fumes, noise, heat, and the like from circulating throughout the building . One feature easy to overlook is the size of openings in walls. Doors that are too low or too narrow, for example, will limit the size of material-handling equipment. Even without interior walls, there is still the obstruction of columns used for roof sup-
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
Fig. 6 Typical types of roof structures . Is) Truss. lb) Sawtooth . (c) Monitor. (d) Bowstring truss . Is) Concrete arch. If) Three-bay, or high-low, gable. (g) High crane type . (h) Cantilever . Fig. 7 Column spacing. (a) Large operations line up in wide bays ; small operations in wide or narrow bays . (b) Combination of two different column spacings-to take advantage of flow lineup with wide bays .
port to plague the layout man. These columns interfere with spotting of machinery, aisles, storage areas, and overhead handling equipment . Columns cause two basic problems : 1 . The way they line up tends to confine the basic flow patterns . 2 . Their individual location limits the location of all facilities, especially large equipment. The layout man will undoubtedly want to line up major aisles, stock shelves, and service lines with the columns. Large operations will lie lengthwise down through the bays with the wider spacing. Smaller materials and equipment will generally run in the narrowed spacing (see Fig. 7) . As for columns that act as obstructions to the spotting of individual machinery and equipment, the layout man must plan a column arrangement that will tie in with his layout . Yet a lot of unnecessary money can be put into a building that calls for too-wide column spacing. Some layout men admit they always consult their architect and then call for about 15 percent greater spacing than he feels is economically justified . Another layout problem is to take whatever column spacing and arrange-
merit is planned or already exists in the building and use it to best advantage. By experimenting with various alternative plans, it is often possible to juggle a neat arrangement of machinery, equipment, and supporting activities into the column layout . Then the layout man can often use the columns to advantage as follows: " To support overhead handling equipment " To brace up storage racks " To fasten or fence in treating equipment " To support balconies, catwalks, auxiliary service lines, instrument panelboards, and machinery itself Since columns mean lost floor space, place against them and in between them other nonproductive equipment that takes floor space (drinking fountains, drains, firefighting equipment, time clocks, and the like). SITE FEATURES Features of the site are important in any layout that involves expansion of buildings or a layout of more than one building . Rail lines and sid-
ings, roadways, canals, and outbuildings may have to be provided, or, if they exist, may limit the layout or may have to be moved or altered . For railroad car and highway truck dimensions that may affect building features, see the data in Tables 2 to 4 . The location of an underground storage tank will limit construction or heavy outside storage in that area ; dust and smoke from a foundry building should blow away from the main administration building ; rail siding curves can occupy an unusually large area . These and many features of the site may be involved in any layout other than those strictly within one building (see Fig. 8) . RAILROAD CLEARANCES AND FREIGHT CAR DIMENSIONS Normal Clearances Nominal clearances are required as a matter of safety between locomotives and cars, and structures near tracks . These are averages for straight track-some companies and states require more as noted. The clearances are based on standard 4-it 8'{in . track gauge. (See Figs . 9 and 10 .)
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
Fig. 8 External features such as highway, stream, roads, and property lines all influenced the arrangement of this site . This is the arrangement of the maintenance and repair facilities of an airline . (United Airlines .) In planning the arrangement of buildings, they should be laid out in relation to the overall site iust as the individual machine and equipment layout relate to the building . A long-range plan of development for the entire site should be obtained so that buildings can be properly integrated with each other.
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS TABLE 2
Freight Car Dimensions
Type of car Flat . . . . . Gondola . . Hopper . . . Box . . . . Automobile
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Length over strikers, avg.
B
C
0
E
Inside length Min. Max.
Overall width, avg.
Inside_width Min Max.
Overall height, avg.
53'-0" 43'-0" 35'-10" 41' .9" 52'-3"
60'-0" 36'-0" 33'-6" 65' .0" 34'-10" avg. 40'-0" 50'-0" 50'-6" avg.
10'-3" 10'-4" 10' . 5" 10'-8" 10'-8"
8'_6" 10'-6" 7'-6" 9'-6" 10'-3" avg. 8'-5" 9'-4" 9'-2" avg.
8' .6" 10'-8" 14'-1" 15'-1"
TABLE 3
_
F
G
_ Inside_height Mm . Max.
Floor height, avg.
. . . 4'-8" avg.
3'-11" 3'-11"
7'-9" 10'-6" 10'-4" avg .
3'-B" 3'-7"
Level full capacity, avg. cu ft
Tare weight, avg. Ib
. . 1,775 2,328 3,468 4,798
48,700 42,800 30,000 48 .200 53,300
Average Truck-Bed Heights" Type vehicle
_
I- to 1'/-ton panel trucks . . 1'/- to 3-ton medium panel or stake body trucks . Large trucks and average truck-trailer units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Largest and heaviest tandemwheel, dual axle, semitrailers and full trailers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Height of truck bed, in .
40-44 40-46 48-52 50-56
TABLE 4
Highway Truck Dimensions
Type vehicle Medium trucks . .
. .
Height . .9y ft
Large trucks and trailers . . . . . . .
13 ft max .
Length
Width
34 1t
7 to 7y ft
45 ft
7y ft to 8 ft
' From Modern Materials Handling . Fig. 9 Clearances are for straight trace (A) and (B). Some railroads require an 8-ft minimum IC). In some states, this clearance must be increased 10) . One western railroad requires a 24-h vertical clearance above top of ties.
Fig. 10
Typical railroad car data .
Clearances
for Curves Allowances must be made on curves, due to the increase in effective width of equipment . The increase inside curves depends on the distance between truck centers and the increase outside curves depends on length beyond trucks . Tilt of equipment toward inside of curve due to banking of rails must be included as well as any stewing action caused by tire wear and other lateral
play . As a rule, the front of a locomotive will govern effective width for a foot above top of the rail and the rear of the cab for the remainder of the height. For preliminary calculations of clearance outside curves, it will usually be ample to allow 1 in . per degree of curve plus 2 in . for all curves . For inside clearance, a general allowance of 1'/ in . i n addition to the middle ordinate distance for a 45-ft
chord will be sufficient . In cases involving new construction, a sketch of clearances should be submitted to the railroad for approval . Tracks Entering Building Some railroads permit special clearances when tracks enter coal lipples and buildings . Railroad company engineers can be contacted for requirements .
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES
Classes of Research Facilities The Public Health Service divides research facilities into four classes: Class A Labora . tories are designed with maximum capability for conversion from one program use to another. These are primarily intended for research in the basic scientific disciplines of biology, chemistry, and some aspects of the physical sciences . The design criteria are intended to protect the integrity of individual research programs from interference by other research within the same structure and to reduce the possibility of infection or toxic hazards to personnel in present or future research projects . Class B Laboratories are designed with limited capabilities for conversion . This laboratory class is suited for a narrow range of activities in such disciplines as the social sciences, psychiatry, public health work, or epidemiology and could not be used for research involving the basic disciplines of chemistry and biology without major alterations in the heating, air conditioning, ventilotion, plumbing, and electric power systems. The original design provides for individual room temperature control . Class C Facilities are designed for research support, including such structures as stock barns, animal pens and runways, storage sheds, and utility structures . This class is considered functional without utility services and does not require noncombustible construction . Class D Facilities are designed for special research functions that require a specialized environment. Their structuref provisions render them inherently unsuited for conversion . The design criteria must be determined for each project . This category includes biotron or betatron buildings, hyperbaric chambers, germ free animal production facilities, biohazard control facilities, and other research buildings with specialized functions . Planning A health research laboratory building must have the capability to satisfy research operational needs, allowing for variation both in research projects and in occupancy, for at least 10 years. Planners and designers must recognize that the structure will have to meet a variety of functional needs, rather than the specific requirements of a single group of occupants. The most effective administrative device for planning a health research facility that will meet both current and future requirements is a written description of the total functional needs of the program(s) expected to operate in the building . Generally called the Program of Requirements (POR), this written description lists the functions and operations that will be housed in the structure, the design criteria Health Research Laboratory Design, National Institute of Health, U .S . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D .C ., 1968
for those functions, and their space needs. It also provides information on the projected staffing and the equipment which will be needed in the building . This written Program of Requirements is most valuable if it is prepared before any drawings and preferably should precede the preparation of space function relationship diagrams . Space Blacks Where the first full occupancy staff is available to advise on the functional requirements of the structure, planning and design can be directed to smaller units of space such as individual laboratory modules, suites, or departmental laboratories . Where only a small staff is available for planning the total long-range scientific research program and its space needs, the administrator must approach planning and design with a different philosophy . In this situation, it may be best to consider the research programs in terms of functional space blocks ranging from 3,000 to 6,000 ft each . The size of the space planning blocks can be determined by using the POR to assess the anticipated programs and staffs that will occupy the building in the first phases of its occupancy . Generally, a space block is selected that will accommodate a group of two or three of the smaller programs, satisfy the moderately-sized programs and that, in multiples, will meet the needs of the proposed major operational units. For example, if the POR indicates that 4,000 sq ft roughly equals the special needs of each of several functions, that there are a number of smaller functions requiring 1 ,000 and 2,000 sq ft each, and some larger functions with space requirements of 6,000, 8,000, 10,000, 12,000, and 16,000 sq ft, it is a reasonable approach to adapt a 4,000-sq-ft space block as a planning unit . The utility systems, the circulation systems, and supporting elements are planned to make each one of the 4,000-sqft space blocks self-sufficient . It is then possible to assign one medium-sized program element to a space block, assign multiple smaller units to a single space block, and use several space blocks for one major component . Space planning strategy is associated with the development of space function bubble diagrams . These diagrams can be used to relate the individual space blocks functionally end to pool several space blocks to handle one major program. Building Shapes Planners and designers sometimes try to meet laboratory functional needs with esoteric shapes and dimensions . Although circles, hexagons, and 'tall slim towers may have esthetic appeal, none of them are as efficient as, or have the capability of, rectangular designs. Rectilinear laboratory equipment and office furniture and the anticipated continual interplay between rooms call for utilitarian solutions . Buildings with simple rectangular configurations, commensurate with standard laboratory equipment and furniture, and with unrestricted accessibility to mechanical utility systems, are the easiest to adapt to the changing needs of research .
Flexibility and Capability The term flexibility is frequently used in discussing the design characteristics of research laboratory buildings . However, flexibility should be interpreted with caution because most research laboratory structures should be designed with the concept of capability in mind . The structure's capability to meet varying ventilation needs for different research functions, its ability for temperature control of varying heat loads, its capability to meet the needs for fume hood, air supply, and exhaust in different concentrations with time in various areas in the building are all critical . The ability to supply electric power in high concentrations to any localized area without the need to reposition electric distribution lines within the building is s measure of the facility's capability to meet the needs of the research program that will eventually occupy the building . Flexibility is emphasized by considering the possible location and utilization of chemical fume hoods . Saying that the building can provide for 50 chemical fume hoods is meaningless unless it is specified whether only up to a maximum of 10 can be utilized on any one floor, or whether the design capability is such that all 50 can be installed and used on one floor. A more detailed examination of the building's capability might reveal that no more then two hoods could be installed in any one laboratory module due to the limitations on supplying and exhausting air in that particular room . This approach contrasts with the method of determining the location of hoods according to requests by the initial occupants of the building. Providing supply and exhaust hoods in specific areas or rooms according to desires of the first occupant limits the capability of the building for future occupants. THE LABORATORY BUILDING' To a large extent the design of a laboratory building will be dictated by the heating, iontilating, and air-conditioning systems, and the utility distribution layout . If these factors are carefully planned first, the laboratory building design will be an efficient one, and it will still be possible to plan for structural flexibility and growth needs as well as for engineering capability . The module plan is the most useful for the design of health research facilities . This section will briefly discuss how various groups have met some of the challenges of research laboratory design, using the module as the basis for a grid pattern . Experience with industrial and academic laboratories can prove instructive for those working with health-related facilities . Planning for Flexibility and Growth Architects have been trying to develop comprehensive systems which will relate the needs 'This section is based on an article by Jonathan Barnett in Architectural Record, November 1965, volume 138.
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES of various departments and disciplines and provide ways of sharing certain facilities, such as lecture halls and teaching laboratories . In addition, such a system can provide an architectural recognition of the increasingly interdisciplinary nature of much scientific research : for example, by placing bio-physics between biology and physics, with the capability of expanding in either direction . The system developed by Sir Leslie Martin (Fig . 1) consists of a regular grid derived from considerations of space, lighting, and an integrated system of structures and services . The grid forms 35-ft squares separated by 5-ft strips . Ducts and services can be introduced at any point within these strips . The system is also divided vertically, with large areas such as lecture halls, workshops, and special laboratories for heavy equipment at the lowest level, teaching laboratories above, and research areas on top . As shown in the drawings, the grid can be applied to a site, giving a rough indication of present areas and future expansion possibilities . Architectural development can go on in stages, in relation to the grid, forming segments of a larger system rather than single buildings . Industrial Laboratories Industrial research facilities do not yet require such a comprehensive solution . Industrial laboratory space is likely to be more uniform than a university or government facility . The range of research is relatively narrow, and, as there is no strong tenure system, industry is less likely to design a laboratory around the requirements of a particular scientist . At present, therefore, industry tends to think of new laboratory space in terms of adding blocks of a set size and type . The long-range outlook, however, is probably toward the more flexible approach already employed by the universities . University Laboratories The Chicago office of the architectural firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill has been working on the development of comprehensive laboratory grids for universities (Fig . 2) . Such grids lend themselves to growth of almost any shape and in almost any direction .
Planning the Laboratory Complex There are four basic areas in any laboratory complex : the area for research itself ; the administrative offices ; general support facilities, such as an auditorium or a cafeteria ; and service facilities, such as shops and the boiler plant. The addition of teaching requirements does not change this pattern significantly . Elementary science courses are taught in special teaching laboratories and demonstration lecture halls ; but more advanced students are quickly integrated into the research organization .
The chief difficulty with the nonresearch elements is to prevent them from interfering with the design of the research areas . A badly located auditorium or boiler plant can strangle expansion and interfere with efficient operation . The most comprehensive method of avoid . ing such difficulties is the overall planning grid . A master plan must make provision for independent growth of all four of the basic elements of the laboratory complex, either through a campus type of development or through sufficient articulation and separation of each area . Research Areas The research portion of the laboratory is itself divided into several basic elements . Most research areas require desk space as well as bench space ; and many experiments require some sort of controlled environment, with closely regulated temperature and humidity, or the elimination of outside contamination . Controlled environment installations and other ancillary facilities frequently cannot be accommodated within the ordinary research areas . In addition, scientists frequently wish to have conference rooms directly associated with research, and there are usually some fairly extensive storage requirements . Construction Factors Economy of construction can conflict with efficient operation . Bench areas and special installations require elaborate piping services and air conditioning ; desk space, conference rooms, and storage areas do not . Bench space and special installations are usually fairly large areas ; desk space, conference rooms, and storage form smaller units . In terms of economy, it makes sense to group like functions and like areas, and to separate desk space and conference rooms from research . Unfortunately, most scientists prefer desk space to be near their research, and special installations need to be associated with research as well . The design of teaching laboratories provides an analogous situation, with less need for desk space but a requirement for preparation rooms . Resolving these contradictory requirements, while still providing for flexibility and growth, is perhaps the most difficult problem in designing a laboratory . The possible solutions range from placing all desk space in a separate building to incorporating all offices within the laboratories . The degree of separation possible, and the ratio of one type of space to the other, varies from discipline to discipline . Figure 3 shows some of the possibilities, within a flexible space system which can be used for either purpose . The comparative study of eight different teaching laboratory layouts (Fig . 4) assumes that all office space is located in a separate wing . Each method of organization is evaluated in terms of economy of construction and mechanical equipment, circulation, and flexibility .
Fig . 1 Studies by Sir Leslie Martin of a comprehensive planning grid for university laboratories and of the type of development that can be based upon it .
A comparison of four basic types of industrial laboratories is shown in Fig . 5. The first one places the desk space within the laboratory itself . The second places the offices on one side of the corridor and the laboratories on the other . The third plan provides core laboratories and perimeter offices ; the fourth provides a peripheral corridor and interior laboratories, with the desk space again incorporated in the research area . These four plans are representstive of standard practice : most laboratories will be found to conform to one or another of these basic classifications . There are, however, other possibilities . Eero Saarinen's design for the IBM Research Headquarters in Yorktown Heights places both laboratories and offices within a peripheral corridor system . If one accepts the concept that all working accommodation should be interior space, this is a highly efficient and consistent method of organization . Some laboratories are organized as towers, rather than horizontally . Ulrich Franzen's laboratory tower at Cornell (Fig . 6) also provides interior accommodation, with laboratories that can be entered either directly from the corridor, or through the offices . Vincent G . Kling's science building at Barnard College is a tower, as are, of course, Louis I . Kahn's Richards Medical Laboratories at the University of Pennsylvania . Kahn's first towers provide completely undifferientiated space, which can be used as laboratories, offices, or corridors . The later towers have desk space around the periphery on some of the floors . The plans of both of these buildings are also illustrated in Fig . 6 .
UTILITY DISTRIBUTION General Utility services within a research laboratory building require a great deal more emphasis than is customary in the design of the average building . Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems and the multiple pipes of the various laboratory services such as -star, gas, vacuum, and oxygen create a demand for cubic space as well as floor space . In more recent designs, utility systems have taken a higher percentage of the gross area, with consequent reduction in net space . This special aspect of the research laboratory building sometimes comes as a surprise to architects and engineers whose experience has been mainly with commercial buildings, which need much less utility service capability. Associated with this need for additional space for utility services is the need to provide functional space for the unseen occupants of the building : maintenance and operating engineers, and the craftsmen who provide for the continual changes and adjustments in utility systems which mark an active research program .
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES Selection of Systems Selection of the utility distribution systems strongly influences the configuration, design, and cost of a research laboratory building . The type of utility system used should be selected as early as possible in the planning process, always before the room arrangement is fixed . Room arrangement and equipment location should follow the utility distribution pattern once this has been standardized . Arranging rooms and equipment according to the preferences of the first occupants usually results in costly, complicated utility distribution systems . Planning a nonstandard room arrangement makes it difficult to visualize--without elaborate mockups-the configuration of space and equipment in the completed building . Then too, successive occupants are not always happy with the room arrangements selected by the first occupants . The rearrangement of plumbing and duct systems to meet preferences of successive occupants is usually costly unless these systems are installed on the standard repetitive pattern . Then a minimum of time and materials is required to rearrange the ventilation, lighting, and the plumbing and draining systems . Standard Configuration Utility services should be laid out with an identical configuration for every floor . This layout should be designed to meet the capability needs of the programs that will occupy the building over its life and with appropriate consideration of costs . Where it is not practical to provide an identical layout in each floor, a standard utility layout should be established for the floor which requires maximum utility services and this standard used for all the other floors, with deletions made where it is anticipated the services will not be needed for
Fig . 2 (a) Laboratory planning grid by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill . A system of square bays which accepts either a diagonal or a rectilinear planning grid . Column clusters mark out circulation areas or service shahs . (b) A building unit in this system which employs a diagonal grid, and some laboratory arrangements that would be possible .
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES a considerable time . The arrangement of utilities should be such that installation of missing portions of the plumbing and duct systems can be made with a minimum of labor and materials . It may be difficult for the architect and the initial user to accept an arrangement of space based on a standard utility and mechanical system distribution system rather than on the preferences of the first occupants of the space . This is somewhat similar to installing water mains, gas lines, electric power lines along the streets of the city, and then building the houses on lots in such a way that they can be connected to the public utility systems . It would be uneconomical and exceedingly difficult to maintain adequate service in the future if the building utility supply mains were installed in the streets according to the needs of each individual house . Types of Systems Utility services are usually provided within a research laboratory building by either a horizontal or vertical distribution system or a combination of the two . Five systems are generally used to distribute laboratory utility services : " The utility corridor system " The multiple interior shaft system " The multiple exterior shaft system ' The corridor ceiling with isolated vertical shafts - The utility floor system Utility Corridor System In the utility corridor design all service mains and ducts are brought to the various floor levels by means of a vertical central core which distributes the utilities by vertical mains, usually from a basement, sometimes from a roof mechanical room . The horizontal distribution of utilities from the central core may be at the ceiling and downward to individual casework or it can be directly along the floor through the wall in the pipe space behind the base cabinets . This design provides access for maintenance and service personnel to the utility piping and duct work throughout the life of the structure . It has a high degree of flexibility for meeting the needs of changes in research program and has a high capability to meet a wide range of criteria with regard to environmental control and ventilation, temperature controls, lighting, electric power, etc . Its efficiency in terms of the net assignable area and the gross area is not high . It usually runs somewhere between 50 and 60 percent . The utility corridor design is most applicable to multistory buildings-with a square rather than rectangular shape-and it should be used with reservation for laboratories with only one or two floors. This system results in functionally efficient laboratory buildings . It is extremely useful where future expansion, either horizontal or vertical, is planned and is particularly adaptable to those arrangements where offices with window exposure are separated from the interior laboratory units . In its simplest form the system provides for a single large room on each side of the utility corridor . The first refinement of this basic plan is the horse stall arrangement, which provides for partitions separating the various work areas but provides for no doorways or divisions from the circulation area around the perimeter. The refinement continues with the installation of walls and doors to separate the circulation perimeter from the laboratories. 1 . Advantages Excellent flexibility
Fig . 3 A comparative study by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill of different ratios of office and laboratory space possible within a single, flexible system .
Moderately high initial cost Low modification cost Low replacement cost Low cleaning (maintenance) cost Permits full utilization of walls Modifications do not interfere with conduct of work in adjacent modules 2 . Disadvantages Fair net to gross area efficiency which improves when units are located in parallel, thus saving one corridor All rooms are "inside rooms" Multiple Interior Shaft System This sytem provides for concealed utilities with duct work
and plumbing services in a series of regularly spaced shafts located either on both sides or on one side of a circulation corridor . All service mains and ducts are brought vertically to the various floor levels either upward or downward from the mechanical room . The shafts are located in each (or alternate) laboratory module or room on both sides of the central corridor . Distribution of utility services from the vertical shafts into the laboratory working areas is generally in the pipe space behind the laboratory benchwork . With the exception of the plumbing drains, in some designs the utility services are extended from the utility shaft below the ceiling in the laboratory and then
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES
Feasibility : Structural : Compact plan may reduce cost . Mechanical : Although cores are separated, short mechanical runs reduce cost . Circulation : Double loaded corridors most economical . Flexibility : Changes may he made easily .
Feasibility : Structural : Economical arrangement. Mechanical : Very compact and economical. Circulation : Excessive corridors. Flexibility : Fair .
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES More expensive and not as flexible as exposed systems Available space usually does not permit individual supply and exhaust of fume hoods The Corridor Ceiling Distribution In this system, utilities are located in the corridor ceiling and in some cases above the ceilings of the rooms on each side of the corridor and are supplied by one or two vertical pipe shafts . Distribution from the ceiling mains to the laboratory areas may be downward to the floor and upward through the floor above in order to supply two floors from one ceiling distribution arrangement . Generally, it is preferable to provide the distribution downward within each room to avoid perforation of the floor slab and consequent leaks and flooding due to accidents in later years. This system is commonly used in research buildings with only one or two stories or where a single research floor is inserted in a multistory building primarily designed for other than research purposes . Designs employing exposed utilities are ideal for two-story or one-story-and-basement buildings where economy of construction is a major consideration . 1 . Advantages Excellent flexibility Low first cost Low modification cost Low replacement cost High net to gross area efficiency Modifications do not interfere with conduct of work in adjacent modules 2 . Disadvantages Requires increased ceiling height for same clearance Limits installation of wall cabinets increased cleaning (maintenance) costs Requires independent type of air duct installation and drainage system Unsightly The Utility Floor Distribution System This system probably provides the maximum of flexibility and capability in research laboratory structures . Utilities, consisting of the duct work and the plumbing systems, are in separate floors . From the supply, the service mains and truck ventilation ducts are brought to each individual utility floor by means of a centrally located vertical shaft or tower . Then distribution is made laterally on each utility floor with final distribution made by penetrating the floor below or above to service the research laborstory areas . Although this system has almost unlimited flexibility, its cost is high and it has an extremely low net gross area of efficiency . This system is primarily suitable only to multistory buildings and is not a good selection for one or two stories . 1 . Advantages Excellent flexibility to any portion of room Low modification cost Low replacement cost Modifications do not interfere with conduct of work in adjacent modules May be used with up-feed at every floor or may be combined with down-feed and located at every third floor 2 . Disadvantages Very high first cost Low net to gross area efficiency Plumbing Systems A plumbing system for the health research laboratory should be suited to the type of utility distribution system selected .
Fig . 5 Four plans by Walter Kidde Constructors, Inc . showing different basic methods of organizing an industrial laboratory .
Scope This discussion is limited to the piping systems within the laboratory building . Criteria for outside utility piping, water and sewage plants, and pumping stations are not included . Flexibility and Capability Here again design incorporating long-term flexibility and capability is important . Focusing on the needs of individual laboratories or investigators leads to emphasis on the service piping or small services of various sinks and case work . Future revisions to such a system usually involve removal of the custom-provided service lines and either a relocation or resizing of the trunk mains in the building-a very expensive procedure . The desirable approach is to determine plumbing service requirements either by floor or by large zones and to provide a trunk or a main distribution system that will reach all portions of the building . This should be supplemented by branch lines available to all rooms and spaces within the structure . Rooms and laboratory equipment can than be connected by small-size service piping to the nearest available branch drain bent or pressure service pipe . As an example, plumbing stacks can be located to provide drainage capability within
10 ft of every square foot of the building, or plumbing vents and drains can be designed to provide drainage service within 20 ft of every square foot of the building . Standardized laboratory services such as oxygen, vacuum, compressed air, hot and cold water, and gas should be designed so that the lines can be laid in parallel with a minimum of joints and elbows but appropriately equipped with valves to permit rearrangement of individual spaces without shutting off large areas of the building . Cede Requirements It is assumed that local governing codes will be followed . The following national codes may also be used for guidance : The American Insurance Association (formerly NBFU), The National Fire Protection Association, The American National Standards Association, The American Gas Association, The National Plumbing Code, and the American Water Works Association . Functional Design Considerations General The long-term capability and flexibility of the plumbing system requires special attention to the aspects discussed below. These considerations require that the piping follow a modular layout and, to a certain extent,
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES work and supported from the partition wall . Mains and risers located near nonlaboratory space should be provided with capped or plugged tees for ease of future connection . Pipe Sizes in Mains and Risers The selected pipe sizes should include a factor for increased future use of the various gravity and pumped systems . For sanitary waste pipe, an anticipated increase of approximately 5 to 10 percent flow may be met by initially selecting the next larger size of pipe. Pumped services may meet future increased demand flows by an increase in pump head, while staying within acceptable pipe velocities . Central Services Required use of utility services will vary according to the department served . To provide greater flexibility, all laboratories should have air, vacuum, water, and gas services at all work areas . Sanitary Piping System Venting Each fixture should be back-vented into a circuit or loop vent in a manner prescribed by code . Locating plumbing fixtures in "peninsula" casework is not recommended, because of the difficulty in getting proper backventing of the fixture . Pipe Materials Ordinary galvanized iron or steel should not be used in waste pipe from laboratories intended for research in biology and chemistry, where concentrated acids may be accidentally or improperly discharged into the sanitary waste system . Acid-resisting piping materials should be used in all drainage systems serving laboratories in which acids will be used . A separate acid waste system may be necessary for areas of the building where large volumes of acids are used . This system should empty into a neutralization and dilution sump prior to discharge into the sewer . Domestic Water Supply System
Fig . 6 Laboratory tower plans from la) the Agronomy Building at Cornell University by Ulrich Franzen . (b) A projected science building at Barnard College by Vincent G . Kling . (c) Louis I . Kahn's Richards Laboratories. limits the configuration and location of individual spaces as later defined by partitions . 1 . Typical central services should be provided by means of vertical risers, horizontal mains, and individual room runouts, sizing the pipes in a manner which will permit, as far as possible, independent supply and control to various floors, zones, and/or individual rooms . This design approach should result in a repetitive and standardized (grid) arrangement of the risers, mains, and major branches . 2 . Piped utilities should be accessible to permit extending the systems as required by future changes in research programs . Service pipe runouts (capped off when not used initially) at regular intervals in service shafts or cores will ensure maximum accessibility for future connections with a minimum of disruption to research programs in adjacent spaces . 3 . To provide for future needs, the central service systems should include space for ducts and piping not initially required, pipe size which permits increased flows to meet larger demands, and adequate space to permit normal maintenance and repair .
4 . Piping material should be selected on the basis of the properties required to maintain the quality of the flow material or to withstand corrosion or erosion by the various materials to be transported. Horizontal Mains and Vertical Stacks Pipe mains and stacks may be run exposed or concealed in pipe chases or utility corridors . Pipe chases and utility corridors should have dimensions which will ensure properly spaced pipes and provide access for maintenance personnel . The chases and utility corridors will usually include air conditioning ducts and electrical conduits . The optimal arrangement of pipe spaces would provide utility mains adjacent to each health related space, so that the service to each laboratory would not be dependent on service to other spaces . The utility corridor located between rows of laboratory spaces would meet this criteria . Pipe Runouts to Laboratory Space Satisfactory methods of installing runouts from vertical stacks and horizontal mains are overhead on exposed ceiling or behind laboratory case-
Sources Of Water Supply Municipal or corporation supplies are usually preferred to other sources A private supply of water is recommended only where public water is not available or it is impracticable to extend service to the site of the laboratory building . Water Treatment A chemical analysis should always be obtained . Treatment of cold water supply is usually not necessary when the water is obtained from a municipality or from a utility corporation . Water softeners of the Zeolite type are recommended when the water has a temporary hardness of 10 or more grains per gallon, or a total hardness of 18 or more grains per gallon . Boiler feed water softeners are recommended if the temporary hardness is 4 or more grains per gallon . Interior Water Piping 1 . Location of Mains The water supply system should be distributed throughout the building and the mains should generally run near the ceiling of the lowest story . 2 . No Cross Connections Cross connections between water supply piping and waste, drain vent, or sewer piping should be strictly prohibited, whether the connection is direct or indirect . 3 . Backflow Protection of Water Piping System Water distribution systems must be protected against backflow [the flow of water or other liquids into the distributing pipes from any other source(s) other than its intended sourcel . Water supply connections or out-
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES lets to plumbing fixtures, tanks, receptacles, or equipment should be protected from backflow as follows: a. The preferred method is by means of an approved air gap, as specified in American National Standard A40.4-1942. b. Where it is not possible to provide a minimum air gap, the supply connection should be equipped with an accessibly located backflow preventer (nonpressure type vacuum breaker) installed beyond the last control valve in compliance with American National Standard A40.6-1943. c. An alternate approved method is the use of an industrial water system to serve all laboratory work areas. This distribution system must be independent of the potable domestic system . This can be done by connecting the industrial water main to the building service line at the point of entry into the building, beyond the point of connection for the potable water and with a suitable backflow preventer inserted between the points of potable and industrial water system connections. Distilled and Demineralized Water Quality of Water The quality of the water required in health related spaces will determine whether distilled or demineralized water should be distributed through a central piped system . The analysis of local water characteristics will help determine if demineralization alone will produce water of the desired quality. Where demineralization alone will not suffice, distillation is required . Size of System Stills and storage tanks should be large enough to assure an adequate daily volume of water. Still size can be determined on the basis of a continuous 24 hour operation of the still and the provision of adequate storage tank capacity. The system should be designed so that part of it can be shut down for servicing without cutting off the entire system . Location of Stills Stills and demineralization equipment should be located at an elevation within the building sufficient to provide gravity flow to the outlets in the piping system . Mechanically pressurized systems are not recommended, since the pump and fittings may introduce impurities into the high quality water. Materials of Construction "Block" tin (purity in excess of 99 .9 percent tin) is recommended only when ultrapure water is required . Other materials which have been successfully used alone or as lining in tanks and piping are plastics, glass, aluminum, or stainless steel. The selection of a particular distribution piping and storage tank material must be based on water purity and contamination studies, previous experiences, and cost analysis . Fire Protection
The requirements for standpipes and/or portable fire extinguishers are set forth in applicable local or national codes . Where the fire hazard in laboratories and ancillary spaces is above normal, an automatic sprinkler system or automatic detectors should be installed . Where the application of water by usual methods would be harmful or dangerous, an automatic or manual protective system should be installed, to suit the classification of fires from which protection is needed .
Gas Piping
Design All gas piping should be designed in accordance with NFPA Standard No . 54, Installation of Gas Appliances and Gas Piping . These lines should be sized to provide for expansion of the service and to maintain adequate pressure at the workbench. In general, gas piping should not be run in trenches, tunnels, furred ceilings, or other confined spaces where leaking gas might collect and cause an explosion . Piping Materials Gas service pipe from the street to the building should conform to the regulations of the local gas company. Gas piping inside the building should be black steel with malleable -iron - banded fittings . Valves Gas piping should have a shutoff valve just inside the building and at other points where it would be desirable to isolate certain sections . Compressed Air and Vacuum Systems Air Filters and Driers Compressed air must be of high quality-substantially free of oil, impurities, and water. Centrifugal compressors are ordinarily used to provide oil-free air. If a small amount of oil is acceptable at points of use, a main oil separator with additional separators at the using equipment will be adequate . Air driers are required when moisture will create difficulty in laboratory instruments, or where compressed air piping may be exposed to freezing temperatures . Where laboratory requirements do not dictate dew points below 40°F, the dryness requirements can be achieved by the use of refrigerated water or direct expansion refrigeration in an aftercooler. The aftercooler may be air-cooled in the case of small compressors. The pressure required at the workbench need not exceed 40 psig and flow requirements of 5 scfm at every station. The compressor pressure is based upon the needs of the equipment requiring the maximum pressure at point of use. The vacuum requirements at the workbench ure 5 cfm at 28 in . Hg at each service outlet . Receptor jars must be used between the equipment and the vacuum outlet, to prevent liquids and solids from entering the vacuum system. The air discharged from vacuum pumps should be exhausted outdoors, to prevent entry into the equipment room of toxic or flammable solvents . Pipe material may be either copper or galvanized steel with threaded malleable-iron fittings . NVAC Systems
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (NVAC) account for 25 percent to 50 percent of the cost of a health research facility . The design and functioning of the HVAC system should be considered very early in the planning process . Such early planning will avoid the extra expense and less satisfactory results obtained when HVAC engineering is limited to the inflexible confines of architecturol design in progress . The heating requirements of a health research facility do not differ significantly from those of a conventional commercial building, and have not been discussed here . Electrical Supply
The power demand of laboratory instrumentation added to that of the building itself-for light, air conditioning, ventilating fans, etc.-makes the
provision of electric power, and its distribution, of key importance in the planning of a health research facility . Flexibility and capability in this case means more than planning excess capacity for future needs. When electricity stops everything in the laboratory is affected . Emergency sources of power must be provided, and a system of priorities set up to determine which functions will have first call on the emergency power supplies . LABORATORY PLANNING Laboratory planning is generally regarded as one of the most difficult assignments with which an architect can be confronted . It involves the development of a layout to meet an exacting set of conditions, and the integration of complicated engineering services . It is essential that the module and layout of the individual laboratories be considered in detail before even preliminary sketch plans are prepared. This can best be done in the following sequence . Module
A module of 10 ft is recommended; this is the distance from center to center of two peninsular benches, and it is based on a bench width of 5 ft with a space of 5 ft between. In a one-module laboratory it is the distance between the center of one partition and the center of the next; it is based on a wall thickness of 4 in, a bench 2 ft 3 in wide on one side and a table 2 ft 6 in wide on the other-to give a space between of 4 ft 11 in . Generally an entirely satisfactory and clean-cut layout can be planned with the 10-ft module, but if it is necessary to have greater flexibility (i .e . rooms 15 and 25 ft wide), then a module of 5 ft must be used . Of course, the module is dependent on the width of the benches and the space between them . The most convenient metric equivalent is a 3-m module . Width of Bench In chemistry laboratories, the generally accepted width of benches fitted with reagent shelves is 2 ft 6 in for wall benches and 5 ft for peninsular benches. In physics laboratories, widths of 3 ft and 6 ft are sometimes preferred, with a wide shelf for electronic equipment. In some laboratories, a bench width of 2 ft or 2 ft 3 in is adequate . Where solid timber tops are used, the consideration of width in relation to cost is relatively unimportant, but where sheets of some material are being used, the width should he considered in relation to sheet size so that waste is reduced to a mlnimurn . Space between Benches As building costs rise, it is to be expected that the distance between benches will receive closer scrutiny . Some research laboratory planners maintain that the increasing use of mobile equipment justifies the adoption of a 6-ft space. If it is adopted, then in a building 200 ft long it means the loss of one 2-module laboratory ; conversely, a decrease from 5 ft to 4 ft 6 in means a gain of one 1-module laboratory . The distance should be determined by considerations of convenience and safety, i .e ., one person should be able to pass another (working at the bench) comfortably and without risk of collision Reproduced from Practical Laboratory Planning, by W. R. Ferguson 11973), by Permission of Applied Science Publishers, London, England.
RESEARCH LABORATORIES if the latter should step back unexpectedly . Experience has shown that 4 ft 6 in to 5 ft is ideal; 4 ft is cramped. It must be admitted that there are laboratories in which one man works between benches separated by as little as 3 ft 3 in, but such a small space should certainly not be thought of when planning a new laboratory . In student and routine laboratories where there is less bench space per person and often two people will be working back to back immediately opposite each other, the space between the benches should be greater than 5 ft so that there is room for others to walk down the center. Layout of Laboratory Having established the module, it is now necessary to settle the size and position of laboratory offices, the depth of laboratories and the position of service laboratories, fume cupboards, and service ducts. All of these are vitally important in themselves, and of course they actually determine the type of layout which is to be adopted. Let us consider each of these items. Laboratory Offices There are many scientists still alive today who have worked in laboratories where offices were not provided ; the lucky ones had tables in the laboratory and the others just shifted some equipment off the bench to make space for report writing. For a number of years now, it has been standard practice to provide every scientist with an office; it is quite usual to provide individual offices for senior technical officers also, whilst laboratory assistants are expected to share offices or have writing spaces provided for them in the laboratories . The best location for laboratory offices is always a controversial subject. Are they to be within the laboratory, adjoining the laboratory, on the opposite side of the corridor, or grouped in a separate part of the building? Is it essential for all offices to be on an external wall? Some senior scientists consider an 8-ft by 6ft office within the laboratory entirely satisfactory . These people spend most of their time actually working in the laboratory and the closeness outweighs the advantages of greater privacy and silence in a larger office across the corridor . In any case, for report writing it is much more satisfactory to use a carrell in the library. The internal office shown in Fig . 1 has a 6-ft by 2-ft 6-in table with bookshelves above and a filing cabinet beneath. This layout has the advantage that the full length of the building is available for iaboratories and, with an off-center corridor, the service laboratories can be conveniently located along the opposite side . Offices which adjoin laboratories also have the advantage of closeness and they can be larger than the internal office-one dimension is fixed by the module of 10 ft-but they do have the disadvantage that they use the more expensive serviced area . The alternative is to provide offices along the unserviced area on the opposite side of the corridor, but many scientists consider this separation from the laboratory undesirable, and the further the offices are from the laboratories, the more serious this becomes. In the case of offices grouped on another floor, the scientist may even think twice before making the effort to get to his laboratory . Some scientists consider 10 ft by 10 ft an absolute minimum for an office, and others argue strongly for 10 ft by 12 ft, or even 10 ft by 14 ft . Certainly, when the offices are along one side of a corridor, a depth of 14 ft makes it possible
to get a more satisfactory layout for stairs, toilets, etc. For large projects, it is necessary to consider laboratories on both sides of the corridor ; in this case, offices must be either in (or adjoining) laboratories or grouped in a separate wing of the building . For still larger schemes, the double-width layout provides the best solution. Details of the various positions of offices are shown in Figs . 2, 3, 4, and 5. Depth of Laboratories Over the last 40 years, the depth of laboratories has increased from about 16 ft to 24 or 25 ft, with some going to 27 and even 30 ft. This has resulted in a better utilization of space and, as the span is within economic limits, the additional area is obtained
Fig. 1
at a lower cost per square foot. For the standard type of peninsular bench layout, a clear depth of 24 ft is recommended. Service Laboratories These laboratories are either planned to be integral with the laboratory and laboratory office unit or they are provided on the opposite side of the corridor; again, the various positions are shown in Figs . 2, 3, 4, and 5. Much of the equipment housed in these rooms is expensive and therefore it must be shared; it follows that this equipment must be located so that it is convenient to the maximum number of staff. Fume Cupboards The risk of accident is greater in a fume cupboard [hood] than elsewhere in the
Layout of a three-module, 30-ft by 24N laboratory .
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES
laboratory ; so, for reasons of safety, one should not be located where it will block an exit . Of course, if there is an alternative exit from the laboratory, this difficulty does not arise. Fume cupboards require an exhaust duct with a diameter of from B to 12 in . Preferably the duct should connect from the top center of the cupboard and rise vertically to discharge the fumes above the roof. This does not present a problem in a single-story building-except, perhaps, when the architect insists on some symmetry in the positions of the outlets on the roof . However, in a three-story building, the position of the fume cupboards and the space required for exhaust ducts become more involved ; if, in the preliminary planning stage, time is spent working out these details, it will obviate later troubles such as horizontal ducts which are too-long or riser shafts which are too small. The installation can be simplified by having the laboratories requiring the most fume cupboards on the top floor ; quite often the entire ground-floor space can be allotted for rooms and laboratories without any fume cupboards. Service Duds The mechanical services are a major feature of any laboratory and, in order to achieve good design, location, and accessibility, they must be given a lot of thought . In some laboratories the installation will involve three or four pipes, and in others there might be six or more . For benches serviced from the external wall, there should be horizontal and vertical ducts with removable covers. For benches serviced from the corridor wall, it is necessary to have a vertical duct accessible from the corridor . In some laboratories-especially if island benches are being used-the service pipes are reticulated in the space between the floor slab and the removable ceiling. This system does have the disadv,intage that it requires many holes through the floor and, in the event of floods, these will cause trouble in the room below; also, repairs and alterations seriously disrupt work in the laboratory and, what is worse, it is somebody else's laboratory] Nevertheless, this system is preferable to the use of ducts in the floor because, even at high cost, it is quite difficult to get a cover which is removable, serviceable, rigid, neat in appearance, and perfectly flush. For large projects where the double-width layout has been adopted, a service corridor is the obvious solution because it provides excellent accessibility to horizontal and vertical pipes and, in addition, space for fume cupboard exhaust ducts and miscellaneous laboratory equipment such as pumps. Type of Bench There are three types of benchpeninsular, island, and wall . As the names imply, the peninsular bench projects from the wall and the island bench is free-standing. With the greater depth of laboratories, the use of peninsular benches at right angles to the windows has become almost mandatory. They are preferable to island benches because the installation of services is easier and less costly, and there is minimum shadow when they are fitted with reagent shelves. Most laboratory workers will no longer argue that the extra space required to give access to four sides of an island bench is justified . As a general rule, wall benches under windows should be avoided; facing the sun in front of windows on the east and west elevations makes working conditions quite intolerable. For windows
facing north, screening the low-angle sun in the winter is not always satisfactory; even with southfacing windows, glare can be a problem. Wall benches between peninsular benches create inaccessible pockets on either side and, for this reason also, they are not recommended. Whether it be a one-, two-, or three-module laboratory, the combination of peninsular and wall bench at right angles to the external wall produces the simplest layout . The one-module laboratory provides the most wall space per unit area; the three-module laboratory has the widest application because in many cases it accommodates the optimum number of staff to share equipment and facilities. Details of a layout which has been used quite extensively are shown in Fig. 1 . This layout can be adapted to meet a wide range of conditionsfor example, one or both of the offices can be omitted, the number and type of bench units and service outlets can be varied, the reagent shelves can be reduced in length or omitted, or one whole bench can be omitted to leave space for equipment or a rig for setting up apparatus.
Prototype Laboratory or Bench For large projects, it is a very good idea to have a prototype laboratory, and for small schemes at least a prototype bench. If these are to achieve their real purpose, they should be complete with services and accurate to the smallest detail . Most scientists can read plans very well; however, there are always some who can't visualize the finished product, and for them, and for the builder and his subcontractors, a prototype is a great help . Invariably, after examination and discussion, some improvements or economies are effected . Also, when a prototype is available for inspection by tenderers, its cost can be offset by more accurate estimating . Windowless Laboratories and Offices Given a choice, most people would prefer to work in a laboratory which has windows; it is very pleasant to be able to look out on a garden or landscape, or even to get a glimpse of the sky. There is a prejudice against working in rooms without windows because it is thought that they create a sensation of being confined . The objection to this feeling of lack of contact with the outside world can be partially overcome if it is possible to 'look out if you want to'-for example, in some doublewidth laboratories, the door to the internal laboratory is opposite the door of the external office, and both are in line with the window ; the doors have clear-glass top panels . In one windowless
laboratory I have visited, I was interested to see a brightly colored landscape hanging on the wall of an internal office ; in another---a physics laboratory-many of the staff have worked quite happily for years in basement rooms; in yet another which has windowless laboratories and offices, the Director told me that, after 12 years' occupation, 'early apprehension that a closed-in feeling due to lack of outside windows would be a problem has not materialized .' Laboratories without windows are shielded from the sun and external temperature variations, and it is possible to get much more accurate temperature control; another asset is more wall space. My impression is that windowless laboratories (and, to a lesser extent, windowless offices) are likely to be accepted more readily in the future . Width of Corridors Factors which determine the width of corridors include the amount of traffic, the length of the building, and whether the doors open in or out; in overseas laboratories it is usual for doors to open into the corridors . Relevant details regarding five laboratories are:
There is very little traffic in the corridors of research laboratories, and in Australia, where the doors generally open into the laboratories, a width of 5 ft 6 in is adequate; furthermore, the narrower width helps to prevent the motley collection of refrigerators and cupboards which so often are lined up along one or both sides of the corridor. Nevertheless, 5 ft 6 in is an absolute minimum and assumes that there are no projecting columns; if the length of the building exceeds 200 ft, this width should be increased slightly to be visually acceptable. Adoption of a Basic Laboratory Layout Every effort should be made to develop a basic layout which is standard throughout the building . This is not easy because on every job there is generally at least one scientist who, without any real justification, insists that his office or bench should be in a different position, and he will advance reasons why his idea of layout is necessary for some particular investigation . If he wins his argument and his laboratory layout is nonstandard, it so often happens that the project stops, or he leaves, and it is almost certain that his successor will require a different layout . On the other hand, there are some situations where it really is necessary to meet particular requirements, but these can and should be met by variations within the basic layout . The establishment of a basic layout requires some firm decisions by the officer in charge, and these must be applied with a certain amount of ruthlessness if this proves necessary .
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES facing aspect . Two variations of this layout are shown in Fig . 3 . Double Corridor This layout provides a good interrelationship between laboratory, laboratory office, and service laboratory, and it sometimes offers the best solution when the width of the building is fixed within certain limits . It has the advantage that, as the service laboratories are windowless, it is easier to obtain accurate temperature control ; in many cases, the absence of natural light is an asset. (See Fig . 4 .) Service Corridor The double-width layout shown in Fig . 5 is especially suitable for large schemes. As laboratory services become more complex, and temperature control more critical, it is likely that this type of layout will be more widely accepted . The increased area at one level contributes to more efficient operation because the scientific staff are brought closer together and the sharing of equipment is facilitated .
Fig . 2 Off-center corridor layouts, showing the relative positions of laboratories, service laboratories, and offices .
Central Corridor This layout is more suitable for larger schemes. It has the advantage that the grouping of laboratories is more compact because they are on both sides of the corridor . Also, as the same width corridor is serving a wider building than in the case of the off-center layout, it provides a greater assignable space . However, it does mean that half the laboratories have a north-
Assignable Area The gross area is the overall area of the building, the assignable area is the actual area of usable space, and the difference is the combined area of entrance halls, corridors, stairs, toilets, ducts, and wall thicknesses . The 'use factor' is the ratio of assignable area to gross area, and it ranges from approximately 50 to 70 percent . The best utilization of space is obtained by having one corridor serving rooms on both sides . For example, in the simplest type of three-story building with minimum entrance hall, a 5-ft 6-in corridor with 24-ft deep laboratories along one side and 14 ft deep service laboratories along the other :
Industrial RESEARCH LABORATORIES
Fig. 4 Double-corridor layout, showing relative positions of laboratories, service laboratories, and offices.
Fig . 5 Double-width layout with service corridor, showing relative positions of laboratories, service laboratories, and offices .
WAREHOUSING AND STORAGE Warehousing Warehousing is the storage, and delivery of goods.
receiving,
Receiving Receiving is the acceptance of goods with a degree of accountability therefor . Storage Storage is the safekeeping of goods in a warehouse or other depository. Delivery Delivery is the transfer of goods to transportation carrier or customer . Distribution Distribution is a function of warehousing which includes the preparation and delivery of goods according to plan or special order. General History Modern warehousing has progressed in recent years to a point where old warehouse structures are costly to operate. The old-type warehouse buildings usually do not have sufficient floor-load capacity in the upper floors and do not allow the adoption of economical storage methods in the receiving and shipping areas. The emphasis today is on the maximum use of the "cube" rather than the square foot of warehouse space, on distribution rather than storage, and on power handling equipment rather than hand labor. The design of a warehouse should be based upon the most economical methods of materials handling . High stacking, with minimum use of aisles, is the keynote of maximum "cube" utilization. Modern warehouse design generally includes clear spans ranging from 60 to 100 ft, roof elevation sufficient to allow 18 to 20 ft (and higher) stacking height, and shipping and receiving areas located at box car or truck level. Fundamentals of Modern Warehousing One-Story-Type Building (Fig . 1) The study of multistory vs . one-story warehouses is complex and requires a complete engineering survey . The factors for consideration are partially listed herewith . One Story: 1 . Low-cost ground advisable 2. Availability of land for expansion 3. Less time for erection 4. Less area lost-sidewalls, columns, elevators, stairways, etc. 5. Adaptability to long-span construction 6. High floor loads 7 . Greater flexibility for layout changes 8 . Greater handling efficiency possible 9. Supervision easy and effective 10 . Maximum use of daylight and natural ventilation 11 . Hazardous areas easily isolated Two (or More) Stories : William Staniar, M .E ., Editor-in-Chief, Plant Engineering Handbook, 2d ed ., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1959 .
1 . High cost of ground 2. Limited area for site 3. Natural topography may permit entrance at different levels 4. Ease of expansion if foreseen 5. Floor load may be limited in upper levels 6. Product stored and handling equipment should be light in weight or small in bulk 7. Handling distances reduced with gravity flow 8. In some locations, less dirt and better ventilation on upper floors 9. Lower heat loss through roof In general, the overall economic evaluation of the one-story warehouse indicates a lower investment per cubic foot of storage space. The low-cost types of roof construction and the reduction of steel and masonry for additional floors are the significant cost-reduction items. Another major point of concern is the demand for increased floor-load capacities to support industrial truck equipment and heavier unit loads. Flexibility of Layout and Equipment Flexibility of storage allocations is obtained by the installation of minimum permanent storage aids . This can be accomplished by providing bolted-up types of pallet racks, bins, or shelves . The use of pallets and pallet pattern selection guides should provide the maximum cube utilization as well as stability . The large-size pallets are usually economical for warehousing operations. Shipping and receiving areas should be designed for two-way operation over the same platform where possible . The main aisles of transportation within the warehouse should allow the passage of materials handling equipment in both directions . Efficient material movement is beat obtained by wheeled vehicles in a warehouse of peak demands. Goods can be stored or accumulated prior to shipping during off-peak periods . The versatility of the fork truck and package conveyor is responsible for their wide acceptance. Fork trucks are made especially adoptable with a variety of attachments for special purpose handling . Selection of Warehouse Materials Handling Equipment The proper selection and use of materials handling equipment is an important factor to initiate and maintain warehouse operation efficiency . Warehouse design is often evolved around a well-engineered handling technique . Typical handling methods include the following : 1 . Tow conveyor (dragline conveyor) 2. Pellet systems (skids, bins, racks, unit loads, etc.) 3. Tractor trailer and fork truck (wheeled vehicles) 4. Overhead systems (monorail, bridge crane, slacker crane, etc .) 5. Conveyors (vertical and horizontal movement) Considerable emphasis has been placed on narrow-aisle handling during recent years. The
narrow-aisle straddle fork truck with 100 percent selectivity of goods in stock on pallet racks has been much used . Space savings have been particularly attractive with small pallets where right-angle stacking aisles have been reduced in some cases to 6 ft . The aisle-space savings of the straddle fork truck are usually offset by increased operating cost due to the slow speeds in stacking and transporting inherent in the equipment. Increased side clearance between pallet stacks and the decreased stability of the truck chassis for high stacking heights are also items to be considered for overall evaluation . When selectivity is not a prerequisite and bulk storage is possible, the straddle-type truck is less desirable on account of the clearance required between storage rows . A later design of the narrow-aisle type industrial truck provides forks which retract the pallet load within the wheelbase of the vehicle . Normal pallet side clearances can be maintained comparable to the standard fork truck. The frontwheel diameter has been increased to reduce floor wear experienced with the straddle fork truck with small steel wheels . The limitations of narrow-aisle equipment an listed above should not be overlooked in any warehouse operation where high turnover of inventory is required . Tow conveyor systems have been installed in many warehouses and truck terminals where order makeup or sorting operations require maximum flexibility . Tractor-trailer trains have been utilized to advantage where long horizontal movements are required . With a fork truck loading pallets on trailers and a second fork truck unloading pallets at the delivery point, maximum utilization of equipment is obtained . In this way, heavy tonnage can be handled in minimum time, or a tractor-train schedule can be set up for repetitive delivery to various points . Overhead bridge cranes require no aisle space if the goods to be stored are handled with special lifting devices. Paper rolls and other large units are warehoused in this mariner . Monorail systems are used as a general purpose method of handling bulky, extra long, or heavy loads in congested areas. The stocker crane is recommended for evaluation when selectivity of pallets or unit loads is required in narrow-aisle operation . Maximum storage heights may be attained in safety for maximum vertical-height utilization . The hoisting mechanism is suspended from the overhead traveling bridge . Recent comparisons in warehouse floor-space requirements indicate that the stocker crane is more efficient then the straddle fork truck . Fixed-route package conveyors are usually designed to handle a constant flow of material of similar products . Cases, boxes, drums, begs, etc., can be conveyed from production line, through warehouse, to shipping platform with minimum handling . Conveyors are usually engineered for a specific size and weight of product. A thorough study is required to select the most suitable and economical handling system .
swo.fUmulvdApat3n(Fre2DE1RT6:-4B7Sbgch8ix0 Industrial
WAREHOUSES
Fig . 1
Typical large warehouse layout .
Effective Warehouse and Storage Layout The overall receiving, storage, and shipping costs can be classified generally as follows : 1 . Occupancy or fixed overhead charges 2 . Labor or handling expense The principles of space utilization can be described as operating in three dimensions . The percent effectiveness (volumetric efficiency) may be calculated from the following : Space utilization (%) -- area utilization t : . vertical-height utilization _ not storage area gross storage area height utilized usable vertical height
100
Area utilization (Fig . 2) requires the proper analysis of alternate materials handling methods . Emphasis is placed on the study of the floor plan to provide a maximum ratio of net usable area to gross floor area . The net storage area is the floor space actually occupied by goods . The gross storage area is the usable area plus adequate operating aisles for handling facilities and traffic needs . Additional area is usually required for miscellaneous functions . Examples are listed herewith : 1 . Space for empty pallets 2 . Special packaging or makeup areas due to columns, odd 3 . Irregularities corners, etc . 4 . Space for offices, equipment, etc . 5 . Shipping and receiving areas 6 . Odd lots and balances Vertical-height utilization usually necessitates packaging evaluations plus the consideration of safety and special equipment . The maximum stack height allowable is limited by the crushing strength of the bottorn package . Non-
Fig . 2
Space utilization -a three-dimension operation .
cubage cost estimate review . Avoid the false concept of economy of ground-level floor construction for new buildings which in many instances results in costly "in" and "out" handling in the shipping and
Industrial WAREHOUSES Shipping and Receiving Areas The receiving area of a warehouse should be located adjacent to incoming rail or truck facilities and as convenient as possible to the storage area . The receiving dock is usually separated from the shipping area if possible to minimize cross traffic and possible confusion. The number of unloading positions required is dependent upon the volume of receipts or the maximum number of cars or trucks spotted at the same time . The light weight of portable aluminum or magnesium dockboards is desirable when power equipment is not available for positioning units of conventional steel construction . Weather protection at the unloading positions permits continuous handling operations . Loading platforms located outside the warehouse building can be designed for one-way or two-way traffic where required . The proper control, checking, and sorting of inbound materials is important for the prompt and efficient delivery of outbound shipments . The size of the receiving area is determined by the analysis of the temporary storage lag needed to perform the necessary inbound handling and inventory control operations . A shipping area (or dock) receives materials for outbound shipment after selection and transfer from storage . The preassembly of orders according to plan requires sufficient room to perform packing, packaging, or preparation operations prior to shipment . The size of the shipping area is dependent on the makeup time of filling orders and the quantity of simultaneous loading operations during peak periods. Calculation of Storage Space (Area Utilization)
Fig. 3
Standard pallet patterns .
3. Number of items and quantity of each 4. Shape, value, hazard, or other special considerations The application of the "ton-mile" principle can serve to reduce handling costs when a floor plan is designed for the storage of a large variety of items, lots, batches, etc. The items to be stored are located within the warehouse by popularity or special groupings. Logically the most popular items are stored closest to the shipping dock to reduce the length of travel of materials handling equipment or crews. Any storage system or layout which minimizes the movement of warehouse operations reduces the ton-miles or poundfeet of work performed. The physical characteristics of a warehouse determine the capacity factors of storage layout, namely : 1 . Floor-load capacity 2 . Ceiling height and allowable stack height 3. Location of doors, loading facilities, elevators, firewalls, etc . 4. Column location, size, and spacing between centers 5. Location of aisles for operating space, access to stock, and protective equipment. The cost of handling "in" and "out" of
storage is an operating expense which can never be recovered. The overall cost per unit weight or volume is thus the prime consideration of efficient warehousing and quite often is the only expense that can be reduced by improved materials handling methods . Straight-Line Flow or Assembly-Line Principle Straightline flow is inherently efficient and usually is adopted in warehouses adjacent to production areas. Conveyors and pallet systems illustrate typical methods of efficient handling .
Gross warehouse area - - inside total square footage of warehouse Net storage area - actual area occupied by inventory, not including aisles plus space for empty pallets plus shipping and receiving areas plus allowance for "honeycombing" plus special inventory (inspection, etc.) Interference - irregularities due to columns, odd corners, etc . Miscellaneous -- space for offices, equipment, etc . Gross warehouse area = net storage area plus aisles plus interference plus miscellaneous Rule of thumb (for general package ware: housing) moss warehouse. _area net storage area
3 2
or Net storage area 1- (50% net storage area) --- gross warehouse area This rule is accurate for average warehouses, but actual analysis of the layout is recommended . "Honeycombing" is a warehouse term used when space is not fully occupied because of partial withdrawal of inventory . Maximum honeycombing factors are in the range of 75 to 90 percent of maximum capacity, depending upon the activity, number, and quantity of items stored .
Industrial WAREHOUSES-WATERFRONT
Warehouses will vary considerably in different ports because of various types of cargo handled, climate, local stevedore practices, economics of various building materials, types of land transportation serving the facility, etc. The warehouse to be discussed herein is one used for the longtime storage of goods as opposed to transit sheds that receive, handle, and discharge sundry cargoes "in transit." For purposes of this study, only warehouses connected with maritime commerce, handling cargoes to and from ships will be considered . This means a building constructed in the general vicinity of a ship berth where cargo to be shipped out or which has come in by ship can be assembled and which requires comparatively long-time storage . For reasons of economy of operation, the distance from the operating berth should be kept to a minimum to cut down travel time for stevedore equipment and provide for the rapid loading or unloading of the ship . This distance, however, should not be so close to an operating berth that the warehouse could be used as a transit shed, thus changing its true function . Generally speaking, this would mean that a warehouse should not be closer to an operating berth than the length of the berth. Cargoes scheduled for long-time storage could then be economically transported to the warehouse. General Dimensions
The over-all dimensions of a warehouse are quite often limited by the available space. However, where space restrictions do not occur, the size can be best established by the use to which the warehouse is to be put . Warehouses to be used in conjunction with transit sheds should be comparable in size . This means a warehouse with a gross area of 70,000 to 90,000 square feet . The width and length can then be determined from the dimensions of the site and the space required for access roads and railroad sidings. To maintain good fire protection, the building should be divided into compartments separated by fire walls equipped with fire doors. The type of cargo to be stored will sometimes regulate the allowable area in these compartments and also the vertical clearance under the structural framework. At least 2 ft must be provided between cargo stacks and automatic sprinklers . A clear height of 22 to 24 ft would be ample to allow for automatic sprinklers and pendant electric lights . Service Facilities
Where space permits, it is particularly desirable to provide loading platforms at truck bed eleva-
Port Design And Construction, The American Association of Port Authorities, Washington, D.C ., 1964.
tion at each side of the warehouse, and also railroad tracks for direct transfer of goods from rail car to warehouse or vice versa. To accommodate trucks that may wish to drive into warehouses where a center aisle is provided, it is necessary to construct ramps at the ends of the building connecting the depressed areas to the regular floor level. In this way, trucks can be unloaded inside the warehouse with lift trucks . In localities where considerable rainfall occurs, it is very desirable to have protective canopies built out over the loading platforms . Loading platforms should be wide enough to allow for easy maneuvering of mechanized equipment during loading and unloading operations . Column Spacing
The advisability of interior columns in warehouses is a disputed question-warehousemen contend that columns interfere with the movement of cargo. There is no doubt that a wide spacing of columns is on advantage. Whether one row of columns along the centerline is preferable to two rows at the third points is largely a matter of opinion . One row causes less interference to cargo handling and stacking, and allows two side aisles for trucks . On the other hand, two rows allow a center truck aisle which is adequate for most conditions . The width of the building will in many cases be the deciding factor in regard to selecting the most economical span for the roof system. Clear span construction is without doubt more desirable from an operating standpoint, but the additional cost may rule it out. The spacing of the column bays is another controversial subject. The type of roof construction in many cases will determine the economical span for roof purlins and joists . Bay spacing of 20 to 40 ft appears to be common practice . Foundations
Foundations are either pile supported or spread footings . Careful analysis of the soil by means of borings should be made previous to design unless previously obtained data on soil characteristics is available . When soil conditions are questionable, load tests, test pile driving and pile load tests may be required . Where soil conditions show adequate stability, spread footings can be used . Even where areas are freshly filled, it is often possible to obtain adequate compaction with the use of mechanical compactors. The degree of compaction must be carefully measured in the field by established tests. Structural Frame Steel Frames Structural steel shapes are quite often used for warehouse framing because of easy availability, economy, and simplicity . A great many steel companies are now produc-
ing "prefab" buildings of lightweight steel shapes . They come in a variety of spans and bay spacing and offer a choice of truss, arch, or rigid frame. These buildings generally require interior columns, and if the spacing of columns is such as not to interfere with the functional use of the building, they offer an economical solution to certain specific warehouse requirements. Timber Frames Wherever timber is readily available and competitive with steel or other materials, it may be more economical to construct a warehouse using heavy mill construction . This type of structure is considered a better fire risk than unprotected steel. The use of glued laminated wood members is also becoming quite popular. They have the decided advantage of a reduction in shrinkage and provide greater strength for a given size member . A recent development in the Southwest is the pole-frame type of construction . Basically, it is a building with its main columns made up of treated timber poles with simple wood trusses and wood roof beams. The roof is either built up over a wood deck or of corrugated steel or aluminum supported by wood purlins. Walls are usually wood framing with corrugated metal siding. Relatively close spacing of columns is required with this type of construction which results in reduced maneuvering space for mechanical equipment. Reinforced Concrete There are many advantages to be obtained by using reinforced concrete wall construction, such as low maintenance cost, long life, ability to withstand rough treatment by heavy stevedore equipment and high resistance to fire . Tilt-up concrete wall construction has been used considerably in recent years to great advantage. In either case, these types of wall construction are usually combined with steel or wood trusses and conventional roof decks. An all-concrete construction method can be obtained by the use of prestressed concrete beams and columns, and in recent years thin shell barrel arches of prestressed concrete have been successfully used . Wall Framing and Sheathing When corrugated steel or aluminum wall sheathing or one of the various new patterns of rolled metal sheathing is used, it is generally secured to steel girts and studs for steel-framed buildings and wood girts and studs for timber construction. In either case the exact spacing of girts and studs is determined largely by local building codes, wind loads, column spacing, and the gage of the metal used . Obviously the used of reinforced or tilt-up concrete walls eliminates the need for girls and studs and provides the necessary sheathing . Concrete walls, however, do odd a greater weight to foundations and increase the building cost. Offsetting this is the more permanent construction obtained
Industrial WAREHOUSES-WATERFRONT and the ability to withstand rough treatment from heavy cargo-handling equipment. As a compromise between these two systems, some warehouses are constructed with a concrete wall built up to a height of 4 or 5 ft with the lighter wall construction using girts and corrugated metal extending up to the eaves or parapet. One disadvantage of corrugated siding is its susceptibility to damage . This can be partially remedied at a moderate increase in cost by applying solid sheathing, either 1-in shiplap or the cheaper grades of plywood, secured to the girt system . This method not only protects the metal siding, but it also provides additional strength to the building to resist wind forces, and has some insulating qualities which may be desirable. The gage of the sheet-metal siding or roofing is important . Although the standard gages are more economical and easier to procure, there are other factors which may warrant the selection of heavier gages. In areas of high winds a heavier gage than standard would be desirable, and where warehouses are located near the waterfront and subject to frequent fog and damp air conditions, heavier gage metal would be a distinct advantage to offset corrosion. Regardless of the gage selected, it is of prime importance to use galvanized sheets to resist corrosion . The standard 1 1/4 -oz coating is generally used, but here again the longer life obtained by using 2-oz coating may justify the additional cost . Although many warehouses are left unpainted there seems to be a trend toward more attractive buildings utilizing bright colors or contrasting panels. Prefabricated panels of aluminum or porcelain-enameled steel in various attractive colors are now available but the added cost has acted as a deterrent for most low-cost commercial projects unless offices are incorporated into the plan, in which case some distinctive design can be justified . Aluminum panels, doors, or windows used in locations that are exposed to industrial or seacoast corrosive atmospheres should be of an alloy that will resist corrosion. Alloy 6063-T5 has been successfully used in these locations.
Roof Framing, Sheathing Corrugated aluminum or galvanized steel is frequently used for roof construction . It is generally supported on steel purlins that in turn rest on steel trusses. Where the spans are notexcessive, wood joists supported on steel purlins can be used. One-half-inch-thick plywood diaphragm roof sheathing is laid over the joists and a built-up composition roof applied on top. This type of construction has the advantage of providing a good bracing system in the plane of the top chord, thus taking care of wind loads and other horizontal stresses . Two-inch-thick T & G roof sheathing is sometimes used nailed to timbers resting on the steel purlins. This type of construction also has good diaphragm qualities and, being of mill type construction, has a good fire insurance rating . There is an endless variety of built-up composition roofs available to choose from, but a substantiol watertight roof is essential and consequently nothing less than a "20-year" banded roof should be considered . Poured-in-place concrete and lightweight concrete, poured-in-place gypsum, and vermiculite are other materials frequently used for roof construction . The initial cost and the additional weight that must be carried by the framing system and foundation are factors that should be considered in selecting these materials, and the advantages and disadvantages carefully analyzed in
relation to the overall anticipated life of the entire structure. Floors
Floors are either Portland cement concrete or asphaltic cement concrete . The final finish on portland cement concrete floors is important . Steel trowel finishes are inclined to be slippery, particularly if water or oil accumulates on the surface. A light broom finish is more desirable providing an adequate nonskid surface . Asphaltic cement concrete makes a good wearing surface either when applied over a concrete slab or crushed-rock base. Various degrees of roughness can be obtained to provide sufficient traction for mechanized equipment. Although it is susceptible to disintegration due to oil and gasoline drippings, it is easily patched and there are various "sealers" that can be applied which alleviate this situation . It is important that floors be given a sufficient slope to drain properly. Opinions vary as to how much this slope should be, but range between 1/a -in and 1/4-in per foot . At doorways, in order to prevent rain from driving in under the doors, this slope is sometimes steepened for approximately 5 ft inside the opening. Lift trucks can negotiate this slight ramp smoothly . Another more positive method is to install a continuous drainage trough under each door equipped with a suitable grating set flush with the paved surface. Appurtenances
Doors The finest type of door used on warehouses is the vertical rolling steel door, a door constructed of many interlocking steel slats all connected together and secured by guides on both sides of the opening. The door curtain slides vertically up the guides and is rolled up on a steel pipe barrel . The operating mechanism for this type of door is either an endless chain which turns a sprocket and train of gears connected to the pipe barrel, or by crank, bevel gears, and steel shafting . The weight of the steel curtain is counterbalanced by helical steel-spring tensioning devices. Large doors are generally motor operated, the open and closed positions being controlled by limit switches . This type of door can also be used as a fire door, in which case the spring tension is adjusted to close the door automatically when a lever is tripped by the melting of a fusible link . There are many "overhead" type doors on the market that are very competitive with the vertical rolling steel door . They may be metal or wood and have a large variety of operating procedures . The so-called "up and over" type is raised as a unit by means of cantilever arms and tension springs, similar to residential garage doors, and in the open position lies above and inside the door opening. A variation of this door is one in which the door folds in two leaves before assuming a horizontal position above the door opening, the advantage being that the projection into the building is reduced. An overhead type of door composed of several horizontal sections hinged together that slides vertically in tracks at each side and above the door opening has become quite popular in recent warehouse construction . It can be constructed of wobd or metal (quite often aluminum), and can be manually operated in comparatively large sizes, although it is adaptable to motor operation . In the open position, it too, lies above and inside the door opening. All these previously described doors require a
moderate amount of headroom between the door head and ceiling or roof construction, and with the exception of the vertical rolling steel door, all can be equipped with windows to provide additional day lighting . If the eave height of the warehouse is not less than one and one-half times the door height, twosection counterbalanced vertical-lift doors can be installed, either manual or motor operated . These doors are easily and quickly opened . The conventional one- or two-unit horizontal sliding door, although virtually foolproof, is, nevertheless, unwieldy and requires large blank wall spaces to house it in the open position . For this reason it limits the number and location of doors to the detriment of the overall design . The spacing of doors is largely determined by the type of cargo to be stored and the frequency of loading or unloading of the stored material . Warehouses constructed for a specific commodity can have the doors located to provide the minimum travel distance for loading or unloading operations . However, most warehouses adjacent to the waterfront would accommodate a variety of cargo. It would be better to have an excess of doors rather than an insufficient number, as cargo can always be stacked in front of a closed door. It is important, however, to have doors on each side of the building opposite each other, and also to have doors on the ends so that trucks can enter or leave by means of a center aisle. Symmetrical spacing of doors allows for an efficient traffic pattern throughout the building. The selection of door sizes should be determined by the size and type of equipment and cargo that will be used . Lift trucks, straddle carriers, and even individual cargo packages are getting larger and larger, and for safe operation require wide doorways . Doors 16 ft wide and 16 ft high are commonly used, and even doors 18 or 20 ft wide and 18 ft high . Larger size doors should preferably be motor operated for more rapid opening and closing. Ventilators Ventilators through the roof should be provided that comply with local requirements . Ventilators are either continuous ridge type or individual round types distributed over the roof area . Some rotary types are available that are activated by the wind, and in cases where large changes of air are necessary, mechanical forcedair systems are used . When warehouses are located near transit sheds or other marine buildings, there is seldom any need for offices or washrooms. This is particularly true if various operators use the warehouse. In the event that one operator leases the entire facility, it may be advantageous to incorporate offices and washrooms. Offices and Washrooms
Protection Devices Structural columns in the interior of the warehouse should be protected from damage caused by collision with vehicles by encasing the lower 4 to 6 ft in concrete or by setting heavy steel pipe guards around them . Likewise, main switchboards should have protective barricades, either pipe railings or concrete-filled steel posts, set about 3 ft out in front to act as a protection against motorized handling equipment. Sprinkler risers, valves, and control mechanisms should be enclosed in a structural-steel framework covered with heavy diamond mesh screening. This will prevent any stored material from accidentally falling on the sprinkler equipment and causing it to be damaged or rendered inoperable .
Industrial WAREHOUSES-WATERFRONT
Painting Warehouses constructed of reinforced concrete need not have the enclosing walls painted . However, metal doors, windows, coping, and flashings should be painted with a good grade of exterior paint. There are several new paints on the market now that provide remarkable protection against corrosion even in the saline atmosphere of the
seacoast . Corrugated sheet metal buildings are definitely improved in appearance by the application of paint, and the useful life of the metal is extended . Painting the inside of warehouses improves the general lighting effect, and makes working conditions safer . Fire-hose racks and automatic-sprinkler risers should be painted a brilliant red for ready identification . Overhead signs designating the location of electric panel boards, exit doors, and other facilities are an added convenience . Lines painted on the floor defining main aisles, cross aisles and storage areas, and "Keep Clear" areas are helpful when stacking cargo . In many warehouses smoking is prohibited, in which case "No Smoking" signs should be prominently displayed. Fire Protection Warehouses should be protected with a complete automatic-sprinkler system meeting the requirements of the National Board of Fire Underwriters . Wherever possible, a supervisory fire-alarm circuit connected to the local fire department alarm circuits should be provided so that in case of fire the fire department is immediately informed . Auxiliary fire equipment such as hose racks and chemical fire extinguishers should be located at several locations in the building and be clearly designated by being painted bright red . Stacking
Fig. 1
of cargo should be so arranged that all fire equipment is easily accessible at all times . Lighting Natural Lighting The best source of light for a warehouse during the daytime is natural light or sunlight . There are two methods available : (1) roof lighting and (2) sidewall lighting . Roof lighting can be accomplished by means of (a) monitors, (b) skylights, or (c) sawtooth con-
struction . A combination of monitors and sawtooth construction provides very good lighting and has long been an accepted method of design . Skylights, if symmetrically spaced and a sufficient number installed, give equal distribution of light throughout the building . Skylights are sometimes a source of roof leakage and should be carefully designed and installed to insure a weathertight condition . In recent years plastic dome-type skylights have become quite popular . They come in various shapes and sizes and are readily installed on composition-type roofs and are easily made weather-
tight . To maintain the desired transmission of light, all roof lighting, whether monitor or skylight, should be hosed off frequently to maintain a clean surface . Windows can be installed in the side walls to provide additional light and in buildings using corrugated siding it is possible to obtain corrugated Fiberglas panels, either clear or translucent, that will member with the siding and provide a continuous band of light on each side of the building . All forms of side-wall lighting are subject to being blanked off by the high stacking of cargo and consequently should not be depended upon entirely to provide the desired day lighting .
Typical warehouse, Port of Long Beach, California .
Artificial Lighting For night operation and to supplement natural light during the daytime, electric illumination should be provided . The light level should not be less than 10 foot-candles . The spacing of lights is very important and should be designed to provide adequate lighting in the aisles at all times even when cargo is stacked high . Sufficient switches should be provided to allow lights to be switched on only in certain areas where work is being done . If watchman service is maintained or when only minimum illumination is desired, separate light circuits should be installed with control switches conveniently located near entrance doors.
Type of Fixtures The fixtures that can be used are (1) incandescent, (2) fluorescent, and (3) mercury vapor. There are advantages and disadvantages in each type . Incandescent lamps need replacing frequently, and the convection currents set up by the hot globe cause the reflector and the light globe to become coated with dust, reducing the illumina-
tion considerably . Fluorescent-tube lighting is becoming more popular since high-output fluorescent lamps have been developed which produce the increased illumination desired . Upkeep is still a problem with them as tubes become blackened with resultant loss of efficiency . Mercury-vapor lighting is the most efficient, provided that sufficient mounting height can be obtained . Mercury-vapor lights require time to warm up before full illumination, so they cannot be turned on and off as readily as incandescent or fluorescent lights . In warehouses where different color codes are used on the stored cargo it is very important to use color corrected mercury
WAREHOUSES-WATERFRONT vapor lamps in order to be able to read the various color codes. When any truck loading is accomplished at night, outside floodlighting of the area is essential . For safe operation, the intensity of illumination should be at least 1 foot-candle and preferably 2 foot-candles . Mercury-vapor lighting lends itself ideally for this situation as high-intensity lights can be mounted on steel poles to provide even illumination . At loading platforms lights can be mounted over doorways or on the building parapet to illuminate the platform and the trucks or railroad cars . Wiring Before designing the electrical wiring system, the public utility company supplying the electric current should be consulted in order to determine the various systems available. The standard 120/240-volt three-wire system is adaptable to all three types of lighting . If considerable power for motors or heating is required, the 208/120-volt three-phase system would be desirable. The 480/277-volt four-wire system is adaptable to either mercury-vapor or fluorescent lighting, and considerable reductions in wire size, conduit size, and panel boards can be effected by its use. For large buildings this could mean a considerable saving in cost of the electric system. If small 120-volt single-phase loads are required, dry-type step-down transformers can be located adjacent to the sub-panel board. Pert of Long Beach, California
A plan and cross section of a warehouse at the Port of Long Beach is shown in Fig. 1 . The building is 151 ft wide and 727.5 ft long with a gross area of 109,852 sq ft . It is divided into three separate and approximately equal storage areas by 12-in-thick precast reinforced concrete transverse fire walls. Columns at the exterior walls and fire walls are reinforced concrete, poured-in-place . Interior columns are structural steel spaced 50 ft apart, and column bays are spaced 40 ft apart. Roof trusses and girders are of steel and support a system of 2-in by 10-in wood roof joists, 1/2-in plywood diaphragm roof sheathing and a built-up composition roof . The side and end walls contain a total of 14 vertical rolling steel doors measuring 16 ft wide by 16 ft high . Openings through the fire walls on the centerline of the building are protected by automatic self-closing vertical rolling steel fire doors 16 ft wide and 16 ft high on each side of the wall .
Fig. 2 Port Newark, New Jersey . Typical warehouse layout for efficient utilization of rail and truck service, cargo distribution buildings.
Truck and rail loading platforms 16 ft wide are on each side of the building with one-third of one side ramped to permit direct access into the building by vehicles . There are no skylights or monitors on the roof or windows in the side walls. Distributed symmetrically over the roof area are 54 circular ventilators that provide the required air changes. Artificial lighting of the interior is accomplished by 400-watt mercury vapor fixtures . All exterior loading areas are floodlighted with 400-watt mercury vapor lights . A complete automatic sprinkler system with supervisory electric circuits is installed throughout the building, and in addition hose reels are mounted at convenient locations.
Port Newark-New Jersey
The plan in Fig. 2 illustrates typical warehouse layout utilizing modern rail and truck service. The warehouse floors are at truck and rail-car heights to facilitate easier cargo handling . The buildings are 160 ft wide and vary from 640 ft to 960 ft long . The column spacing is 40 ft with bents every 20 ft, and the minimum interior clear height is 20 ft. The roof slope is on a 2/2 on 12 . Buildings have been constructed of either structural steel or structural timber frames with aluminum roofing and siding . Plastic skylights are used to provide natural light.
Industrial AIRPORT INDUSTRIAL PARK
PHYSICAL PLANNING Coordination in the Preparation of the Airport Layout Plan If the airport is considered a suitable location for an airport industrial park, the industrial park's location and land requirements should be taken into account during the preparation of the airport layout plan . Economy of layout and operations requires that the airport industrial park be one contiguous area . In order to achieve this contiguity, careful study of the other airport land requirements must be made. It is advisable to free the maximum amount of land for industrial development consistent with retaining full expansion capability for essential airport uses such as aircraft movement areas, passenger and freight terminals, aircraft parking aprons, navigation aids, automobile parking areas, and aircraft maintenance areas . Location on the Airport The land available for development for an air . port industrial park should be located so as to take full advantage of its airport situation . A location which often is a good choice for the industrial park is on the side of the runway opposite the terminal . This is particularly true at airports used by air carriers, where diversion of industrial traffic from the terminal traffic boulevard is advisable . Also, in this area, airport supporting services are not competing for land to use for activities such as terminal auto parking and commercial concessions . (See Fig . 1 .) A location in the vicinity of the general aviation area has the advantage of being close to the area where the aircraft will be stored and maintained . This location keeps ground taxi time at a minimum . (See Fig . 2 .) Taxiway Access The taxiway system connecting the aircraft movement areas with the individual units of the industrial park should be decided upon in the early stages of planning . The access routes are a determining factor in the development pattern . Proper planning of these traffic lanes will conserve land valuable for other usesuses more productive of revenue. Determination must be made at an early stage of the proportion of the tract to be served by taxiways to the aircraft movement area of the airport . The airport owner reserves the right to establish a user charge for the privilege of access through these taxiways to the common use landing area . Opinion is divided as to the necessity of providing taxiway access to each lot because of the relatively large amount of land this requires . In most cases a compromise can be reached by providing access to those lots Planning the Airport Industrial Park, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation, Washington, D .C ., 1965 .
closest to the aircraft movement areas . A 50ft service taxiway within a 150-ft right of way is generally sufficient for business aircraft . To minimize conflict with the street system, it is recommended that the taxiway right-of-way be located at the rear of the lots served and that the blocks be long and narrow to reduce the number of intersections between streets and taxiways . (See Fig . 1 .) Two interesting variations for providing access to the aircraft movement areas are : 1 . A taxiway provided to those lots directly abutting the aircraft movement areas . (See Fig . 3 .) 2 . A taxiway into an aircraft parking apron which is surrounded by industrial lots . (See Fig . 4 .) In projects where no taxiway into the airport industrial park is provided, reasonable accessibility can be had by locating the industrial area in close proximity to the general aviation apron . (See Fig . 5 .) Railroad Access If rail service is available to the site, a 20-ft right-of-way is sufficient for a single track spur . Determination should be made in advance of the proportion of the lots to receive rail service. The rail service right-of-way should be located on the opposite end of the lots from the vehicular right-of-way . Contact with the railroad serving the area should be made to assure construction that will meet the railroad's standards . In most cases, cost of the railroad spur will have to be paid for by the management of the industrial park, but there are instances when the railroad has paid the cost of the spur track . Usually, if the railroad spur is paid for by the railroad, title to the right-of-way will have to be passed to the railroad . Street System The widths of the right-of-way and the pavement depend on the anticipated traffic demand . Excessive pavement width, in addition to its high cost, has the tendency to encourage onstreet parking which creates traffic problems . Minimum pavement widths and strict enforcement of on-street parking prohibitions are recommended . Curbs and gutters rather than drainage ditches are recommended in order to keep the right-of-way width to a minimum ; these will facilitate drainage of the site and also assure a cleaner, more attractive site . Airport industrial parks surveyed show considerable variation in the widths of pavements and rights of way selected . With enforcement of on-street parking prohibitions and the use of curbs and gutters, the right-of-way should be a minimum of 40 ft for a 24-ft (2-lane) pavement . These dimensions are sufficient for secondary streets . Additional lanes are required in larger developments to add capacity to meet peak hour demands . For larger developments, on streets which will have a substantial number of industrial installations, a 60-ft
right-of-way is recommended so that two additional lanes of traffic can be added when the demand warrants . For primary feeder streets, a minimum of 46 ft of pavement within a 60-ft right-of-way is recommended . Street intersections should have a curb radius of at least 40 ft to accommodate tractortrailer vehicles . It is recommended that the number of entrances into the industrial park be as few as possible to discourage use of the circulation system by traffic which is not directly related to the park . The entrances should be from a public thoroughfare with at least equivalent capacity and be separate from the airport entrance road in order to avoid traffic mix with those vehicles serving or visiting the airport . Off-Street Parking and Loading Off-Street Parking This should be provided for all vehicles which come into the airport industrial park . Parking spaces should be provided for employees, visitors, company vehicles and all trucks . In airport industrial parks Employee Parking virtually all employees drive to work . Consideration should be given to overlapping requirements of successive shifts . Provision should be made for one parking space for every 1 .3 employees on the combined shifts . Allowance of 300 square feet should be made for maneuvering and parking each vehicle . visitors Visitor Parking Parking space for should be provided at the rate of one parking space for every 15 employees on the main shift . Company Vehicles space for each mended .
Provision of one parking company vehicle is recom-
Truck Loading Docks Loading docks should accommodate truck trailers and local pickup trucks . To accommodate truck trailers, berths should be 14 ft wide by 60 ft deep with an additional depth of 60 ft for maneuvering . For local pickup trucks, berths 10 ft wide by 20 ft deep are sufficient with a 20-ft additional depth for maneuvering . Loading docks should not be located on the street side of the building . driveways for Entrance Driveways Entrance truck access should be offset from the truck perking ramp to prevent trucks from backing from the street into a loading dock . Curb radii of 25 ft minimum are recommended for truck access drives . Driveways for automobiles should have minimum curb radii of 15 ft . Building Setbacks The airport industrial parks surveyed indicate a variety of setback standards which are generally related to the size of the lots in the particular developments . Aesthetic considers-
Industrial AIRPORT INDUSTRIAL PARK
Fig. 1
2
Industrial park located on the opposite side of the runway from the terminal .
Industrial park located in the vicinity of the general aviation area .
Industrial AIRPORT INDUSTRIAL PARK
Fig. 3
Industrial park with taxiway only to lots directly abutting the aircraft movement areas .
Fig . 4
Industrial park with taxiway into aircraft parking apron surrounded by industrial lots .
Industrial AIRPORT INDUSTRIAL PARK
Fig. 5
Industrial park without taxiway access located adjacent to the general aviation area .
tions are significant and no single set of standards will be applicable to all airport industrial parks . The main goal is to retain a feeling of open space in the development . In addition, setbacks may be related to the topography, rougher terrain generally requiring greater setbacks to minimize the amount of site work to the developer and to neighboring tenants . On most airports, the land developed for industry will be relatively flat, which would permit setbacks to be the minimum required for aesthetic considerations, free movement of fire apparatus around structures and meeting the requirements of local ordinances . A 30-ft front setback from the property line, using the street rights-of-way previously discussed, will allow approximately 36 to 46 ft from the edge of the street pavement . This should be sufficient in projects where the smallest lots are '/z acre or less . Side and rear setbacks of at least 25 ft are recommended for fire safety separation, aircraft clearance and architectural harmony . A further measure that is recommended for assuring the parklike quality of the development is to limit the amount of each site permitted to be occupied by structures . Site coverage of 60 percent should be a maximum although 50 percent is preferable .
Site Layout
Utilities
An airport industrial park should be at least 50 acres to justify the management effort required for planning, promotion, and continuing operation . Block dimensions are determined in part by the depths established for groups of lots . Within the block it is then possible to adjust lot widths to suit the needs of individual tenants . A variety of block sizes based on lot depths of 150 ft up to 500 ft allows for inclusion in the project of sites varying from about '/, of an acre to 10 acres . Minimum lot width should be about 100 ft in order to provide buildable sites for small industries . It is recommended that blocks be as long as practicable to reduce the costs incurred in the construction of cross streets . Within the industrial park, there is little need for lot-to-lot circulation because most traffic is to and from destinations outside the industrial park . Stage construction usually is a necessity because of flexibility and cost considerations . Sections that are opened for development should be improved so that lots offered for lease or sale are developed lots rather than raw land . Streets and utilities should be provided ready for use at the sites .
Utilities that are essential are water, sanitary sewer system, electric power, gas distribution, fire hydrants and storm sewers adequate for drainage on and off site . Utilities are provided by the sponsor through his own resources, or by arrangement with the local utility companies, so that the tenant is only required to connect his installation to existing systems . Utility easements may be provided in the rights-of-way reserved for streets or rail spurs . Underground utilities may be provided in aircraft taxiway rights-of-way .
Park Center Reservation of an area for a park center should be made in larger projects . This center would include the offices of the park management and maintenance functions . Facilities for the common use of park tenants could be offered, such as restaurant, banking facilities, small shops for sale of sundries and, possibly, motel facilities for the accommodation of overnight guests . Other commercial services and personal conveniences could be provided at the discretion of the park management in the park center .
Industrial INDUSTRIAL
DESIGN OF FACILITIES Site Selection Amid the many other factors influencing the choice of an industrial plant site, that of employee parking should not be overlooked . Site requirements, in some cases, may be prescribed by equal areas each for factory, storage, and parking . But parking needs frequently are affected by the type of location, since the demand for parking often may be less in locations where land costs are highest . The influences of transit service, walk-to-work trips, or drop-off trips, which are likely to be related to area type, are suggested in the table on this page . The example shows that parking area needs for 1,600 employees may vary by as much as three acres . The total cost for employee perking may be equal or less at the rural site, however, because of lower land costs . When land costs are high, it becomes more economical to build a second level over existing parking than to construct new surface lots . Other economic factors, such as proximity to markets or to rail service, may overcome the disadvantages of high parking costs in urban areas . Roof parking or remote parking with shuttle bus service are other solutions to meeting parking demand at confined plant sites . Another principal traffic factor influencing site selection is the capacity of street systems to absorb peak hour loads at shift changes . While a concern primarily of public agencies, plant management is also concerned in terms of labor market accessibility as well as the ease of transporting incoming materials and outgoing products . Design Elements Several principles control the design of industrial plant parking facilities . First, the unique characteristics of employee parking must be taken into account . Unlike parking at shopping centers, airports and many commercial lots, industrial plant parking is characterized by long-term parking, nearly simultaneous large volumes of arrivals and departures, and brief periods of vehicle-pedestrian conflict . Design provisions should, therefore, satisfy the following requirements : 1 . Stall size that accommodates current vehicle models 2 . Stall arrangements that make judicious use of the area available 3 . Access to individual stalls that is safe, convenient and without delay 4 . Entrances and exits that minimize delays 5 . Parking locations that are close to working areas 6 . Security and aesthetic treatments that meet plant and public needs
Parking Facilities for Industrial Plants, Institute of Traffic Engineers, Washington, D .C ., 1969 .
Stall Size Vehicle dimensions are the principal determinant of stall sizes . Many current models of automobiles measure 80 in . i n width and 218 in . i n overall length. Door-opening characteristics are another factor . As two-door models, which have larger doors than fourdoor models, become even more popular, there is an increasing need for wider stalls in parking facilities . The 1959 ITE Recommended Practice on Industrial Plant Parking recommended 8-ft 6-in . stalls, which under present conditions may allow only 22 in . between vehicles for door opening . Current prevalent practice is to employ 9-ft stalls, with 10-ft stalls in some 90 ° visitor parking layouts . The effects of increasing stall width from 8 ft 6 in . t o 9 ft, considering a 500-ft bay are as follows : with 90 ° parking, a reduction of from 58 to 55 spaces ; with 60" parking, from 50 to 47 spaces . When stall widths are less than 9 ft, double lines between stalls will assure better positioning of vehicles and minimize the possibility of wasted spaces due to improper parking . Stall lengths must be at least 1 8 ft to accommodate current vehicle models . If "drivethrough" parking is employed, stall length may be increased to 19 ft to allow for some clearance between vehicles . Clearance from walls, fences, roadways or walkways can be maintained by using curbs or wheel-stops properly positioned within the stall area . A front overhang of 3 ft and a rear overhang of 5 ft are typical values to be accommodated . Stall Arrangements Decisions about the choice of angle and the layout of aisles must be based on individual site conditions . The placement and number of entrances and exits, and the site shape and contour are the major controls . At large plants, blocks of parking by groups of three to five hundred cars are preferable to larger aggregations . Pedestrian-vehicle conflicts can be reduced, and assigned parking for different shifts and employment groups can be better controlled, through the use of such relatively small blocks . The following general practices are desirable : use natural grades to facilitate drainage ; provide for co unterclockwise traffic aisle flow, since left turns are easier than right turns for drivers ; have parked vehicles face downhill rather than uphill, to allow for stalled vehicles or winter weather conditions .
PLANTS,
This report includes layout details for only one type of parking . Figure 1 illustrates a stall arrangement and an aisle design that have not been widely published-the drive-through double stall pattern, usable in either 90'' or acute angle parking layouts . In general, angle parking is preferred for large industrial parking facilities . First, properly designed angle parking can employ space as effectively as right-angle parking . Second, it virtually forces one-way movements, thereby simplifying control, reducing conflicts, and ensuring that daily parking practices conform to the established design . Third, it provides for easier turning movements into and out of stalls . Drive-through angle parking design offers the further advantages of minimizing backing out of stalls and directing all aisle travel in the same direction . It conserves space more effectively than other angle parking designs . Typically, the angled drive-through layout requires 36 ft for the double stall and an 18--ft aisle (to permit passing stalled vehicles), for a unit parking depth of 54 ft . Compared with 90" parking, the space loss along the length of the bay-eight spaces in 500 ft according to the example-will be compensated for by the reduction in unit parking depth, from 62 or 64 ft to 54 ft, if enough bays can be used . The disadvantage of this design of drivethrough parking is that it increases the travel distance and time of a search pattern if the lot is nearly full . It also is imperative to keep the end circulation aisles two-way so that e driver will not be forced out of the lot in order to return to another parking aislé . The drawing also gives dimensions for angle parking et 53' 8', an angle which has the layout convenience of being a 3-4-5 triangle . Other angles commonly used for parking are 45, 55, or 60 - . However, any angle smaller than the 3-4-5 configuration tends to be wasteful of space, without offering any significant advantage . Where two-way aisle flow may be desirable, as in visitor parking lots, 90` parking is more appropriate . Site dimensions sometimes may be such that 90' unit parking depths are most appropriate regardless of other circumstances . The minimum 90 -' parking depth reported to Committee 6T was 61 ft, with preferences expressed for 62-64 ft as desira ble dimensions . When unit parking depths are less than desirable, shortened stall lines (10-15 ft long) may encourage drivers to pull all the way into stalls .
Hypothetical Relationship of Parking Area Requirements to Location
Location Urban Suburban . . . . . Rural
PARKING
No . of Percent as employees drivers or at peak shift auto psgrs . overlap ..__--60 1,600 1,600 80 1,600 95
Assurninu car occupancy of 1 .3 persons per car.
Number of autos to be parked" 740 990 1,180
__
Approx site, sq ft
Area, acres
222 297 354
5 .0 6 .8 8 .0
Industrial INDUSTRIAL PLANTS, PARKING by the number of lanes available at individual exits, what turns may be prohibited, and the allowable length of time for discharging peak period volumes . Observed exit rates for leftand right-turning lanes range up to 1,500 vehicles per lane per hour of green time .' Obviously, nearby highway intersections must provide adequate capacity to meet exit volumes in addition to nonplant traffic . A traffic engineering analysis employing the type of procedures outlined in the Highway Capacity Manual may be necessary to ensure the most effective location and design . Such an analysis certainly should be undertaken when traffic signals are contemplated, or when volumes reach magnitudes for which grade separation may need to be considered . Where two-way flow is to be accommodated, the roadway width at gates should be at least 26 ft to facilitate turning movements to or from a major highway . The American Association of State Highway Officials design policies may be consulted for turning radii details . 2 Where guards stop incoming vehicles, checkpoints should be far enough from the highway to prevent queues forming on the highway .
Pedestrian Needs
DESIRABLE STALL AND AISLE DIMENSIONS FOR DRIVE-THROUGH PARKING _-_ .._.._ .. ._ Un,tWldrh o f Width Depth of SroI I Width Angle of Perpead-lor of P-key Stall Pomllel f P . " klng Stoll Depth to A . .le to Aide Aide 90 90 60 53
Fig. I
Service
10' 9' 9 9'
38 -0" 38'- 0 36'-0' 35'- 10 -
24 26 18 18'
62'-0 64'- 0 54'-0 53'_ 10
10'-0 9'-. 0 10'-.5 11 "- 3
Orive-through lot layout .
Roads Many large plants require service roads between plant entrances and parking areas . Several design factors may be noted : 1 . Proper control can best be achieved if service roadway lanes are clearly marked for one- or two-way operation . 2 . To permit passing of a stalled vehicle, one-way, singly-lane service roads must be at least 18 ft wide . 3 . Incoming shift vehicles should be separated from truck deliveries and outgoing shift vehicles. 4 . Service roads that permit drivers to reach those plant exits most suitable for their subsequent travel direction will minimize conflicts and capacity reduction at plant exits . 5 . Pedestrian conflicts can be minimized by locating the entrances from service roads in parking areas at the end opposite to work
6 . Exits from parking areas to service roads will minimize conflicts if they are placed away from the main stream of pedestrians leaving work .
Plant Entrances and EXRTS
The number and Incation of gates is a function of both the external roadway system and internal circulation . It may be desirable, or even necessary, to dietribute peak-hour volumes among several streets to avoid overtaxing the capacity of nearby intersections . In the case of overlapping shift arrivals and departures, both internal and external conditions will dictate to a large degree the number and location of gates . Because exit peaks generally are of shorter duration, greater exit than entrance capacity usually will be required . Exit turning movements also may be less efficient .. in vehicles cleared per hour, than entrance movements . The total number of exits will be determined
Pedestrian-vehicle conflicts are almost inevitable, but with minimum walking distances such conflicts can be reduced . Several methods can be followed to lessen the inefficiency, congestion and safety hazards inherent in such conflicts . 1 . Parking space allocations can be oriented to specific buildings . 2 . Parking areas may be designed to focus on major walkways, which should be fenced or marked . 3 . Where pedestrians must cross service roads or access roads to reach parking areas, crosswalks should be clearly designated by pavement markings, signs, flashing lights, or even traffic signals operated by plant security personnel . Crosswalk surfaces may be raised slightly to designate them to drivers, unless drainage problems would result . 4 . Walkways may be provided under cover of buildings between parking and work areas . 5 . Wherever possible, parking aisles should lead directly to the plant . This will minimize inbound problems, since close-in spaces will be taken first and later arrivals will park farther away . Pedestrians can walk past parked cars rather than crossing aisles with cars arriving and being parked . The best means of separating pedestrians and vehicles is by constructing underpasses or overpasses at key points . Grade separation may be essential to prevent long delays and time losses, as where freight must be handled, to avoid exposure to hazardous plant operations . It may be necessary where parking facilities and plant buildings are on opposite sides of major highways . If intersection capacity problems preclude provision of a pedestrian phase in nearby traffic signals, grade-separated pedestrian crossings will be essential .
Provisions for Commercial Vehicles Receiving and shipping needs of many industrial plants are accommodated by motor trans-
' Highway Research Board . Highway Capacity Manual,'' Special Report 987, 1965, page 137, Washington, D .C . ~Amencan Association of State Highway Officials, "A Policy on Arterial Highways in Urban Areas,' Washington, D .C ., 1957 .
INDUSTRIAL PLANTS, PARKING port vehicles, ranging from pickup trucks to five-axle tractor-trailer units . While the major movements involve raw materials, supplies, and finished products, a measurable amount of truck traffic is generated also by canteens, cafeterias, laboratories, or other service needs . Unless an industrial plant is under strict security measures, motor transport vehicles normally use the same entrance and exit facilities used by employee vehicles . Where security is a question, separate truck gates may be provided with each inbound and outbound truck being checked by a guard . Gates used by trucks require two lanes, each 12 ft in width, clearly posted as to use . Controls may be required to eliminate possible conflict between trucks and other traffic, especially et periods of major employee shift arrivals and departures . The most effective control at periods of peak demand is prohibition of all commercial vehicles . Within plant premises, it is desirable to route commercial vehicles around the periphery of the plant to loading areas and to prohibit direct access through employee parking lots . The width of driveway lanes should be not less than 10 ft nor more than 1 2 ft, in order to discourage illegal parking . Turning radii should be adequate for the largest vehicle anticipated, and signs and markings should conform to accepted standards . This report does not treat the design of loading docks in detail, but the following informational comments areoffered .Thewidth ofapron space or maneuvering area in front of loading docks is dependent upon the overall length of servicing vehicles, the turning radii of the
equipment end the width of truck berths . Generally, the distance from the edge of the loading dock to the opposite curb, outside edge of opposite truck berths, or near edge of any physical obstruction, should equal not less than twice the overall length of the longest service vehicle . Where receiving or shipping operations necessitate an accumulation or storage of trailer units in excess of available dock apron space, a marginal area should be provided for waiting or for trailer storage separate from the apron space or any parking lot . Apron areas should be free of any passenger car parking and physically separated from any portion of the parking lots . The surface should be well paved with a dustless and durable material, graded for drainage and of sufficient bearing strength to support concentrated axle loads .
Amenities Both employee and community relations may require that some consideration be given to parking area amenities . Much depends on location . A steel mill surrounded by steel mills will not be concerned in the same way that an electronics plant next to suburban residential areas need be . Landscaping can be an important element in the appearance and effective use of parking areas . It can serve functionally by designating separate parking areas : aesthetically by breaking the bleakness of great expanses of asphalt . Utilities often can be placed in landscaped areas . Some plants take landscaping amenities
so seriously that preferred parking layouts may be rejected because of insufficient landscaping . There are several drawbacks to be located however . Improperly considered, shrubs may seriously reduce driver sight distances . High plantings that completely-screen employee vehicles may encourage vandalism and pilferage . Deciduous trees may create trouble with sap droppings ; falling leaves increase maintenance costs and also may obstruct drainage structures . In colder climates, landscaping may impede snow removal . Noise control is sometimes an important factor . Plant noise may be materially reduced by proper location of loading docks end parking areas, although even the quietest truck is disturbing at night. Depending on terrain, noise may be buffered by fences or planting . Lot surfacing may be an amenity factor. All lots should be properly graded for drainage and should be dust-free . Higher type surfaces, with pavement markings to designate spaces end reserved areas, may be warranted in high-landcoat areas, and at activities attracting many visitors . A more efficient as well as a more attractive site will result . Some amenities may help to reduce the total number of parking spaces required . Covered or shielded transit waiting areas, within close walking distance of buildings, may encourage e higher level of transit usage . Alternatively, shuttle buses might be operated between transit stops and plant areas . Providing turnout bays where auto passengers may be dropped off and picked up may mean that otherwise necessary parking space can be put to a more productive use .
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
1055
SHOT PUT
1104
BADMINTON
1064
HAMMER THROW
1105
BASKETBALL (AAU)
1065
DISCUS THROW
1106
BASKETBALL (NCAA)
1066
JAVELIN THROW
1107
BIDDY BASKETBALL
1067
LONG JUMP AND TRIPLE JUMP
1108
GOAL-HI BASKETBALL
1068
POLE VAULT
1109
BOCCIE BALL
1069
HIGH JUMP
1110
CROQUET
1070
ARCHERY
1111
ONE-WALL HANDBALL
1071
INTERNATIONAL SHOOTING UNION
THREE- AND FOUR-WALL HANDBALL
1072
AUTOMATIC TRAP
1112
HOPSCOTCH
1073
FIXED NETS AND POSTS
1113
HORSESHOES
1074
FENCE ENCLOSURES
1114
ICE HOCKEY
1075
TYPICAL GRADING AND DRAINAGE DETAILS
1115
LAWN BOWLING
1076
TYPICAL PLAYING SURFACES
1116
ROQUE
1077
BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL BACKSTOPS
1117
SHUFFLEBOARD
1078
MOVIE THEATERS
1118
DECK TENNIS
1079
PLATFORM TENNIS
1080
PADDLE TENNIS
1061
TENNIS
1082
TETHERBALL
1083
VOLLEYBALL
1084
OFFICIAL BASEBALL
1085
BASEBALL Bronco League (9-12 yr) Pony League (13-14 yr) Colt League (15-16 yr) Little League (9-12 yr)
1086 1086 1087 1088 1089
FIELD HOCKEY
1090
FLICKERBALL
1091
FOOTBALL (NCAA)
1092
TOUCH AND FLAG FOOTBALL
1093
GOLF DRIVING RANGE
1094
LACROSSE
1095
Men's Women's
1095 1096
Handicapped Seating 500-Seat Movie Theater
1123 1125
DRIVE-IN THEATERS
1127
BOWLING ALLEYS
1129
BOWLING ALLEYS WITH BILLIARD ROOMS
1133
SWIMMING POOLS
1138
Diving Pool$ Residential Swimming Pools 50-Meter Recreational Pool 25-Meter Recreational Pool 25- and 50-Meter Indoor Pools
1144 1146 1149 1150 1151
LOCKER ROOMS
1153
BATHHOUSES
1155
GYMNASIUM
1157
2005
1158
AQUARIUMS
1168
INDOOR TENNIS BUILDING
1175
SPORTS ARENAS
1176
GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES
1185
RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
1193
RIFLE AND CARBINE RANGES, OUTDOOR
1200
SHOOTING RANGES, OUTDOOR
1204
SOCCER Men's and Boys' Women's and Girls'
1097 1097 1098
SOFTBALL
1099
12-Inch 16-inch SPEEDBALL
1099 1100 1101
MARINAS
TEAM HANDBALL
1102
CAMPS AND CAMP FACILITIES
}-MILE RUNNING TRACK
1103
Trap Field Skeet Field Combination Skeet and Trap Field Swimming Docks
1205 1206 1207 1208 1218 1219
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
General
Playlots should be provided for preschool children up to 6 years o1 age primarily in conjunction with multifamily (townhouse and apartment) developments and in single-family neighborhoods remote from elementary schools. They are a necessary element of such developments to complement common open-space areas. Playlots may include (1) an enclosed area for play equipment and such special facilities as a sand area and a spray pool ; (2) an open, turfed area for active play ; end (3) a shaded area for quiet activities .
Location of Playlots
Playlots should be included as an integral part of the housing area design, and are desirably located within 300 to 400 ft of each living unit served . A playlot should be accessible without crossing any street, and the walkways thereto should have an easy gradient for pushing strollers and carriages. Pleylots may be included in playgrounds close to housing areas to serve the preschool age group in the adjoining neighborhood .
Size of Playlots The enclosed area for play equipment and special facilities should be based on a minimum of 70 sq ft per child, which is equivalent to 21 sq ft per family on the average basis of 0.3 preschool child per family . A minimum enclosed area of approximately 2,000 sq ft will serve some 30 preschool children (about 100 families). Such a size will accommodate only a limited selection of play equipment. To accommodate a full range of equipment and special facilities, including a spray pool, the minimum enclosed area should be about 4,000 sq ft, which would serve up to 50 preschool children (about 165 families). Additional space is required to accommodate the elements of the playlot outside of the enclosed area, as listed in the next paragraph. A turfed area at least 40 ft square should be provided for active games.
Playlot Activity Spaces and Elements A playlot should comprise the following basic activity spaces and elements : 1 . An enclosed area with play equipment and special facilities including a. Play equipment such as climbers, slides, swing sets, playwalls and playhouses, and play sculpture b. A sand area c. A spray pool 2. An open, turfed area for running and active play 3. A shaded area for quiet activities 4. Miscellaneous elements, including benches for supervising parents; walks and other paved areas wide enough for strollers, carriages, tricycles, wagons, etc. ; play apace dividers (fences, walks, trees, shrubs), a step-up drinking fountain, trash containers, and landscape planting .
Layout of Playlots The specific layout and shape of each playlot will be governed by the existing site conditions and the facilities to be provided . General principles of layout are described as follows: 1 . The intensively used part of the playlot with play equipment and special facilities should be surrounded by a low enclosure with supplemental planting, and provided with one entrance-exit. This design will discourage intrusion by animals or older children, provide adequate and safe control over the children, and prevent the area from becoming a thoroughfare. Adequate drainage should be provided . 2. Equipment should be selected and arranged with adequate surrounding space in small, natural play groups . Traffic flow should be planned to encourage movement throughout the playlot in a safe, orderly manner . This traffic flow may be facilitated with walks, plant. ings, low walls and benches. 3 . Equipment which enables large numbers of children to play without taking turns (climbers, play sculpture) should be located near the entrance, yet positioned so that it will not cause congestion . With such an arrangement, children will tend to move more slowly to equipment that limits participation and requires turns (swings, slides), thereby modifying the load factor and reducing conflicts. 4. Sand arese, play walls, playhouses, and play sculpture should be located away from such pieces of equipment as swings and slides for safety and to promote a creative atmosphere for the child's world of make believe . Artificial or natural shade is desirable over the sedentary play pieces, where children will play on hot days without immediate supervision . Play sculpture may be placed in the sand area to enhance its value by providing a greater variety of play opportunities . A portion of the area should be maintained free of equipment for general sand play that is not in conflict with traffic flow . 5. Swings or other moving equipment should be located near the outside of the equipment area, and should be sufficiently separated by walls or fences to discourage children from walking into them while they are moving . Swings should be oriented toward the beat view and away from the sun. Sliding equipment should preferably face north away from the summer sun. Equipment with metal surfaces should be located in available shade. 6. Spray pools should be centrally located, end step-up drinking fountains strategically placed for convenience and economy in relation to water supply and waste disposal lines. 7 . The open, turfed area for running end active play, and the shaded area for such quiet activities as reading and storytelling, should be closely related to the enclosed equipment area and serve as buffer space around it . 8. Nonmovable benches should be conveniently located to assure good visibility and protection of the children at play . Durable trash containers should be provided and conveniently located to maintain a neat, orderly appearance .
Playground Characteristics
1 . The playground is the chief center of outdoor play for kindergarten and school age children from 5 to 12 years of age. It also offers some opportunities for recreation for young people and adults . 2. The playground at every elementary school should be of sufficient size and design, and properly maintained, to serve both the elementary educational program and the recreational needs of all age groups in the neighborhood . Since education and recreation programs complement each other in many ways, unnecessary duplication of essential outdoor recreational facilities should be avoided . Only where this joint function is not feasible should a separate playground be developed. 3 . A playground may include (a) a playlot for preschool children, (b) an enclosed playground equipment area for elementary school children, (c) an open, turfed area for active games, (d) shaded areas for quiet activities, (a) a paved, multipurpose area, (f) an area for field games, and (g) circulation and buffer space.
Location of Playground
A playground is an integral part of a complete elementary school development. School playgrounds and other playgrounds should be readily accessible from and conveniently related to the housing area served . A playground should be within ',i to '/, mile of every family housing unit .
Size and Number of Playgrounds
Recommended size of a playground is a minimum of 6 to 8 acres, which would serve approximately 1,000 to 1,500 families . The smallest playground that will accommodate essential activity spaces is about 3 acres, serving approximately 250 families (about 110 elementary school children) . This minimum area should be increased at the rate of 0 .2 to 0.4 acres for each additional 50 families . More than one playground should be provided where (1) a complete school playground is not feasible, (2) the population to be served exceeds 1,500 families, or (3) the distance from the housing units is too great.
Playground Activity Spaces and Elements A playground should contain the following basic activity spaces and elements : 1 . A playlot, as described in the preceding section, with equipment and surfacing as recommended . 2. An enclosed playground equipment area with supplemental planting for elementary school children, and with equipment as recommended . 3. An open, turfed area for informal active games for elementary school children . 4. Shaded areas for quiet activities such as reading, storytelling, quiet games, handicrafts, picnicking and horseshoe pitching for both children and adults . 5. A paved and well-lighted, multipurpose
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Recreatïfm and Entertainment
PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
General Equipment Selection Factors
The following general factors should be considered in selecting equipment for playlots and playgrounds.
Layout of Playgrounds
The layout of a playground will vary according to size of available area, its topography, and the specific activities desired. It should fit the site with maximum preservation of the existing terrain and such natural site features as large shade trees, interesting ground forms, rock outcrops and streams. These features should be integrated into the layout to the maximum extent feasible for appropriate activity spaces, as natural divisions of various use areas, and for landscape interest . Grading should be kept to a minimum consistent with activity needs, adequate drainage and erosion control . General principles of layout are described as follows: 1 . The playlet and the playground equipment area should be located adjacent to the school and to each other. 2. An open, turfed area for informal active play should be located close to the playlet and the playground equipment area for convenient use by all elementary school children . 3. Areas for quiet activities for children and adults should be somewhat removed from active play spaces and should be close to treeshaded areas and other natural features of the site . 4. The paved multipurpose area should be set off from other areas by planting and so located near the school gymnasium that it may be used for physical education without disturbing other school classes. All posts or net supports required on the courts should be constructed with sleeves and caps which will permit removal of the posts and their supports. 5. The area for field games should be located on fairly level, well-drained land with finished grades not in excess of 2.5 percent; a minimum grade of 1 percent is acceptable on pervious soils having good percolation for proper drainage . 6. In general, the area of a playground may be divided as follows: (a) Approximately half of the area should be parklike, including the open, turfed areas for active play, the shaded areas for quiet activities, and the miscellaneous elements as described in 7 below ; (b) the other half of the area should include ;G to 1 acre for the playlet, playground equipment area, and the paved, multipurpose area, and 1Y4 acres (for softball) to 4 acres (for baseball) for the field games area . 7. The playground site should be fully developed with landscape planting for activity control and traffic control, and for attractiveness . This site also should have accessible public shelter, storage for maintenance and recreation equipment, toilet facilities, drinking fountains, walks wide enough for strollers and carriages, bicycle paths, benches for adults and children, and trash containers .
Developmental and Recreational Yahlms All equipment should contribute to the healthy growth and recreational enjoyment of the child, so that he learns to coordinate, cooperate, compete, create, enjoy, and acquire confidence . Play equipment should : 1 . Develop strength, agility, coordination, balance, and courage. 2. Stimulate the child to learn social skills of sharing and playing with others, and to compete in a spirit of fair play . 3. Encourage each child to be creative and have play experiences which are meaningful to him. 4. Permit the child to have fun and a sense of complete enjoyment. 5. Assist the child in making the transition from playlet to playground .
Child Preference and Capacity
Play equipment, to be selected with due regard to the child's changing preference, maturity, and capacity, should : 1 . Be scaled and proportioned to meet the child's physical and emotional capacities at different age levels . 2. Permit the child to do some things alone without direct adult supervision or assistance . 3. Provide a wide variety of play opportunities to accommodate changing interests of the child. 4. Free the child's imagination. 5. Meet a variety of interests, abilities, and aptitudes . Safety of Participants All play equipment should be designed and built for safety of the participants, and: 1 . Be free of all sharp protruding surfaces caused by welds, rivets, bolts, or joints . 2. Have sufficient structural strength to withstand the expected loads. 3. Be designed to discourage incorrect use and to minimize accidents ; examples are seats that discourage children from standing in swings, slides that require children to sit down before sliding, and steps or ladders that discourage more than one participant at a time . 4. Have hand or safety rails on all steps and ladders, and nonskid treads on all steps. 5. Be installed in accordance with the specific directions of the manufacturer . 6. Be placed over suitable surfaces that will reduce the danger of injury or abrasions in the event a child falls from the climbing, moving or sliding equipment. (A safe landing surface should be provided at the and of a slide chute.) Durability of Equipment Equipment that is durable should be selected . It should be made of materials which are of sufficient strength and quality to withstand normal play wear . Wood should be used only where metal or plastics have serious disadvantages. All metal parts should be galvanized or manufactured of corrosion-resistant metals . All movable boarings should be of an oilless type . Equipment should be designed as vandal-resistant as possible (for example, wire-reinforced seats for swings) .
Equipment with Eye Appeal All play equipment should be designed and selected for function, for visual appeal to stimulate the child's imagination, with pleasing proportions and
with colors in harmonious contrast to each other and the surroundings . Play equipment may have a central theme, to reflect historical significance of the area, a storybook land, a nautical motif or a space flight motif. The theme may be carried out by constructing retaining or separation walls to resemble a corral, ship, or airplane, and by appropriate design of such elements as paving, benches, and trash cans .
Ease of 11Aaintsnancs Equipment should be selected which requires a minimum of maintenance. Purchased equipment should be products of established manufacturers who can provide a standard parts list . Equipment parts which are subject to wear should be replaceable . Color should be impregnated into the material, if feasible, to avoid repainting . Sand areas should be surrounded by a retaining wall and be maintained regularly to remove foreign objects end loosen the sand as a suitable play medium . Supervision Equipment should be selected that requires a minimum of direct supervision . Basic Play Equipment
General Play equipment may include swings, slides, and merry-go-rounds ; various types of climbers ; balancing equipment such an balance beams, conduit, leaping posts, and boxes ; hanging equipment such as parallel bars, horizontal bars, and ladders ; play walls and playhouses ; and a variety of play sculpture forms. Different types of play equipment should be provided for preschool children and for elementary school children to meet the developmental and recreational needs of the two age groups . Playlot Equipment for Preschool Children The following table indicates types, quantities, and minimum play space requirements for various types of equipment totaling about 2,800 sq ft ; this area, plus additional space for circulation and play space dividers, will accommodate a full range of playlet equipment serving a neighborhood containing approximately 50 preschool children (about 165 families).
Equipment Climber . . Junior swing . . . set . (4 . . swings) . . . . . Play sculpture . . . . . . . . . Play wall or playhouse . . . Sand area . . . . . . . . . . . Slide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spray pool lincluding deck)
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Number of pieces 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Play space requirements, ft 10 16 10 15 15 10 30
x 25 x 32 x 10 x 15 x 15 x 25 x 36
Smaller playlots may be developed to serve a neighborhood containing some 30 children (about 100 families), using a limited selection of equipment with play space requirements totaling about 1,200 aq ft ; this area, plus additional space for circulation and play space dividers, should consider the following desirable priorities : (1) a sand area ; (2) a climbing device such as a climber, a play wall or a piece of play sculpture ; (3) a slide, and (4) a swing set. Where several playlots are provided, the equipment selections should be complementary, rather than all being the same type. For example, one playlet may include play walls or a playhouse, while another playlet may provide a piece of play sculpture. Also, such a costly but popular item as a spray pool may be justified in only one out of every two or three playlets provided .
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS Playground Equipment for Elementary School Children The following table indicates types, quantities, and minimum play space requirements totaling about 6,600 eq ft ; this area, plus additional space for circulation, miscellaneous elements, and buffer zones, will accommodate a full range of playground equipment serving approximately 50 children at one time. Equipment
Balance beam . . . . . . . . . Climbers . . . . . . . . . . . . Climbing poles . . . . . . . . Horizontal bars . . . . . . . . Horizontal ladder . . . . . . . Merry-go-round . . . . . . . . Parallel bars . . . . . . . . . . Senior swino sat (B swings) Slide . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. .
. . . . . .
Number of pieces 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1
Play space requirements . ft 15 x 30 21 x 50 10 X 20 15 X 30 15 x 30 40 X 40 15 x 30 30 x 45 12 x 35
Surfacing
General Selection of suitable surfacing materials for each type of play area and for circulation paths or walks, roads, and parking areas, should be based on the following considerations : 1 . Function The surface should suit the purpose and the specific function of the area (such as surfaces for court games or field games, and surfaces under play equipment) . The surface should also be considered from the basis of whether the area is multipurpose or single-purpose, end for seasonal or yearround usage. 2, Economy The factors of economy are the initial cost, replacement cost, and maintenance cost . Often an initially more expensive surfacing is the least expensive in the long run because of reduced maintenance. 3. Durability The durability of the surface should be evaluated in light of its resistance to the general wear caused by the participants, and resistance to extended periods of outdoor
weathering such as sunlight, rain, freezing, sand, and dust . 4. Cleanliness The surface should be clean and attractive to participants, it should not attract or harbor insects or rodents, and it should not track into adjacent buildings or cause discoloration to children's clothing . be must 5. Maintenance Maintenance evaluated not only in light of the cost, but also of the time when the facility is not available for use due to repair or upkeep . 6 . Safety The safety of the participants is a primary consideration in selecting a play surface and should not be compromised for the sake of economy. 7. Appearance A surface which has an attractive appearance and harmonizes with its surroundings is very desirable . Surfacing materials should encourage optimum use and enjoyment by all participants, and channel the activities in an orderly manner by providing visual contrasts . Evaluation of Surfacing Materiels 1 . Turf This materiel is generally considered to be the beat surface for many of the recreation activities carried on at playlots and playgrounds . Although turf is not feasible for play areas having heavy participant use, most park and recreation authorities recommend using turf wherever practicable . Underground irrigation sprinkler systems with rubber top valves should be specified in areas with inadequate seasonal rainfall to maintain a turf cover. Major reasons for using turf are that it is relatively soft, providing greater safety than other surfaces, and it has a pleasing, restful appearance with great appeal to participants . A turf surface is especially suitable for open and informal play areas for younger children, and the large field game areas for sports and general recreation use . flexible Concrete This 2. Bituminous paving material is the most generally used
material for paving play areas. The designer should note that various asphalt grades and mixes are available, as well as color-coatings to improve appearance and maintenance . A suitable mix and careful grade control should be used to obtain a smooth, even surface, economical construction, and little or no maintenance. Bituminous concrete pavement is especially useful for paved, multipurpose areas, for tennis, basketball, and volleyball courts, roller skating and ice skating rinks, and for walks, roads, and parking areas. 3. Portland Cement Concrete This rigid paving material is the most favored type of surface for use in specialized areas where permanence is desired, and to provide uniformity, maximum durability, and little or no maintenance . A Portland cement concrete surface is especially useful for court games requiring a true, even surface, such as tennis and handball, for shuffleboard courts, roller skating and ice skating rinks, and for walks, curbs, roads, and parking areas.' 4. Synthetic Materials Synthetic materials that have a cushioning effect are being used by some school, park and recreation departments, primarily for safety, under play equipment . Several companies have developed successful resilient materials which provide excellent safety surfaces ; these have been more expensive then the other materials discussed . 5. Miscellaneous Materials Materials used for specific areas include sand, sawdust, tanbark, or wood chips around and under play equipment, earth on baseball diamond infields, and brick, flagstone, or tile on walks and terraces . ' NOTE : Portland cement concrete and bituminous concrete surfaces are generally considered for many of the same uses . Selection of either one should include appropriateness for the purpose intended, the initia cost, and long-term cost, at each location .
AREAS & EQUIPMENT Desirable standards for recreation facilities have been set up by the National Recreation Association and are generally recognized. Absolute standardization is impossible because of variable factors: climatic population institutional conditions ; or needs, habits or preferences ; and available
land or money. Information on these pages may be used in planning and space allocation, Basic general standard for public areas Is 1 acre of open space per 100 total pop-
ulation, of which 40 to 50 per cent should be devoted to games or other active recreation. (See also recommendations in section on "Apartments.") No set formula has been established for institutions such as churches, schools, colleges . Local conditions, such as extent of participation in organized athletics, available money, etc., should govern the choice ; however, ployfields for elementary and grammar schools may follow schemes outlined below.
Game areas and layouts contained in the drawings are based on practice of the New York City Department of Parks. Where games are subject to official rules, consult publications of athletic organizations or other governing bodies . Types of public recreational areas have been set up by the National Recreation Association, based on age groups and urban or suburban needs. Surfacing of play areas influences utility, extent and cost of upkeep, and extent of playing season . Local materials, climate, soil, intensity of use and tradition influence choice of surfacing . In general all areas require effective surface or subsurface drainage or both .
THE PLAYLOT Playlots are intended for children of preschool age and are commonly provided in densely populated areas as a substitute for backyard play . They are also provided in
interiors of large blocks in neighborhood or housing developments, often for nursery schools . Size may vary from 6,000 to 10,000 sq ft for each 100 preschool children . Location should be centered among population served, and accessible without crossIng traffic arteries . Interior of a block is Ideal If one block only is served, If available space is limited, a corner of children's
playground may be used . Plan elements include . (1) central grass plot ; (2) areas with shade trees, in which apparatus and benches are set; (3) hardsurfaced walkway for wheel toys, veloci-
Table 1 .
Table 2.
Playlots
Type of Equipment or Area Apparatus Junglegym, Jr. Low Slide Low Swing Low See-saw
Area Capacity Suggested per Unit In Number (Sq. Ft .) Children Included 180 170 150 100
10 6 1 2
1 1-1 4-8 4-8
Miscellaneous
Varies with pop. 48 - 50 per child to be served 20 per child 7-8 per 1 Block Bldg . Platform 150 per platform platform __ 18-20 per child 1-2 Sand Box 300 per 15 __ box _ Benches & Tables Optional Varies l Shelter for Baby Buggies Optional Varies I Flag Pole In open I Bird Beth area Drinking Fountain 1 Open Space
'Sand bones should be located so as to reserve direct sunlight part of each day for reasons of senftaaon.
pedes, etc. ; (4) surrounding low fence or hedge. Distribution of area may vary with topography, apparatus included and child population served . Minimum recommendations of National Recreation Association are given in Table l . CHILDREN'S PLAYGROUNDS These are intended for children 5 to 15 years old. A subdivision of this type, characterized by smaller area and fewer facilities, is called the Junior or Primary Playground, and is intended for children up to 10 or 11 years. Size of children's playgrounds ranges from 3 acres (minimum) to 7 acres. General
recommendation is 1 acre per 1,000 total population . Two small playgrounds are usually more satisfactory than one of excessive size when population served requires a large acreage. Location is usually in an area developed for this particular use, adjoining a grade school, in a neighborhood or large park, or a portion of a neighborhood playfield. Maximum radius of area to be served should preferably not exceed one-half mile ; in areas of dense population or sub. ject to heavy traffic, one-quarter mile .
Plan elements may be subdivided into apparatus section, specialized sports area, landscaping, and miscellaneous activities . Areas required ore given in Table 2. Selection and distribution of areas and equip.
Children's playgrounds
Type of Equipment or Area Apparatus Slide Horizortal Bars Horizontal Ladders Traveling Rings Giant Stride Smell Junglegym Low Swing High Swing Balance Beam See-saw Medium Junglegym
Area Capacity gested r Unit in Number (Sq. t.) Children Included 450 180 375 625 1,225 180 150 250 100 100 500
6 4 8 6 6 10 1 1 4 2 20
10,000
80 40 30 30 15 __30
11e) 1 110
Special Sports Areas Soccer Field Playground Baseball Vo lley Bell Court Basketball Court Jumping Pits Paddle Tennis Courts Handball Courts Tether Tennis Courts Horseshoe Courts Tennis Courts Straightaway Track
3,000 1,600 2,D00 300 2,500 36,000 20,000 2,800 3,750 1,200 1,800 1,050 400 600 7,200 7,200
22 20 20 16 12 4 4 2 4 4 10
1 2 1 1 1 2 4 ") 2 2(") 2 21 ") 1 1 ")
Paths, Circulation, etc.
1e)6,OOD 1') 7,000
Miss . Equip't & Areas Open Space for Games (Ages 6-1o) Wading Pool Handcraft, QuietGaines Outdoor Theater Sand Box Shelter House
(a)
Landscaping
1 161 3(6) 2(6)
1 1 1 4 1 a) 64) 1 4 1
1(e)
1 2 1 1a)
FHE
Minimum desirable. (b) One or all of these units may be omitted if playground is not used in conjunction with a school . (c) May be omitted if sanitary facilities are supplied elsewhere. (d) May be omitted if space is limited.
meat should be based on local preference, space and money available, and topography. Guides to selection of individual game areas or equipment are included in the footnotes to Table 2 where practicable. In addition to the usual playground equipment listed on this page, some special equipment intended to stimulate imaginative play is now widely used . The examples following were pioneering efforts in this field, developed by the New York City Housing Authority in the late 1940's . A play boat and a play airplane, included in the original line of equipment, proved to be too expensive and too hazardous and
are no longer used . A wide variety of imaginative playground equipment has been developed in recent years and is available from several commercial sources .
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
Figures 1-4 are from A Playground for All Children: Design Competition Program, NYC DCP 76-13, HUD, OPDR, August 1976 .
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
Fig . 2
Kindergarten swing (age 3 to 6) .
Fig . 3
Play swing (age 6 to 11) .
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
Recreation and Entertainment PLAYLOTS AND PLAYGROUNDS
Recreation and Entertainment BADMINTON
ISOMETRIC SHOWING NET
COURTLAVOUT
Fig. 1 Badminton court. All measurements for court markings are to the outside of lines except for those involving the center service line which is equally divided between right and left service courts. All court markings to be l'/2" wide and preferably white or in color. Minimum distance between sides of parallel courts to be S'-0". For net post details see Fig. 51 . For surfacing details see Figs . 58 to 61 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 1620 sq ft minimum to edge of pavement. Size and Dimension Singles court is 17' X 44', doubles court is 20' X 44' with a 5'-0" minimum unobstructed area on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with optional protective colorcoating for permanent installation . Drainage is to be end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft . Badminton may be played on a turf court for general recreation use, with surface drainage as described above at a minimum slope of 2% and adequate underdrainage.
Material on pp . 1064-1117 from Outdoor Sports Facilities, Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Washington, D.C ., 1975 .
Recreation and Entertainment BASKETBALL (AAU)
Fig. 2 AAU basketball court. All dimensions are to inside edge of lines except as noted. All lines to . The front shall be flat be .05 m (2") wide. Backboard shall be of any rigid weather-resistant materialshall be marked with a and painted white unless it is transparent. If the backboard is transparent, It .OS-m-wide white line around the border and a .45 X .59-m target area bounded with a .OS-m-wide white line.
Recommended Area Ground space is 448 m2 minimum to 540 m2 recommended, including clear space. Size and Dimension Playing court is 14 X 26 m with an unobstructed space of 1 m minimum to 2 m recommended on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with optional protective colorcoating . Drainage is to be end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 0 .02 m in 3.05 m I1 m. in 10 ft.) . See Figs . 59 and 61 . Special Considerations Safety-Backboard is to be 1 .65 m from support post. Post may be padded.
Recreation and Entertainment BASKETBALL (NCAA)
Fig. 3 NCAA basketball. The color of the lane space marks and neutral zone marks shall contrast with the color of the bounding lines. The midcourt marks shall be the same color as the bounding lines. All lines shall be 2 in wide (neutral zone excluded). All dimensions are to inside edge of lines except as noted. Backboard shall be of any rigid weather-resistant material. The front surface shall be flat and painted white unless it is transparent. If the backboard is transparent, it shall be marked with a 3-in wide while line around the border and an 18 X 24-in target area . If the backboard is transparent, it shall be marked with a 3-in wide white line around the border and an 18 X 24-în target area bounded with a 2-in wide white line .
Recommended Area High School, ground space is 5040 sq ft minimum to 7280 sq ft maximum. Collegiate: ground space is 5600 sq ft minimum to 7980 sq ft maximum. Size and Dimension Nigh school recommended court is 84 X 50 ft with a 10-ft unobstructed space on all sides (3 ft minimum) . Collegiate recommended court is 94 X 50 ft with a 10-ft unobstructed space on all sides 13 ft minimum) . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with optional protective colorcoating . (See Figs. 59 and 61 .) Drainage is to be end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft . Special Considerations Safety-Backboard and goal support should have a minimum 32-in overhang and post may be padded if desired. Bottom edge and lower sides of rectangular backboard must be padded .
Recreation and Entertainment BIDDY BASKETBALL
Fig. 4 Biddy basketball . All dimensions are to inside edge of lines except as noted. All lines shall be 2 in wide . For surfacing details see Figs . 59 and 61 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 2,400 to 3,036 sq ft, including clear space. Size and Dimension Playing court is 46'-0" to 50'-0" wide and 84'-0" long with an unobstructed space of at least 3 ft recommended on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with optional protective colorcoating . Drainage is to be end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 1 in . in 10 ft. Special Considerations Safety-Backboard support standard is to be a minimum of 2 ft, preferably 4 ft, outside of the court area . Post may be padded .
Recreation and Entertainment GOAL-HI BASKETBALL
Fig. 5 Goal-Hi basketball. All court markings to be 2 in wide. For surfacing details see Figs. 59 and 61 . Goal-Hi standard may be permanently mounted, removable Rush mounted, or portable as shown.
Recommended Area Ground space minimum is 1256 sq ft ; maximum is 2827 sq ft. Size and Dimension Playing court is to be an Outer Court circle with a minimum radius of 20'0" and a maximum radius of 30'-0", surrounding an Inner Court circle with a minimum radius of 10'-0" and a maximum radius of 15'-0" .
Orientation
Optional.
Surface and DraInage Concrete or bituminous surface may be used for minimum maintenance, but a resilient synthetic surface is preferred for safety and comfort. Minimum slope is 1 in . i n 10 ft for drainage in any direction .
Recreation and Entertainment BOCCIE BALL
metal pins . For surfacing Fig. 6 Roccie . Court markings to be 2-in wide linen tape held in place with details see Figs . 58 and 60.
Recommended Area 2,816 sq ft .
Ground space is 1,824 to
Sise and Dimension Overall court dimensions are 13'-0" to 19'-6" wide by 78'-0" to 92'-0" long . Additional space of at least 3'-0" on each side and 9'-0" on each end is recommended . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south although it is of minor importance.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be preferably turf, although a mixture of sand and clay may be used . Drainage may be in any direction at a recommended slope of 1 percent for turf and level for sand-clay with underdroinage. Special Considerations Optional low wooden barrier should be provided at each end and/or side of court.
Recreation and Entertainment CROQUET
Fig . 7 croquet court . Arches are 1/2-in die. steel rod-3'/s in wide and 9 in above the ground when in place . Stakes shall be made of steel and shall be firmly anchored . They shall be 11 in high and set l'/2 in outside the playing line halfway between the end corners . Boundary lines are marked with strong cotton twine held by corner staples. Playing lines may be either imaginary or marked with white chalk or with smaller twine wired close to the ground . For surfacing details see Fig . 58.
Recommended Area ft .
Ground space is 3,000 sq
Sise and Dimension Playing area is 35 X 70 ft, plus minimum 2 ft-6 in on each end and side . Orientation Orientation is not critical and may be adjusted to suit local topographic conditions .
Playing surface is to be Surface and Drainage turf closely cropped and rolled with a maximum 2 percent slope (preferably level) and adequate underdrainage .
Recreation and Entertainment ONE-WALL HANDBALL
Fig. 8 One-wall handball . Court markings 11/2-in-wide lines painted white, red, or yellow. For surfacing details see Fig. 59 . For fence details see Fig. 55 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 1665 sq ft plus walls and footings . Size and Dimension Playing court is 20'-0" wide by 34'-0" long plus a required 11'-0" minimum width of surfaced area to the rear and a recommended 8'-6" minimum width on each side . Courts in battery are to be a minimum of 6'-0" between courts . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south with the wall at the north end.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be smooth concrete with a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft from the wall to the rear of the court. Special Considerations Fencing-Court area preferably should be fenced with a 10-ft high chain link fence.
Recreation and Entertainment THREE- AND FOUR-WALL HANDBALL
Fig. 9 Handball court layout-Four-wall . All court markings to be l'/2 in wide and painted white, red, or yellow. For surfacing details see Fig. 59. Fig. 10 Handball court layout-Three-wall. All court markings to be l ''/a in wide and pointed white, red, or yellow . For surfacing details see Fig. 59 .
Recommended Area Ground space for four-wall handball is 800 sq ft, plus walls and footing . Allow an additional 200 sq ft for three-wall handball . Size and Dimension Playing court is 20'-0" wide by 40'-0" long plus a minimum 10'-0" to the rear of the three-wall court. Overhead clearance required is 20'-0" minimum. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south with the front wall at north end.
1072
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be smooth concrete preferably with a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft from front to rear of the court. Considerations Alternate four-wall Special court-Layout is the same as for three-wall with the exception of a minimum 12'0" high back wall at the rear of the court (long line) and necessary wall footings . Special provisions for drainage must be made and access provided through the back wall for four-wall courts . Fencing-An optional 10-ft-high chain link fence may be provided at the rear of the pavement for three-wall courts .
Recreation and Entertainment HOPSCOTCH
Fig . 11 Hopscotch court layout . All lines to be 1 1/a in wide painted with white or black acrylic paint to contrast with court surface . For surfacing details see Fig. 61 .
Recommended Area ft .
Ground space is 62 .5 sq
Size and Dimension by 12'-6" long .
Playing court is 5'-0" wide
Orientation
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with a lateral slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft and a longitudinal slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft minimum .
Optional .
1073
Recreation and Entertainment HORSESHOES
Fig . 12
Horseshoe pitching court.
Recommended Area Ground space is 1,400 sq ft, including clear space . Size and Dimension Playing court is 10'-0" X 50'-0" plus a recommended 10-ft minimum unobstructed area on each end and a 5-ft (minimum) wide zone on each side . Orientation Recommended orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
1074
Surface and Drainage Surface of playing area, except for boxes and optional concrete walkways, should be turf . Area should be pitched to the side at a maximum slope of 2 percent. Elevation and slant of steel pegs should be between 2 and 3 in and equal . Special Considerations Boxes are to be filled with gummy potter's or blue clay . Safety-A 2'0"-high backstop should be constructed at the end of the box to intercept overthrown or bounding shoes .
Recreation and Entertainment ICE HOCKEY
Fig . 13 Ice hockey rink . The rink shall be surrounded by a wooden wall or fence known as the "boards" which shall extend not less than 40 in nor more than 48 in above the level of the ice surface. Ideal 42 in . The surface of the boards facing the ice shall be smooth and free from obstructions . All access doors to the playing surface must swing away from the ice surface. A protective screening of heavygauge wire or safety glass is recommended above the boards, except for the bench areas, for the protection of spectators around the rink . The centerline and the two blue lines shall extend across the rink and vertically to the top of the boards . Surface to be flooded may be sand-clay or bituminous material (see Fig . 60 or 61) .
Recommended Area Ground space is 22,000 sq ft, including support area . Size and Dimension Playing rink is 85'-0" wide by 200'-0" (minimum 185'-0") long, plus an additional 5,000 sq ft of support area . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
Surface and Drainage The ice surface should be level over either sand-clay or bituminous surface . Provisions for drainage should be made on the surface beneath the ice and around the rink. Special Considerations Ice-Unless situated in northern climates, provisions for artificial ice will be required .
1075
Recreation and Entertainment LAWN BOWLING
Fig. 14 Lawn bowling green. Side boundaries of rinks to be marked with a 2-in-wide green linen tape attached with pins. The four corners of the rinks shall be indicated by pins driven flush with the face of the bank on each end. Centerline of each rink shall be marked by a pin or number panel. For surfacing details see Fig. 58 or 60.
Recommended Area Square green with six rinks is 12,996 sq ft minimum to 17,424 sq ft maximum. Size and Dimension Square green is 110 ft minimum and 125 ft maximum on each side . Additional width of 2'-0" minimum to 3'-6" maximum is required on front, rear, and sides for ditch and backslope. Rink width minimum is 14'-0", maximum 19'-0" . Rink length minimum is 110'-0", maximum 125'-0" .
1076
Orientation
Optional .
Surface and Drainage Surface should be of closely cropped bent grass or sand-clay. Entire green should be level, with adequate underdrainage. Special Considerations Ditch-Depth minimum 2 in, maximum 8 in below surface of green. Width minimum 8 in, maximum 15 in .
Recreation and Entertainment ROQUE
Fig. 15 Roque court. Boundary lines are marked by a light depression in playing surface without raising adjacent soil . Arches are 5/8-in dia. steel rod, 3-3/8 in wide and 8 in above the surface and set in 8 in X 15 in X 6 in concrete anchors . Stakes are 1/4-in dia. steel, set rigidly in the ground and extending 2 in above the surface. Playing surface should be hard, smooth and level sand-clay (see Fig. 60).
Recommended Area Ground space is 1,800 sq ft minimum, plus curb . Size and Dimension by 60'-0" long .
Playing court is 30'-0" wide
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be level and sand-clay mixture . Drainage is to be through perimeter system and/or through underdrains . Special Considerations provided on all sides.
Concrete curb is to be
1077
Recreation and Entertainment SHUFFLEBOARD
Fig. 16 Shuffleboard court . All dimensions are to centers of lines and to edge of court. Maximum line width 1 1/2 in, minimum 3/4 in . Lines and Figures "10," "g," "7," and "10 OFF" should be marked with black shoe dye or black acrylic paint. Court to be constructed of concrete without expansion joints . A depressed alley at least 24 in wide, and not less than 4 in deep at midcourf, should be constructed between courts and on the outside of end courts. The alley should slope 1 in . in the first 6 ft of the length of the alley from each baseline, then slope to a minimum depth of 4 in at midcourt where a suitable water drain should be provided .
Recommended Area minimum.
Ground space is 312 sq ft
Size and Dimension Playing court is 6'-0" X 52'-0" plus a recommended minimum of 2'-0" on each side or 4'-0" between courts in battery. Orientation Recommended orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
1078
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete with a burnished finish . Court surface is to be level with drainage away from the playing surface on all sides. Special Considerations Secure covered storage for playing equipment should be provided near the court area .
Recreation and Entertainment DECK TENNIS
Fig. 17 Deck tennis court. All measurements for court markings are to the outside of lines except for those involving the center service line, which is equally divided between right and left service court . All court markings to be 11/2 in wide . Fence enclosure, if provided, should be 11/2-in mesh, 11 gauge chain link. For fence details, see Fig. 55 . For net post details see Fig. 51 or 52. For surfacing details see Fig. 59 or 61 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 1300 sq ft including clear space. Sise and Dimension Singles court is 12'-0" by 40'-0" . Doubles court is 18'-0" by 40'-0" . Additional paved area at least 4'-0" on sides and 5'-0" on ends is recommended. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with optional protective colorcoating . Drainage is to be end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft . Special Considerations Fencing-10-ft-high chain link fence is recommended on all sides of the court.
1079
Recreation and Entertainment PLATFORM TENNIS
Fig . 18 Platform tennis court . All measurements for court markings are to the outside of lines except for those involving the center service line, which is equally divided between right and left service court . All court markings to be 2 in wide . Fencing required-12'-0" high with 16-gauge hexagonal, galvanized 1-in flat wire mesh fabric . For net post details see manufacturers' literature. Net height to be 3'-1" at posts and 2'-10" at center court.
Recommended area Ground space is 1,800 sq ft to the playable perimeter fence . Size and Dimension Playing court is 20'-0" X 44'-0" plus an 8'-0" space on each end and a 5-0" space on each side . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south . Surface and Drainage Raised level platform is normally constructed of treated wood or aluminum superstructure with carriage set on concrete piers to permit construction on slopes . Drainage
1080
is provided by 1/e -in space between 6-in deck planks or channels . Snow removal is facilitated by hinged panels (snow gates) between posts around bottom of perimeter fence . Special Considerations Tension fencing-12-ft high, 16-gauge, hexagonal, galvanized, 1-in flat wire mesh fabric must be provided on all sides of the court . Lights should be provided, since this game is played at night throughout the year . -Heating units with fans under the platform are used in cold climates . Prefabricated courts are available from several n,onufaciurers .
Recreation and Entertainment PADDLE TENNIS
Fig. 19 Paddle tennis court. All measurements for court markings are to the outside of lines except for those involving the center service line, which is equally divided between right and left service court. All court markings to be 1 1/2 in wide. Fence enclosure, if provided, should be 11/2 in mesh, 11gauge chain link. For fence details see Fig. 55 . For net post details see Fig. 51 . For surfacing details see Fig. 59 or 61 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 3,200 sq ft minimum to edge of pavement. Sise and Dimension Playing court is 20'-0" X 50'-0" plus a 15-ft minimum space on each end and a 10-ft minimum space on each side or between courts in battery . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be concrete or bituminous material with optional protective colorcoating . Drainage is to be end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft . Special Considerations Fencing-l0-ft-high chain link fence is recommended on all sides of the court.
108 1
Recreation and Entertainment TENNIS
Fig. 20 Tennis court. All measurements for court markings are to the outside of lines except for those involving the center service line which is equally divided between the right and left service courts . All court markings to be 2 in wide. Fence enclosure, if provided, should be 10-ft-high, 11-gauge, 1 3/4 in mesh chain link . For fence details see Fig. 55 . Minimum distance between sides of parallel courts to be 12'-0" . For net post details see Fig. 52 . For surfacing details see Fig. 59, 60, or 61 .
Recommended Area ft minimum.
1082
Ground space is 7,200 sq
Size and Dimension Playing court is 36 X 78 ft plus at least 12 ft clearance on both sides or between courts in battery and 21 ft clearance on each end.
Surface and Drainage Surface may be concrete, or bituminous material with specialized protective colorcoating, or sand-clay . Drainage may be from end to end, side to side, or corner to corner diagonally at a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft for pavement and level for sand-clay with underdrainage .
Orientation Orientation of long axis is to be north-south.
Special Considerations Fencing-Recommended 10-ft-high chain link fence on all sides.
Recreation and Entertainment TETHER BALL
Fig. 21 Tetherball court. All measurements for court markings are to center of lines. All court markings to be 2 in wide. If colorcoating is used, the neutral zones and the playing zones should be of contrasting colors. For surfacing details see Fig. 59 or 61 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 314 sq ft minimum to circumference of outer circle . Size and Dimension Playing court is a circle 20'0" in diameter. Pole height is 10 ft . Orientation Recommended axis through playing zone is north-south.
Surface and Drainage Concrete or bituminous surface may be used for minimum maintenance, but a resilient synthetic surface or wood chips with adequate underdrainage is preferred for safety and comfort. Minimum slope is 1 in . i n 10 ft for drainage in any direction .
1083
Recreation and Entertainment VOLLEYBALL
Fig . the 61 . For
22 Volleyball court. All measurements for court markings are to the outside of lines except for centerline . All court markings to be 2 in wide except as noted . For surfacing details see Figs . 58 to Net height at center to be: men 8'-0", women 7'-41/4", high school 7'-0", elementary school 6'-6" . net and post details see Fig . 53.
Recommended Area ft .
Ground space is 4000 sq
Size and Dimension Playing court is 30 X 60 ft plus 6 ft minimum, 10 ft preferred, unobstructed space on all sides . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be north-south .
1084
Surface and Drainage Recommended surface for intensive use is to be bituminous material or concrete, but sand-clay or turf may be used for informal play . Drainage is to be end to end, side to side or corner to corner at a minimum slope of 1 in . i n 10 ft .
ROaEB
Babe Ruth Baseball (13-15 yr and 16-18 yr) ; Senior League Baseball (13-15 yr)
Fig. 23 Official baseball diamond. Foul lines, catcher's, batter's, and coach's boxes, next batters circles, and 3-ft line shall be 2 to 3 in wide and marked with chalk or other white material . Caustic lime must not be used . Infield may be skinned . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57. For surfacing details see Fig. 58 . For backstop details see Fig. 62 .
Recommended Area acres minimum.
Ground space is 3.0 to 3.85
Size and Dimension Baselines are 90'-0" . Pitching distance is 60'-6" . Pitcher's plate is 10 in above the level of home plate. Distance down foul lines is 320 ft minimum, 350 ft preferred . Outfield distance to center field is 400 ft -I- . For Senior League Baseball, recommended distance from home plate to outfield fence at all points is 300 ft -I- . Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across
the sun and the batter is not facing it . The line from home plate through the pitcher's mound and second base should run east-northeast .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Infield may be skinned, and shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level . Special Considerations Backstop is to be provided at a minimum distance of 40 ft or preferably 60 ft behind home plate.
1085
Recreation and Entertainment BASEBALL Bronco League (9-12 yr)
Fig. 24 Bronco league baseball diamond, Foul lines, catcher's, batter's, and coach's boxes, next batter's circles, and 3-ft restraining lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with white chalk or other white material . Caustic lime must not be used . Infield may be skinned. For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig. S8 . For backstop details see Fig. 62.
Recommended area minimum.
Ground space is 1 .0 acre
Size and Dimension Baselines are 70'-0" . Pitching distance is 48'-0" . Pitcher's plate is 6 in above the level of home plate. Distance down foul line is 175 ft. Outfield distance to pocket in center field is 225 ft . Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across
1086
the sun and the batter is not facing it . The line from home plate through the pitcher's mound and second base should run east-northeast . Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Infield may be skinned, and shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level. Special Considerations Backstop is to be provided at a recommended distance of 20 ft behind home plate.
Recreation and Entertainment BASEBALL Pony League (13-14 yr)
Fig. 25 Pony league baseball diamond . Foul lines, catcher's, batter's, and coach's boxes, next butter's circles, and 3-ft restraining lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with white chalk or other white material. Caustic lime must not be used. Infield may be skinned . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57. For surfacing details see Fig. 58. For backslap details see Fig. 62 .
Recommended Area minimum .
Ground space is 2.0 acres
Size and Dimension Baselines are 80'-0" . Pitching distance is 54'-0" . Pitcher's plate is 8 in above the level of home plate. Distance down foul line is 250 ft . Outfield distance to pocket in center field is 300 ft . Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across
the sun and the batter is not facing it . The line from home plate through the pitcher's mound and second base should run east-northeast . Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Infield may be skinned, and shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level. Special Considerations Backstop is to be provided at a recommended distance of 40 ft behind home plate.
1087
Recreation and Entertainment BASEBALL Colt League (15-16 yr)
Fig . 26 Colt league baseball diamond . Foul lines, catcher's, batter's, and coach's boxes, next batter's circles, and 3-ft restraining lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with while chalk or other white material . Caustic lime must not be used . Infield may be skinned . For grading and drainage details see Fig . 57 . For surfacing details see Fig . 58. For backstop details see Fig . 62 .
Recommended Area minimum .
Ground space is 3 .0 acres
Size and Dimension Baselines are 90'-0" . Pitching distance is 60'-6" . Pitcher's plate is 10 in above the level of home plate . Distance down foul line is 300 ft . Outfield distance to pocket in center field is 350 ft. Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across
1088
the sun and the batter is not facing it . The line from home plate through the pitcher's mound and second base should run east-northeast . Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Infield may be skinned, and shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level . Special Considerations Backstop is to be provided at a recommended distance of 60 ft behind home plate .
Recreation and Entertainment BASEBALL Little League (9-12 yr)
boxes, next batter's Fig. 27 Little league baseball diamond . Foul lines, cotcher's, batters, and coach's other white material . circles, and 3-ft restraining lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with white chalk or details see Fig. 57 . Caustic lime must not be used . Infield may be skinned. For grading and drainage For surfacing details see Fig. 58 . For backstop details see Fig. 62.
Recommended Area minimum.
Ground space is 1 .2 acres
Size and Dimension Baselines are 60'-0" . Pitching distance is 46'-0" . Pitcher's plate is 6 in above the level of home plate. Distance down foul line is 200 ft . Outfield distance to pocket in center field is 200 to 250 ft optional . Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across
the sun and the batter is not facing it . The line from home plate through the pitcher's mound and second base should run east-northeast . Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Infield may be skinned, and shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level . Special Considerations Backstop is to be provided at a recommended minimum distance of 25 ft behind home plate.
1089
Recreation and Entertainment FIELD HOCKEY
Fig. 28 Field hockey playing field. All measurements shall be made from the inside edge of lines marking boundaries . Solid and broken lines shall be white, 3 in wide and marked with a nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin. For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig. 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 64,000 sq ft (1 .5 acres) minimum . Size and Dimension Playing field width is 180'0" . Length is 300'-0". Additional area recommended is 10'-0" minimum unobstructed space on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods .
1090
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdroinage . Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading. Special Considerations Goal is to be provided at each end of the playing field.
Fig. 29 Flickerball field. All measurements should be made from the inside edge of lines marking boundaries. Lines shall be white and 3 in wide and marked with a nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig. 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 17,600 sq ft (0.4 acre) minimum . Size and Dimension Playing field width is 90'0" . Length is 160'-0" . Goals are 15'-0" beyond each end line . Additional area recommended is 6'-0" minimum unobstructed space on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage. Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading. Special Considerations Goal is to be provided 15'-0" behind each end line .
109 1
120 Recreation and Entertainment
FOOTBALL (NCAA) Pop Warner Junior League Football
PLAYING FIELD LAYOUT
Fig. 30 NCAA football field . Optional goal post may be used in the form of a single metal post set behind the end zone with a cantilevered horizontal crossbar and two uprights of the same height and spacing as for dual posts. Pylon to be constructed of soft flexible material, red or orange in color. All measurements should be made from the inside edge of lines marking boundaries . All field dimension lines shown must be marked 4 in . i n width with a white, nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin. If cross hatching in end zone is white, it shall be no closer than 2 ft to the boundary lines . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57. For surfacing details see Fig. 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 64,000 sq ft (1 .5 acres) minimum.
of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods .
Size and Dimension Playing field width is 160'0" . Length is 360'-0" . Additional area required is 6'-0" minimum unobstructed space on all sides.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage . Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading.
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle
Special Considerations Goal posts are to be provided at each end of the playing field. Pylons are to be provided as required by rules.
Recreation and Entertainment TOUCH AND FLAG FOOTBALL
Fig . 31 Touch and flag football field . Optional gaol post may be used in the form of a single metal post set behind the end zone with a cantilevered horizontal crossbar and two uprights of the same height and spacing as for dual posts . Pylon to be constructed of soft flexible material, red or orange in color . All measurements should be made from the inside edge of lines marking boundaries . All field dimension lines shown must be marked 4 in . in width with a white, nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin . If cross hatching in end zone is white, it shall be no closer than 2 ft to the boundary lines . When teams are composed of 9 or 11 players, a field 360'-0" (120-yd .) long with five 60'-0" (20-yd) zones and two 30'-0" (10-yd) end zones is recommended . For grading and drainage details see Fig . 57 . For surfacing details see Fig . 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 41,200 sq ft (0 .94 acre) minimum . Playing field width is 120'Size and Dimension 0" . Length is 300'-0" . Additional area recommended is 6'-0" minimum unobstructed space on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage . Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading . Special Considerations Goal posts are to be provided at each end of the playing field . Pylons are to be provided as required by rules .
1093
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF DRIVING RANGE
Fig. 32
Driving range.
Recommended Area Ground space for minimum of 25 tees is 13 .5 acres. Size and Dimension Minimum length is 900 ft (300 yd). Minimum width, including buffer area on each side, is 690 ft (230 yd). Add 12 ft width per additional tee. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to run southwest to northeast with the golfer driving toward the northeast.
1094
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf closely mowed in center for ball collection . Side buffer areas are to be rough cut. Drainage is to be away from raised tee area and preferably across the axis of play. Side buffer areas may rise to help contain stray drives.
Recreation and Entertainment LACROSSE Men's
Fig. 33 Playing field for men's lacrosse. Goal net should be cord netting with openings of not more than 1 1/i in . Bottom of net must be held close to the ground with pegs or staples. Posts to be Ws-in nominal pipe painted orange and secured to the ground . Lines must be marked with a white nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin . All lines shall be 2 in wide except the center or offside line which should be 4 in wide. All dimensions are to inside of lines except at centerline . Barrier fence, 5 or 6 ft high, should be 10'-0" minimum from end and side lines. If not used allow 20-ft space on all sides. Flexible flag markers shall be placed at the four corners of the field and at each end of the centerline . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig. 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 62,650 sq ft 11 .4 acres/ to 70,000 sq ft (1 .6 acres).
of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods.
Size and Dimension Playing field width is 159'0" to 1 BOA" . Length is 330'-0" . Additional area recommended is 10'-0" minimum unobstructed space around entire perimeter of field with barrier fence, or 20'-0" without fence.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage. Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading .
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle
Special Considerations Goal is to be provided 45'-0" in front of each end line.
1095
Recreation and Entertainment LACROSSE Women's
Fig. 34 Playing field for women's lacrosse . Goal net should be cord netting with openings of not more than 1 1/2 in . Bottom of net must be held close to the ground with pegs or staples . Posts and crossbar shall be of wood, 2 >; 2 in and shall be painted white. Goals made of pipe and painted white are considered legal but wooden goals, 2 -~ 2 in, are preferred. All marking lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with a white nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin . Boundary lines are optional but should be 2 in wide if marked . Optional flag may be placed at the four corners or selected boundary points . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57. For surfacing details see Fig. 58.
Recommended Area Ground space is optional 54,000 sq ft (1 .2 acres) to 61,500 sq ft (1 .4 acres) . Size and Dimension Playing field minimum width is 150'-0" . Optional length is 360'-0" to 410'0" . As in the original Indian game, there are no definite boundaries or shape for the field of play, but before a match the officials decide on the boundaries and declare specified obstructions out of bounds . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle
1096
of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods . Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side with adequate undercirainage . Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading . Special Considerations Goal is to be provided 45'-0" in front of each end line .
Recreation and Entertainment SOCCER Men's and Boys'
Fig . 35 Playing field for men's and boys' soccer. Goal posts to be pressure treated with paintable, oil-borne preservative and painted above ground with three coats of white lead and oil . The goolposts and crossbar shall present a flat surface to the playing field, not less than 4 in nor more than 5 in . i n width . Nets shall be attached to the posts, crossbar, and ground behind the goal . The top of the net must extend backward T-0" level with the crossbar. All dimensions are to the inside edge of lines . All lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with a white, nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig . 58.
Ground space is 75,250 sq Recommended Area ft (1 .7 acres) to 93,100 sq ft (2 .1 acres) . Size and Dimension Playing field width is 195'0" to 225'-0" . Length is 330'-0" to 360'-0" . Additional area recommended is 10'-0" minimum unobstructed space on all sides . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods .
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage . Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading . Goal posts are to be proSpecial Considerations vided at each end of the playing field .
1097
Recreation and Entertainment SOCCER Women's and Girls'
Fig. 36 Playing field for women's and girls' soccer . Goal posts to be pressure treated with painted, oil-borne preservative and pointed above ground with three coats of white lead and oil. The goal posts and crossbar shall present a flat surface to the playing field, not less than 4 in nor more than 5 in. i n width. Nets shall be attached to the posts, crossbar, and ground behind the goal . The top of the net must extend backward 2'-0" level with the crossbar . All dimensions are to the inside edge of lines. All lines shall be 2 in wide and marked with a white, nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig. 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 36,400 sq ft (0 .8 acre) to 64,000 sq ft (1 .4 acres) . Size and Dimension Playing field width is 120'0" to 180'-0" . Length is 240'-0" to 300'-0". Additional area recommended is 10'-0" minimum unobstructed space on all sides. Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods .
109 8
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage. Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading. Special Considerations Goal posts are to be provided at each end of the playing field.
Recreation and Entertainment SOFTBALL, 12-INCH Fast and Slow Pitch
Fig. 37 Diamond for 12-in softball . Foul lines, catcher's, batter s, and coach's boxes, and 3-ft lines are 2 to 3-in chalk lines. Pitching distance for women's softball to be 40'-0" . For junior player (9-12 yr) 45-ft distance between bases, 35-ft pitching distance . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57. For surfacing details see Fig. 58 . For backstop details see Fig. 59 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 62,500 sq ft (1 .5 acres) to 90,000 sq ft (2 .0 acres) .
Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across the sun and the batter is not facing it.
Size and Dimension Baselines are 60'-0" for men and women, 45'-0" for juniors. Pitching distances are 46'-0" for men, 40'-0" for women, 35'-0" for juniors. Fast pitch playing field is 225-ft radius from home plate between foul lines for men and women. Slow pitch is 275-ft radius for men, 250ft radius for women.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Infield may be skinned . The infield shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level . Special Considerations Backslap is to be located at a minimum distance of 25 ft behind home plate.
109 9
Recreation and Entertainment SOFTBALL, 16-INCH Slow Pitch
Fig . 38 Diamond for 16-in softball . Foul lines, catchers, batters, and coach's boxes, and 3-ft lines are 2 to 3-in chalk lines . Baselines for women to be 50'-0" . Pitching distance does not change. For grading and drainage details see Fig . 57 . For surfacing details see Fig . 58. For backstop details see Fig . 63.
Ground space is 50,625 sq Recommended Area ft (1 .2 acres) to 75,625 sq ft (1 .7 acres) . Size and Dimension Baselines are 55'-0" for men, 50'-0" for women . Pitching distance is 38'0" for men and women . Playing field radius from home plate between foul lines is 250 ft for men, 200 ft for women . Orientation Optimum orientation is to locate home plate so that the pitcher is throwing across the sun and the batter is not facing it.
1100
Surface is to be turf . InSurface and Drainage field may be skinned . The infield shall be graded so that the baselines and home plate are level . Special Considerations Backstop is to be located at a minimum distance of 25 ft behind home plate .
Recreation and Entertainment SPEEDBALL
PLAYING FIELD LAYOUT Fig. 39 Speedball field . All dimensions are to inside edge of lines . All field markings to be 2 in wide and marked with a white nontoxic material which is not injurious to the eyes or skin. For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57 . For surfacing details see Fig. 58 .
Recommended Area Ground space is 36,400 sq ft ( .85 acre( (high school) to 76,000 sq ft (1 .7 acres) . Size and Dimension Playing field width is 180'0" . Length is 300'-0". An additional 30 x 180ft out-of-bounds touchdown area is recommended on each end and unobstructed space of 10'-0" on all sides. High school field may be 120 ft wide by 240 ft long . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle
of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods . Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and adequate underdrainage . Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading. Special Considerations Goal posts are to be provided at each end of the playing field.
110 1
Recreation and Entertainment TEAM HANDBALL
PLAYING FIELD LAYOUT
GOAL POSTS AND CROSSBAR Fig. 40 Playing field for team handball. Team handball goal posts and crossbar are metal or wood and painted on all sides in two contrasting colors . Goals will be firmly fixed to the ground with hooked stakes . The goal line between the goal posts is the same width as the posts. All field morkings are 2 in (5 cm) wide and form part of the area they enclose. Lines shall be marked with a white nontoxic material which is not injurious to eyes or skin . For grading and drainage details see Fig. 57. For surfacing details see Fig. 58.
Recommended Area Ground space is 11,230 sq ft ( .25 acre) (1,066 ml). Size and Dimension 8" (20 m) . Length is area recommended structed space on all
1102
Playing field width is 65'131'-4" (40 m) . Additional is 6'-0" minimum unobsides.
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the long axis to be northwest-southeast to suit the angle of the sun in the fall playing season, or northsouth for longer periods. Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf . Preferred grading is a longitudinal crown with a 1 percent slope from center to each side and ade-
quote underdrainage. Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading. Special Considerations Goal posts and crossbar are to be provided at each end of the playing field .
Recreation and Entertainment 1/4-MILE
RUNNING TRACK
Fig. 41 (a) Plan-layout of a 1/4-mi running track; (b) typical section of track. All distances in lane one shall be measured upon a line 12 in outward from the inner edge of the track. For events run In lanes around a turn, all lanes except lane one shall be measured upon a line 8 in outward from the inner line of the lane .
Recommended Area mately 4.3 acres.
Ground space is approxi-
Size and Dimension Inside radius to face of curb is 106'-0" . Track width is 32'-0" for eight 4-ftwide lanes. Overall width is 276'-0". Overall length is 600.02 ft.
Orientation The track should be oriented so that the long axis falls in o sector from north-south to northwest-southeast with the finish line at the northerly end.
ing. Maximum slopes for the running track are 2 percent (1 :50) inward in the center of curves, 1 percent (1 : 100) inward in the straightways and 0.1 percent (1 :1000) in the running direction.
Surface and Drainage Track surface is to be preferably bituminous material with a hot plant cushion course mix and optional protective colorcoot-
Special Considerations Drainage must be provided for the track surface and optional football field, but will be dependent upon site grading.
1103
Recreation and Entertainment SHOT PUT
Fig. 42 Shot put circle . Throwing circles to be formed of bond iron or steel angle 3 in (76mm) X 2 in (50mm) x r/4 in (6mm) sunk flush with the ground outside. The surface within the circle to be 3/* in (2cm) lower than the outside level and surfaced with concrete or similar material . Sector lines to be white and marked with either cloth tape, held in place with metal pins, or chalk. Shot put stop board to be made of wood and painted white.
Recommended Area ft minimum.
Ground space is 2100 sq
Size and Dimension Shot put circle is 7'-0" (2 .134m) in diameter. Throwing sector is 45 ° angle and 70 ft (21 .33m) minimum radius . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the throwing direction to be toward the northeast quadrant.
1104
Surface and Drainage Surface of inner circle is to be concrete or similar material . Throwing sector is to be turf at the same level as the top of the metal ring . Special Considerations Stopboard must be firmly fixed so that its inner edge coincides with the inner edge of the shot put circle . Sector flags are required to mark end of landing zone at distance required by the competition .
Recreation and Entertainment HAMMER THROW
Fig . 43 Hammer throw circle and throwing cage. All discus and hammer throws must be made from an enclosure or cage to insure the safety of spectators. The cage should be C-shaped in plan, the diameter being 29'-6" (9 .0m) with the opening through which the throw is made 26'-3" (8 .0m) wide . The height should not be less than 11 ft, but preferably 13'-2" (4 .0m) . A wire cable, or series of metal struts, is suspended at a height of not less than 11 k above the ground in the shape of a letter C. The cable or series of struts, is supported in a horizontal plane by eight metal supports made in the shape of gallows, so that the C shape is formed by seven straight panels, each 9'-0" (2 .74m) wide . Two movable flaps 7'-7" (2 .3m) are provided at the end of the C shape to afford adjustment for different throwing sectors . The eight metal supports are set into the ground with spikes or permanent sockets sunk to a depth of approximately 1 ft (30cm) and held in position with wire ropes. A net 78'-2" (23 .78m) long and 1 H (0 .3m) wider than the height of the struts, made of cord 0 .5 in (12 .5mm) in circumference with 2-in (50-mm) meshes is suspended from the wire or metal strut framework with the lower edge resting on the ground and turned inward. The inner edge should be weighted of intervals with sandbags . Throwing circles to be formed of continuous band iron or steel angle 3 in (76n+m) x 2 in (50mm) X r/4 in (6mm) sunk flush with the ground outside . The surface within the circle to be 1/4 in (2cm) lower than the outside level and surfaced with concrete or similar material . Sector lines to be white and marked with either cloth tape, held in place with metal pins, or chalk .
Recommended Area ft minimum.
Ground space is 33,500 sq
Size and Dimension Hammer throw circle is 7'0" (2 .134m) in diameter. Throwing sector is 60 ° angle and 250 ft (76.20m) minimum radius . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the throwing direction to be toward the northeast quadrant . Surface and Drainage Surface of inner circle is to be concrete or similar material . Throwing sector is to be turf at the same level as the top of the metal ring . Special Considerations For safety all throws must be made from within an approved enclosure or cage . Sector flags are required to mark end of landing zone at distance required by the competition .
1105
Recreation and Entertainment DISCUS THROW
Fig. 44 Discus throw circle. Throwing circles to be formed of continuous band iron or steel angle 3 in (76mm) X 2 in (50 mm) X 'h in (6mm) sunk flush with the ground outside. The surface within the circle to be 3/* in (2cm) lower than the outside level and surfaced with concrete or similar material. Sector lines to be white and marked with either cloth tape, held in place with metal pins, or chalk .
Recommended Area ft minimum .
Ground space is 25,500 sq
Size and Dimension Discus throwing circle is 8'2'/2" (2 .05m) in diameter. Throwing sector is 60° angle and 220 ft (67 .06m) minimum radius. Preferred orientation is for the Orientation throwing direction to be toward the northeast quadrant .
1106
Surface and Drainage Surface of inner circle is to be concrete or similar material . Throwing sector is to be turf at the same level as the top of the metal ring . Special Considerations For safety all throws must be made from within on approved enclosure or cage . Sector flags are required to mark end of landing zone at distance required by the competition .
Recreation and Entertainment JAVELIN THROW
Fig. 45 Javelin throw. Sector lines to be white, 2 in (Scm) wide and marked with either cloth tape, held in place with metal pins, or chalk. Runway may be either turf or bituminous material.
Recommended Area ft minimum.
Ground space is 24,000 sq
Size and Dimension Runway length is minimum 120'-0" (36.5m). Runway width is 13'-l'h " (4 .0m) . Throwing sector is 30° angle and 300'3" (91 .5m) minimum radius . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the throwing direction to be toward the northeast quadrant .
Surface and Drainage Runway may be turf or specialized bituminous surfacing with a maximum slope of 1 percent (l : 100) laterally and 0.1 percent (1 :1000) in the running direction. Throwing sector is to be turf at the same level as the runway behind the throwing arc. Special Considerations Foul board is to be provided at end of runway. Sector flags are required to mark end of landing zone at distance required by the competition.
1107
Recreation and Entertainment LONG JUMP AND TRIPLE JUMP
Fig. 46 long jump and triple jump . The edge of the takeoff board nearest the landing pit shall be the scratch, or foul line. The construction and material of the runway shall be extended beyond the takeoff board to the nearer edge of the landing pit.
Recommended Area ft minimum.
1108
Ground space is 1500 sq
Sire and Dimension Runway length is 130'-0" (39.62m) minimum. Runway width is 4'-0" (1 .22m) minimum. Landing pit width is 9'-0" (2 .75m) minimum. Landing pit length is 32'-0" (1 Om) minimum.
Surface and Drainage Runway preferably is to be bituminous material with a hot plant cushion course mix and optional protective colorcoating . Maximum slope is to be one percent (1 : 100) laterally and one tenth of one percent (1 :1000) in the running direction . Landing pit is to be sand at the same elevation as the takeoff board.
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the running direction to be toward the north or northeast .
Special Considerations Takeoff board is to be of wood and must be fixed immovable in the runway .
Recreation and Entertainment POLE VAULT
Fig. 47 Pole vault. Any style of uprights or standards may be used, provided they are rigid and supported by a base not to exceed 4 in. i n height above the ground . The crossbar shall rest on round pins which project not more than 3 in (75mm) of right angles from the uprights and have a maximum diameter of lh in (12mm) . The crossbar shall be of wood or metal and triangular or circular in section with flat ends. Each side of the triangular bar shall measure 1 .181 in (30mm) and the diameter of the circular bar shall be 0.984 in (25mm) minimum, 1.181 in . (30mm) maximum. Length shall be 12'-8" (3.8m) minimum, 14'-10" (4 .52m) maximum.
Recommended Area ft minimum.
Ground space is 1500 sq
Size and Dimension Runway length is 125'-0" (38.1 Om) minimum. Runway width is 4'-0" (1 .22m) minimum. Vault pit width is 16'-0" (5m) minimum and depth is 12'-0" (3 .66m) minimum to 16'-0" (5m) preferred . Height of material in jumping pit is 18 in (0 .46m) minimum to 36 in (0 .92m) preferred, with a connecting apron of the same material and decreasing height around the vaulting box.
Surface and Drainage Runway preferably is to be bituminous material with a hot plant cushion course mix and optional protective colorcoating . Maximum slope is to be 1 percent (1 : 100) laterally and 0.1 percent (1 : 1000) in the running direction . Special Considerations Pole vault box must be immovably fixed in the ground with its entire front edge flush with the front edge of the jumping pit. Jumping pit is to be filled with a resilient spongelike rubber or other synthetic material .
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the running direction to be toward the north to eastnortheast .
110 9
Recreation and Entertainment HIGH JUMP
Fig. 48 High jump . No point within the takeoff The horizontal supports of the crossbar shall be The uprights shall extend at least 4 in (100mm) be of wood or metal and triangular or circular in shall measure 1.181 in (30mm) and the diameter or 1.181 in (30mm) maximum.
Recommended Area ft minimum.
11110
area may be higher than the point of measurement. flat and rectangular, 1!/h in wide and 2-s/1 in long . of all heights above the crossbar. The crossbar shall section with flat ends . Each side of the triangular bar of the circular bar shall be 0.984 in (25mm) minimum
Ground space is 4,000 sq
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the direction of jumping to be toward the north to eastnortheast .
Size and Dimension High jump runway is 50 ft (15.24m) radius semicircle . High jump pit width is 16 ft (5m) by 8 ft (2 .5m) depth minimum. Height of material in jumping pit is 12 in (0 .30m) minimum. Takeoff area is 10'-0" (3m) radius semicircle with centerpoint directly under center of crossbar, and no point within this area may be higher than point of measurement.
Surface and Drainage Runway preferably is to be constructed of bituminous material with an optional synthetic surface . Surface should be level and unvarying within its arc of 180° . Special Considerations Jumping pit is to be filled with a resilient spongelike rubber or other synthetic material .
Recreation and Entertainment ARCHERY Target Range
Fig. 49 Archery target range. Space behind and to either side of the range to be clear and free from hard objects. Background behind targets to be preferably dense trees, natural or manmade hills or protective shields. Range to be sited on fairly level land, free from obstructions, preferably sheltered from high winds and oriented to north --!: 45°. Standard rounds for adults, 30-100 yd . Standard rounds for juniors, 20-50 yd . Target may be mounted on a round butt of spirally sewn straw or rush supported by a portable softwood target stand. Colors may be painted on an oilcloth cover.
Recommended Area Ground space is 28,600 sq ft minimum (0 .65 acre). Size and Dimension Shooting range is 300'-0" long by 10'-0" wide minimum, 15'-0" desirable, between targets . Roped clear space on each side of range is 30'-0" minimum. Roped clear space behind targets should be at least 90'-0" (45'0" with bunker) . Orientation Range should be located so that the archer is facing north ± 45°.
Surface and Drainage Surface is to be turf and free from obstructions or hard objects . Drainage is to be preferably from side to side to maintain a constant, relatively level, elevation between the target and the archer at the various shooting distances . Special Considerations Target is to be provided as prescribed for official competition . Conspicuous signs should be provided to the side and rear to warn people of the range.
111 1
Recreation and Entertainment INTERNATIONAL SHOOTING UNION AUTOMATIC TRAP
Fig. 50
Automatic trap .
Recommended Area field .
Allow 15 acres for a single
Size and Dimension Walks and structure occupy an overall area approximately 60 ft deep by 45 ft wide . Shooting stations may be 36 to 40 in square . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the centerline through shooting station # 3 to run northeast-southwest with the shooter facing northeast . Surface and Drainage Shooting stations are to be Portland cement concrete (PCC . Walkways may or may not be paved. Shooting area and 75- to 82-yd-radius minimum cleared area are to be turf. The 300-yd-radius shotfall danger zone
111 2
outside of the cleared area may be turf or water or left in natural condition, and the entire field should be located in a relatively flat area with an open background . Special Considerations If shooting is entirely over land, there should be safety provisions for fencing, posting of warning signs, and clearing away of concealing brush. If shooting is over water, warnings posted on buoys or other signs are required and the trap house should be back far enough from the water's edge to permit recovery of unbroken targets . The trap-house roof must be on the same level as the shooting stations . Contact the National Rifle Association for information on trap-house construction and trap machines .
Recreation and Entertainment FIXED NETS AND POSTS
Fig . 51
Fig. 52
Badminton and paddle tennis.
Tennis .
Fig. 53 Volleyball . A 2-in-wide vertical tape marker should be fastened on each side of net directly over court sidelines.
111 3
Recreation and Entertainment FENCE ENCLOSURES
Fig . 54 Double gate layout shown is for information as to type and designation . In so for as possible, gate details shall be of the manufacturer's standard design . A single pedestrian gate may be used .
Fig . 55 Typical fence . Different mesh and gauge sizes of chain link fabric are shown in notes on layout drawings for each sport.
Fig . 56
111 4
Layouts and details on this page are recommendations based on analysis of current construction techniques and manufacturers' equipment lines and should be utilized as a guideline in obtaining the appropriate product from local suppliers and manufacturers .
Recreation and Entertainment TYPICAL GRADING AND DRAINAGE DETAILS
Fig. 57 Grading and drainage . See figure on individual sports for height of pitcher's plate above home plate. It is preferable that the baselines be level. If the diamond must pitch, the average slope shall be 2.0 percent from first base to third base or vice versa. The minimum slope for drainage on turf areas outside the skinned area is 1.0 percent when adequate subsoil drainage is provided. The maximum is 2.5 percent .
Court Surfaces Paved playing surfaces should be in one plane and pitched from side to side, end to end, or corner to corner diagonally, instead of in two planes pitched to or from the net. Minimum slope should be 1" in 10'-0" . Subgrade should slope in the same direction as the surface. Perimeter drains may be provided for paved areas. Underdrains are not recommended beneath paved areas . Playing fields Preferred grading for rectangular field is a longitudinal crown with 1 percent slope
from center to each side. Grading may be from side to side or corner to corner diagonally if conditions do not permit the preferred grading. Subsoil drainage is to slope in the same direction as the surface. Subdrains and filter course are to be used only when subsoil conditions require . Where subsoil drainage is necessary, the spacing of subdrains is dependent on local sail conditions and rainfall . Subdroins are to have a minimum gradient of 0.15 percent . Baseball and softball fields should be graded so that the bases are level.
111 5
Recreation and Entertainment TYPICAL PLAYING SURFACES
Fig. 60
Sand clay playing surface.
Concrete (Fig. 59) Minimum compressive strength : 2,50016. Reinforcing : 6 X 6-in # 6gauge welded wire fabric. Minimum thickness 4 in. Expansion joints are to be provided as required and doweled 2'-0" O.C . with 3/4-in diameter X 2'-0" long dowel coated on one end to prevent bonding. Joint is to be filled with a 3/4-in foam or preformed bituminous filler and sealed with polysulfide joint sealant . Sand filter course : minimum 6-in deep required . Bituminous Material (Fig . 61) Base : 4-in minimum stabilized aggregate base course over minimum 6-in filter course . Surface-minimum 2 1/2 in . i n two lifts : 1 1/2 -in leveling course of bituminous concrete and 1-in surface course of bituminous concrete. Sealcoat : on smooth asphalt surface apply
1116
Fig. 61
Bituminous playing surface.
protective colorcoating at the manufacturer's recommended rate . Sand-Clay (Fig. 60) Filter course, 4 to 6 in, may be omitted if local soil conditions are suitable . Base course : minimum 3 in of 1'/2 -in crushed stone choked with Y4 to Y2 in of crushed fines. Surface course-minimum 4 in . i n two lifts : 3-in clay screened through 1-in mesh with a 1-in surface lift of j sharp sand and % clay-silt screened through Y4 -in mesh . Natural Turf (Fig. 58) Subgrade to pitch in the same direction as the surface and slope to underdrains . Filter course, 4 to 6 in, is to be used only when subsoil conditions require. Topsoil 6 in minimum, or prepared soil mix 8 in minimum.
Recreation and Entertainment BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL BACKSTOPS
Fig. 62
Fig. 63
Fig. 64
1117
Recreation and Entertainment MOVIE THEATERS
By BEN SCHLANGER, Architect
the success of any one production depends on its quality or unusual character . The new
Theater Consultant
systems
of
picture projection add a
dimension Design requirements for cinemas, including
auditory
and
visual
considerations
combined with showmanship and economy of structure, call for a type of building en-
tirely distinct from stage theaters. The success of a commercial cinema depends on its ability to present good films in an effective
manner,
affording the
maximum vol-
ume of patronage at admission prices that will insure an adequate profit . All patrons expect proper vision of the screen image, true reproduction of sound effects, and such
comforts as will enable them to give undivided attention to the presentation .
or
an
unusual
film, but they cannot
new
character
to
a
be depended upon
alone to draw the large patronage enjoyed in the era prior to home television . Technically, films
(70
the
mm),
larger
and
new
(such as Cinemascope) increase
wider
screens, optical
make
systems
possible
an
in the size of the audience that
can see the film at one time . The increasing competition has
made
of it
television,
home almost
however,
impossible
profit
to
the potentially larger audience . Re-
from
duced patronage and high film-production costs
have resulted in higher admission prices, which, in turn, tend to reduce further the size of the audience . It has only recently been
LOCATION
realized
that
there is a distinct advantage in having a
The location of the cinema site is determined by its accessibility, land costs, park-
relatively small audience with a maximum-
ing facilities, and potential patronage . Big
psychological effect that is thus created is that of "pic-
shopping centers have large parking areas
ture dominance," or an "at-the-scene feel-
that are generally unused in the evening,
ing"
and may therefore
tions, the picture practically fills the view-
be desirable locations
for motion picture theaters,
size
projected
for
the
picture .
viewer .
The
Under
these condi-
er's central range of vision (approximately 60 deg), and the distraction of the auditorium shell is greatly minimized .
SIZE
Two
distinct
Home television and new systems of mo-
theaters
tion picture projection have brought about
general
types
of
motion
picture
have now developed . First is the type of theater, catering to the
new criteria for determining optimum seat-
more popular taste in films and requiring
ing capacities for motion picture theaters .
capacities of from 600 to 1,500 seats . The
Home
larger
need
television for
the
has
greatly reduced
large-capacity (over
the
1,500
seats) "movie palaces" in urban locations, and
also
for
the
small
motion
picture
theater in rural communities . These changes in circumstances place the cinema in somewhat the same category as the other dramatic arts of the living stage theater, where
units
must have a
choice
location
with an adequate population to draw from and adequate
parking facilities .
The second type has acquired the label "art found
theater ."
These
mostly in
the
small
theaters
larger cities and
are in
the university towns where there is a more sophisticated
audience .
Foreign films
better U .S . films are shown in these theaters . They usually prove profitable at the
capacities of from often
400 to 900 seats, and
command
the
highest
admission
prices . SHAPE AND SIZE OF PROJECTED PICTURE Picture shape and viewing
patterns
are
determined by fixing visual standards that enable
each
viewer
to
see
the
picture
satisfactorily . The picture must appear undistorted,
its
view
must
be
unobstructed,
and its details discernible . The average width of the projected picture, which was about 18 ft in 1938, has now approximately doubled for the 35 mm Cinemascope and 70 mm film systems, introduced
in
1953 . The quality of the pro-
jected picture affects the size and shape of the seating pattern . The quality of the projected picture
varies with
the size of the
film used, however, and unfortunately most theaters still use more than one film
size
and projection system . Although picture widths have increased, the width of standard 35 mm film has not ; consequently, when
35 mm film is used, the seats nearest the screen
are
less
acceptable
graininess becomes visible
because from
film
these lo-
cations . When 70 mm film is used, the seats nearest the screen become desirable since film graininess is greatly reduced and these seats enable the viewers to experience the dramatic
impact of
"picture dominance ."
A more nearly ideal motion picture theater could be designed if only one type of projection system and film width were used . For the best compromise design, to provide for
all
widths, be used :
and
of the
the
current
systems
following general
l . The first row of seats
and
film
guide
may
should be
no
closer to the screen than a position determined as follows : The angle formed with the
Fig .
111 8
1.
Method of determining minimum distance from screen to first row of seats
Fig .
2.
horizontal
by a line
from
the top of
Maximum viewing distance and maximum width of seating pattern
Recreation and Entertainment MOVIE THEATERS
the
projected
viewer
in
picture
a
to
front-row
the
eye
seat,
of
the
should
not
exceed 33 deg . (The top level of the projected picture should be the same for all systems
of
projection
in
a
given
oudi-
torium .) See Fig . 1 . 2. The maximum viewing distance should be no greater than twice the width of the widest picture to be projected (Fig . 2) . 3 . The width of the seating pattern should vary from 1
times the widest pro-
jected picture at the first row to 1 .3 times of the row farthest from the screen (Fig . 2) . The resultant shape will be less rectangular than
the long
narrow theaters
of the
past, which are more economical to build unfortunately not well projection .
but are
suited
for
the new systems of
The seats nearest the screen will remain for use if the following gen-
Fig .
acceptable eral
rule
is
followed :
Projected
picture
widths should not exceed 35 ft for stand-
Fig . 4 .
Height of screen above floor
for 70
mm film . (See
later notes regarding modification of these widths in connection with picture masking .) In some instances in which a large seating capacity is desired, it is necessary to resort to a balcony in order to avoid the excessive
viewing
distance
that
would
otherwise develop .
FLOOR SLOPES AND SEATING
PICTURE MASKING The
most common
method
for masking
use a matte black surround . This is the simplest and least expensive way to absorb the fuzzy edges of the projected picture . These maskthe
projected
picture
is
to
ings may be in the form of a curtain that can be adjusted to mask various picture
SCREENS AND PROJECTION OPTICS Projection angle is the angle formed with the horizontal by a line from the projection lens to the midheight of the projected pic-
widths .
Another method is to use specially designed walls and ceiling that meet the pic-
ture . Because of the increased picture width
ture edges . Instead of black trim, the mask-
and screen curvatures recently introduced, it becomes increasingly important to have a minimum projection angle (0 deg is ideal
the
but usually impossible) . The angle should
not exceed 10 deg and should be kept as low as possible in order to have a minimum distortion of picture detail . A slight curvature
in the
width
screen and semimatte screen
of the
surfaces are
used to increase screen light reflection and to provide better dispersed screen illumination . This extra light is necessary for the larger
screen
sizes . The
curvature
should
have a radius equal to about l'/, times the projection distance . PROJECTION LENSES When a new theater is proposed it is important to determine at the outset the lens requirement for the various film systems to be projected . This information will determine
the
location
of
the
projection
room . The better lenses have greater focal lengths and require longer projection distances .
Methods of obtaining wider
lfaximum spacing for first row is 26 in .
at first row of seats
ard 35 mm film, 45 ft for Cinemascope 35 mm film, and 65 ft
5.
spacing for chairs nearest screen
luminous from light reflected from screen and blends with the projected
ing is
picture . The author
has designed
several
of these installations that have proved most satisfactory . Eye fatigue is reduced and greater dramatic impact is obtained .
If Cinemascope and 70 mm film are to be used in one theater, the luminous masking frame must be the same size for both systems,
in
which case
a
compromise
is
accepting a somewhat larger picture and a somewhat Cinemascope made
by
smaller 70 mm picture .
A compromise in the aspect ratio of the screen shape must also be made . The as-
In the design of floor slopes and upper steppings for cinema seating, it is
level
necessary to establish the physical dimensions of the seated patron (Fig . 3) and standards for vision of the screen
image .
Most important is elimination of objectionable screen obstruction caused by persons seated in front of the viewer . For best dramatic
impact,
the
bottom
of the pro-
jected picture should be as close as possible to the floor under the first row of seats (Fig . 4) . This in turn will require a more steeply pitched floor slope under the seats, and will eliminate the possibility of an upper tier of seats, which would have to be too steep in pitch . The
slope
of
the
main-floor
seating
would also be increased for one-row vision . One-row vision provides unobstructed vision over the heads of persons in the row immediately ahead . Two-row vision is not ideal, but it is acceptable and permits
milder slopes and the inclusion of an upper level of seats . Two-row vision is made more acceptable by staggering the seats to permit a view between the heads of the per-
to 2 .22
sons in the row immediately in front . With
(height to width) . For Cinemascope, the aspect ratio is 1 to 2 .34 . The Cinemascope frame con be cropped in the projector
two or more rows in front will not obstruct
pect ratio for 70 mm screen is
1
aperture to conform to the 1 to 2 .22 aspect ratio without any meaningful loss of Cinemascope
picture material .
The shape of the architectural light box in front of the screen requires special study for
each
pattern .
seating,
projection,
and
screen
two-row
vision
the
heads of
all
persons
any view of the screen . Two-row vision is further improved by using the widest chairs therefore the widest space between heads) in the rows nearest the screen . (See Fig . 5 .) The view between heads is usually
(and
too narrow in the front rows where two-row vision is used . Minimum seat widths should be 20 in . for the rows farthest from screen .
111 9
Recreation and Entertainment MOVIE THEATERS THEATER AUDITORIUM FLOOR SLOPES Unit of reference in motion picture theater design is projection screen width, W Distance from screen to first row of seats should be no less than 1 W Best viewing distance is zone 3 W to 4 W; next in desirability are areas 2 /1 2 W to 3 W,and4 Wto4'/2 W. In theater of 22 rows, a screen 11 ft high by 15 ft wide is good for maximum viewing distance ;
hence, first row of seats should be about 15 ft from screen . Recommended row spacing at least 34 in back to back . Upward floor slope should start as far back from screen as possible, since slopes greater than 3 in between rows require risers. In diagrams shown (Figs . 6, 7, and 8), staggered seating, except in first rows of reverse-pitch schemes, reduces rear floor slope by half, and avoids dangerous
variable step heights necessary with aligned seating . When steps are used, if uniform height (fixed by rear rows) is adopted as standard, slope increases, and stadium type scheme results . Elevated stadium type is useful to permit space beneath for passage and services . Drawings show all levels in relation to datum line, lowest point of floor. All pitches and rises noted in inches and decimal parts of on inch .
Fig . 6 Single-slope auditorium . On ground sloping 3 ft or more downward toward screen . Without staggered seats, risers required starting tenth row.
Fig . 7 Double-slope auditorium . On level ground, or on ground sloping less than 3 ft in any direction . First six rows aligned to allow view of entire screen .
Fig. 8 Double-slope auditorium with stadium. On level ground or on ground sloping less than 3 H in any direction . Seats in of least first six rows aligned. Crossover under first few rows of stadium saves seating area . Staggered seating and minimum clearance in crossover prevent intermediate steps. Time-Saver Standards : A Handbook of Architectural Design, 2d ed ., McGraw-Hill Book Co ., New York, 1950 .
Recreation and Entertainment MOVIE THEATERS
Fig . 10 Circulation diagram, showing relation of street lobby, foyer, and auditorium doors .
Fig . 9
In considering the utilization of screenlight, it is important that areas
Example of "continental seating ."
reflected
Cinema at Turku, Finland ; Erik Bryggman, architect . Minimum row spacing of 40 in . is required . Afore seats can be used in width to conform to larger screen requirements .
immediately surrounding the screen should not cause a lack of clarity in the projected image . Surfaces closest to the screen can be
shaped,
finished,
and
screen surface so as to ROW SPACING AND AISLES Minimum spacing be
in .,
34
Greater
with
rows should
1-in .-thick
chair-back
chair
thickness
is
backs . wasteful
and unnecessary. Where 40 to 42 in . can be
used
for row spacing,
many building-
code authorities permit the elimination of all longitudinal aisles other than the aisles against the side walls . These codes,
how-
ever, require frequent exit doors along the wall aisles for this type of seating . The capacity is about the same for the 34- and 40-in .
spacing
because
of
the
different
aisle arrangement .
The serves
lighting three
of
a
auditorium
cinema
separate functions : (1) Emer-
gency exit and mood lighting, used during screen presentation ; (2) Lighting needed during
intermissions ;
sufficient
intensity
ments, clearing
and
for
Lighting
(3)
making
the
house,
sources
of
of
announcerare
or other
needs
and
are
from the
as
follows :
screen, of
light
for
these
(1) Light reflected
varying
Emergency lighting generally must be provided separately . Where separate service lines are available, one may be
native means of providing energy are battery
systems
intensity de-
pendent on film density ; (2) Wall and ceiling surface illumination by standard lamps
water turbines, and the like. emergency
lighting circuit and should
usually a minimum of 8 in . high . All circulation areas, lobbies
including foyers, lounges, and
should
termed "continental seating" because of its
luminated ; and (3) Light projected on walls, ceiling, or audience from remote or con-
TICKET BOOTHS
The
extra
comfort
and safer egress afforded by this arrangement account for its
increasing
use . (See
Fig . 9 .)
cealed positions . All lighting normally required during the presentation is supplied in
the
front
half
of
the
auditorium
by
screen-reflected light . The rear portion must be
illuminated
by
other
light
sources,
SCREENS
placed so that the source is not within the
All screens are perforated to allow for sound transmission from speakers placed behind the screen . (A depth of 5 ft should
ment
be
walls
spectators' normal range of vision . Place-
orovided
behind
the
screen
for
the
speakers .) All screens are vinyl plastic with a diffusive surface or a coated surface to increase
light
reflection .
Lenticulated
screens are also available . The screen ma-
choices are : first, at the junction of
ceiling and side walls ; second, on the ceiling ; and third, on the side walls . The side rarely offer
because,
here,
an
even
acceptable low
location
intensities
are
often objectionable . Lighting
during
performance
should
the shape of the seating pattern and the
consist of a low-intensity, evenly diffused bath of light completely covering all surfaces in view, rather than either complete
strength of the projector light source .
darkness or spotty lighting .
terial must be selected in accordance with
likewise be
on
the emer-
The location of the ticket booth depends
on the space available, the character and direction of street and pedestrian traffic, and the volume and The
ticket booth
habits of patronage .
may
be
isolated (as an
island), centered, or included in the corner of the
entrance . It should, of course, be readily identified with its function . In metropolitan areas, ticket booths are almost
universally placed as close to sidewalks as building codes permit in order to attract casual
a
be
legible from any point viewed . Lettering is
gency circuit .
Europe .
automatically,
kept charged
gasoline, Diesel or gas engine generators,
or tubes installed on the surface to be il-
in
used
with an emergency motor generator . Alter-
The 40 " în . seating scheme is sometimes popularity
the
Exit signs are connected to the general
occasions . Types
to
ture .
GENERAL LIGHTING
between
related
enhance the pic-
passers-by . In
centers where
patrons
suburban and leave
their
other
homes
with the express purpose of attending the cinema, ticket booths may be removed from sidewalk
lobbies and placed either within
secondary lobbies or in foyers . It is pos-
Recreation and Entertainmen' MOVIE THEATERS
sible to adopt a continental custom-use of an open counter located conveniently to the manager's office-in an effort to achieve an "intimate" atmosphere . When
operated by only one person an area approximately 4 by 4 by 8 ft is adequate ; for larger theaters, where there are generally two ticket sellers, clearances are required . Heating is often provided from the theater heating system if the theater cellar
extends under the ticket-booth space. Although electric heaters are sometimes used, they are not always satisfactory because they concentrate great amounts of heat in single spots without providing general heating. Natural ventilation is usually provided by ventilators in roofs and louvers in doors. Occasionally air-conditioning duels are run to booths from theater systems . Space is required for change makers and electrically or manually operated ticket dispensers . It is almost universal practice to install an outside telephone for the attendant's convenience in answering calls about the program . This telephone is usually connected to another in the manager's office, with a two-way signal .
Local codes, of course, will govern .
LOUNGES AND TOILLTS Lounge areas, on either level, serve to separate the toilets from the theater seat-
ing. For capacities of over 600 seats, at least two lounge areas should be provided and arranged so as to be partially or wholly visible from the lobby, foyer, or circulating areas. It is also desirable to have some part of the lounge command a view of
both seating and screen in order that waiting patrons may follow seat availability as well as performance progress . Recommended minimum toilet fixture requirements are as follows :
Theater capacity Up to 400 seats
Men 1 basin 1 toilet 1 urinal
Women 1 basin 2 toilets
400-600 seats
2 basins 2 toilets
2 basins 3 toilets
2 basins 2 toilets 3 urinals
2 basins 4 toilets
2 urinals 600-1,000 seats
PROJECTION ROOMS The usual code requirements are 48 sq ft for the first projection machine and 24 sq ft for each additional projector. Dimensions based on necessary clearances around
projectors are given in Fig. 11 . Rewinding : Although at least one state law requires that film rewinding be done in the projection room, a separate rewind room adjacent to the projection room is usually considered advisable. Rewinding is done on a small table ; observation ports opening to both the projection room and the auditorium permit a single operator to supervise a presentation easily while rewinding used film . Film storage Up to 12,000 ft of film is usually permitted to be stored in metal containers . Film safes are required for greater amounts, 24,000 ft being the usual maximum . The location should be convenient to the rewind table.
Key a . Line fuses b. Line switch c. Line switch d . Panel box (d-c) e. Panel box (a-c) f. Motor starter g. Booth exhaust blower control and pilot h . Dimmer j . Light switch k. Arc blower switch m. 15A Duplex receptacle (twist lock) n . Signal buttons p. Sound control q. Amplifier r. Vaporproof fixture s. TA receptacle I . Interphone u. Fuse link support for steel fire shutter v. Blower receptacle Fig. 11
Plan of projection room and elevation of wall toward auditorium.
Recreation and Entertainment MOVIE THEATERS Handicapped Seating
SEATING DIMENSIONS ARE AVERAGE STANDARD FIXED SEATING person because Fig . 12 Wheelchair seating space at aisles. Sight lines may be interrupted by wheelchair chair arrangement. wheelchair seat is higher than fixed seats . This may be overcome by diagonal or other
WHEELCHAIR PROJECTS APPROXIMATELY 16" INTO CROSS AISLE . CROSS AISLE WIDTH SHOULD ALLOW EXTRA SPACE . t-Fig . 13
Fig. 14 Wheelchair seating space of back wall. If back wall is held 18 in away from top of seatback, wheelchair can park as shown without blocking raw .
CROSS AISLE -----t
Wheelchair seating space at cross aisle .
LEG BRACES LOCK IN STRAIGHT LEG POSITION UNTIL PERSON SITS 4 PELEASES LOCK ALLOWING &NEE TO SENDREOUIEES 18'-L4 IN FRONT OF SEAT .
An illustrated Handbook of the Handicapped, Section of the North Carolina State Building Code . 1977, Ronald Mace, AIA and Betsy Loslett, Raleigh, N .C .
Fig . 15
STAGGERED SEATING, CAN PROVIDE &DE(PUATE SPACE FOR AMBULANT HANDICAPPED SCAT BEHIND IWSZT ROW SHOULD BE 14"WIDE MINIMUM TO ALLOW EXTRA SEAT WIDTH FOR LEC,BRACES . SEATS BEHIND WHEELCHAIR SPACE AND AT CROSS AISLES ALSO ALLOY) SPACE FOR PERSONS WITH LEG BRACES .(SEE ABOVE)
Seating space requirements for braces and crutches .
Recreation and Entertainment MOVIE THEATERS Handicapped Seating
Fig . 16
Example plan : small theater .
Fig . 17 Sloping floors in assembly seating . Steeply sloping floors (a) offset center of gravity for wheelchairs causing discomfort during long performances . For this reason it is preferred that wheelchairs be located where floor can remain level as at cross aisles (6), front and rear of theater, or in boxes to the side (c).
Recreation and Entertainment 500-SEAT MOVIE THEATER
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Recreation and Entertainment 500-SEAT MOVIE THEATER
E L E VATION - PROJ . R M . WA L L SPLAY BOTH SIDES OF EACH PROJ PORT ?0" ONLY WHEN WALL I'-., {IRF.A'PR THAN 8 'H'O'
SECTION O
i
I
t
PLAN SCHEDULE FOR DETERMINATION OF PROJECTION PORT HEIGHT PORT HEIGHTS ± ' PROJECTION ANGLE
SECOND
FLOOR
PLAN
2°
WALLS UP P TO 6 THICK .. 0,r!
3'-101/2"
( WALLS 8" TO I6 ° THICK - . ._ ._4'-01/? 3-11"
4° 6^
3'-71/2" 3'-8" 3,-6" l. .. 3 .6" PROJECTION ANGLE IS MEASURED BE TWEEN HORIZONTAL B LINE FROM POINT 8°
'.
4'-O"ABOVE
PROJECTION
TO CENTER OF SCREEN
Fig. 19 1972 .
From Definitive Designs for Naval Shore Facilities, Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C .,
ROOM
FLOOR
IMAGE HEIGHT
1
-B
Recreation and Entertainment DRIVE-IN THEATERS
A sufficient area of inexpensive land is the prime consideration in selecting a site . Location is generally better close to town, but theaters have been successful several miles from city limits . Many states and communities are developing codes regulating location and design of drive-ins; these should be carefully investigated . Other factors to check include : proximity to other drive-ins ; nature of soil ; natural drainage ; simple, cheap excavation and grading; nearness to railroads or other distracting noises or odors. Drive-ins are usually best located on secondary roads connecting with major highways to prevent traffic congestion . Outside city limits, septic tanks must often be used for waste disposal, wells for water supply . Theater size should be derived from potential patronage; an average of 3.28 patrons per car was reported by Theater Catalog, 1949-50 Edition, from a survey conducted in the Minneapolis area .
Surfacing Drives should minimize dust and not be slippery when wet. Crushed stone topped with gravel, oil treated or black topped, is often used . Ticket Booths Ticket selling must get patrons in quickly to start show on time . One ticket booth can usually serve up to 300 car capacity, two up to 600, three up to 800, and four up to 1,000 cars . Screens Screen towers should be placed so pictures cannot be seen from highway. Screen widths vary from 40 to 60 ft, depending on number of ramps and topography . Sizes often used are: 48 by 37 ft for 650 cars, 56 by 42 ft
Plot Layout
Ramps The theater area is a series of ramps, laid out one behind the other in arcs . They are graded to elevate the front of each row of cars, permitting vision of screen above cars ahead. Sight lines and road grades must be established by size and terrain. Capacity and Size Maximum capacity is limited by number of ramps possible with clear view of screen . Picture size is limited to lenses and projection equipment available. Until larger and brighter pictures are possible, about 1,000 to 1,300 cars is maximum . Smaller theaters generally average about 450 cars, larger ones near cities, 650 to 1,000 cars . Motion Picture Herald (Feb . 14, 1948) recommends roughly 100 ft of width for each 10 cars, and the following depths (based on full radii ramps, 38 ft o.c ., and speaker posts 17 ft o.c .) : No . of cars capacity
No . of ramps
10 500 11 586 12 670 13 778 14 886 15 1,000 1 to 3. See Figs .
Screen to rear of ramps, it 510 548 586 824 862 700
Entrances and Exits Provide waiting space or extra wide entrance drives to get cars off highways ; say for around 30 to 40 percent of capacity. An escape exit drive by ticket office gives patron a means of getting out when cars are stacked behind him. On leaving ramps, it is best to have cars drive forward for exit . Several well lighted exits will ease traffic congestion . Often front-footage is retained for convnrrcial use. Commercial Buildings, F. W. Dodge Corp ., Now York, 1954 .
Fig. t
Typical layout .
Fie. 2
Typical profile .
for 950 cars. It is desirable to face screen east or north; this blocks evening sun, permits earlier show . Height above ground is determined by ramp and sight angles . Tilting screen at top minimizes distortion . The screen may be of almost any material which will take a good covering of white paint ; provisions should be made for frequent and rapid repainting . Asbestos sheets, aluminum and steel decking have been used . Minimize joints to prevent distortion and streaking . The structure should withstand at least 25 Ib per sq ft wind pressure and be fire-resistant . Wood frames, structural steel, reinforced concrete, even telephone poles are used. Prefabricated units are available.
Recreation and Entertainment DRIVE-IN THEATERS
Fig . 4
Projection room/snack bat .
terrace in front of concession allows continued viewing. Illumination must not detract from screen during showing. Service carts are used for ramp service ; signal lights or an intercommunication system may be used for calling carhops (Fig . 4) .
Fig. 3
Back-to-back theaters .
Seating Area if near residential areas, provide seating for walk-in patrons, in front of screen or by concession . A children's playground is desirable . Projection Booth Picture size and focal length of lens control placement and design of projection booth . It is often placed about 280 ft from screen, centered in lot. Special lenses can project greater distances . Projection angle depends on ramp layout . The booth must house two operators, two projectors, a large generator, and an amplification system for speakers .
Speaker Units Sound is best served by "in-car" speakers on posts about 16 to 18 ft o.c . Each serves two cars . Speakers may be removed from posts and hooked inside cars . Underground cables supply power. Aisle and signal lights are built into many commercial models. Electric car-heaters may be used for cool weather. Concessions Attractive, clean and roomy snack bars can be an important source of income . Large numbers must be served quickly during intermissions and before showings . A
Storage Space is needed for cleanup and repair equipment, and for supplies . If speakers, junction boxes and projection equipment are removed for winter, safe, dry storage is needed on site or in a warehouse . If left in place, waterproof covers should be used . Sprays for insect control, and fire extinguishers should be on hand . Design Notes Illuminated signs should be placed near highway, but so as not to form a traffic hazard . The back of the screen is often used for advertising . Fencing should be high enough to cut off headlights of cars on highways . Simple, neat landscaping can help maintain desirability in the community and attract customers.
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS The following factors dictate the plan of a bowling center : 1 . The ability of an area to support the business 2 . Public or private operation 3 . The available capital for the immediate venture 4 . Property size, location, and zoning 5. New or existing building 6 . Parking requirements, required by law and for the operation of the business 7 . Desired allied businesses and the local ordinances in force which govern such businesses as the following : a . Liquor bar or cocktail lounge b. Snack bar or restaurant c . Billiard room d. Meeting rooms and banquet facilities e . Other sport facilities f . Retail sale of bowling and other sporting goods 8 . Automatic pinsetters or manually operated pinsetting machines 9. Selection of ball return equipment 10. Type of lane foundation a . 2- by 4-in . stringer foundation with 9-in .-deep pit b . Built up crib foundation where noise reduction is necessary or where no pit is provided 11 . Automatic scorers
SITE PLANNING Because a bowling center is a permanent building, the placement of any such structure on a parcel of property merits intensive study . The future general long-range planning for the surrounding contemplated zoning area, changes involving building lines, future road building, or anything which could alter the present character of the property should be considered at this time. The site can be planned with relation to the following items : 1 . Zoning of land restricting commercial, business, or parking . 2 . Local nearby church or school building which might restrict traffic or the sale of alcoholic beverages . 3 . Proposed maximum future expansion . 4 . Drainage requirements, location of soil and storm sewer lines, public utilities . 5 . Maximum visibility of building from street-nearby location of buildings, railroad overpasses, trees, signs, etc . 6 . Availability of parking requirements for the maximum number of lanes . 7 . Distance from bulk of parking related to entrance to building . This ultimately dictates location of bowling lanes and layout of public area facilities, such as control, liquor bar, snack bar, pro shop, check room, as they relate to traffic patterns within the building . Planning Bowling Centers, Brunswick Corp ., Chicago, III, 1968 .
headlights and to reduce motor noise in the parking areas, but such shrubbery should not block the view of passing traffic or exits and entrances . Special attention should be paid to exits and entrances . It is necessary to clearly identify the entrances to the parking facilities . These entrances, as well as the exits, should be located so as not to interfere with the flow of highway traffic . Ideally, incoming and outgoing cars should not have to cross the flow of traffic .
8 . Traffic flow restrictions to entrances and exits from the property. 9 . Certified soil sample test to determine it ground can support weight of a suitable building for bowling plus hydrostatic pressure .
PARKING To accommodate the majority of bowling patrons that arrive at the lanes in cars, it is essential to provide parking facilities . If the site allows, parking is generally preferred as close to the main entrance as possible (Fig . 1) . The parking area should be well illuminated ; and, ideally, it should be paved, drained, and, in the instance of head-to-head parking, should have wheel bumpers . Blacktop is preferable to crushed stone . Blacktopping should be sealed annually . On a national average, seven cars per lane is the general minimum requirement . Many establishments use car jockeys during the busy hours . This speeds up the entrance of bowlers and helps conserve parking space . Usually, the tips pay for the car jockeys . Insurance is necessary. Occasionally, music is piped into the parking areas . It would be advisable to locate water connections throughout the parking areas . This is needed to clean the parking lot and eliminate dirt tracked into the building . Shrubbery has frequently been used as a screening device to minimize the glare from
BUILDING WIDTH The width of the building may be determined by adding the thickness of outside walls, the width of side aisles, and the required space for columns if they exist, to the width of uninterrupted bowling lane bays . Dimensions for bowling lanes are noted in Fig . 2 . Remarks concerning columns and side aisles follow . 1 . Column Spacing Naturally any designer would rather work with a clear span . However, in those establishments where supports for the structure above the lanes dictate that columns be used, it is desirable to use a minimum lateral spacing between columns of 22 ft-6'/ in .-a four lane bay plus 1 in . for clearance-to reduce transmission of noise up or down the structure of the building (Fig . 3) . Longitudinally, the fewer columns, the better . The 16 ft-1 5/,, in . of the approach area and
Recommended Parking Dimensions A
DIRECTION OF PARKING
B
C
D
E 58-0 -
NO OF STALLS x ., IN LENGTH x 8-fi22-0g.S 9- 10'
90°
BACK IN
B'-6 -
18'-0 -
22'-0"
60 °
BACK IN
8-6
Is'-10'
I8-4'
56-0 -
8-6 ,
17'-2'
12'-B"
47'-0-
45°
FORWARD 7
Fig . 1
F
12'-Ô'
CARS PER LANE IS THE GENERAL. NATIONAL
AREA PI CAR
G
21'-7't I6-3 - 'MINIMUM
9-8
XI27
247
50 F t
270
50
282
SO FT
PARKING REQUIRED
V
T
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS
Longitudinal Section
Bowling Lane Widths THE FOLLOWING DIMENSIONS ARE NET MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNINTERRUPTED LANE WIDTHS ONLY, AND THEREFORE, ADDITIONS SHOULD BE MADE FOR COLUMNS,WALLS AND PASSAGES BETWEEN LANES OR BESIDE THEM . NUMBER O F UNINTERRUPTE D LANES
_
MI NIMUM WIDTH 10'/z " RETURNS
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 4 0 4 2 4 4 4 6 4 8
II-4" 22-5 :" 33'-6 7z " 44'-7Y4 " 55'-9" 66'-IOW` 77-11 Yz' 89'-0,/: " 100'-2" III'-3 h " 122'-4Yz~ 133'-5/- " 144'-7 " 1 55'-84" 166'-9 Yz " 17 7'-10'4 " 189'-0" 200'- 1 Y, " 211'-2'/z" 222'-3~/." 233'-5" 244'-6'4 " 2 55'- 7 Yz " 2 66'-8 : "
FOR EACH ADDITIONAL PAIR OF LANES ADD 11'-1/. "
Automatic Pinsetter Entrance Requirements FRONT ENTRANCE (FIRST CHOICE) - MINIMUM CLEAR OPENING MINIMUM CLEAR UNOBSTRUCTED PASSAGE TOPIT AREA--
fi-0' WIDE 6-0' WIDE
K
is
HIGH . 6'-8" HIGH . 6'-9'
REAR OR SIDE OF SERVICE AISLE (SECONDARY CHOICE) MINIMUM CLEAR OPENING 6'-0' WIDE x 6'-8' HIGH MINIMUM CLEAR UNOBSTRUCTED PASSAGE 6-0" WIDE c 6'- 8' HIGH. IF THE OPENING IS WITHIN 6'-0" OF ANY PART OF THE KICKBACKS , THE MINIMUM UNOBSTRUCTED OPENING SHALL BE 6'-0' WIDE R 6'-8" HIGH ABOVE KICKBACKS Fig. 2
Key howling lane dimensions .
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS at least 2 ft beyond the foul line, if possible, should be kept completely free of columns. 2 . Side Aisles
The width of the side aisles is determined by the economical width of the building . The side aisle performs as a convenient indoor route for house personnel between the bowlers' area and the service aisle behind the pinsetters . It is not normally designed for use by the public or for the movement of equipment and supplies. A side aisle on each side of the building also eliminates the mental hazard of bowling "hard against the wall" on the first and last lanes. BUILDING DEPTH
The depth of the building can be established by starting at the rear of the building . First, consider the requirements for storage and shops for equipment. Then, follow the requirements for tire service aisle, the length of the bowling equipment installation, bowler and spectator seating arrangements, concourse requirements for special seating and traffic flow, and, finally, the companion accommodations . Remarks concerning each of the above follow . 1 . Storage, Shops, and Service Aisle
Where the lot size affords the space, many of the larger bowling establishments erect a "lean-to" type of structure behind the rear wall of the building with entrance to this structure through fire-retarding doors, directly from the service passage. This structure can also be built against one side of the building if plot is too shallow. The purpose of this appendage to the main building is for storage of bowling supplies such as pins and spare parts, shop area (pinsetter tool room, 150-sq-ft minimum) for the fully automatic pinsetters, and toilet . Since the pit area is a noisy area, the shop should be so constructed as to be as quiet as possible, to achieve maximum working efficiency of the mechanic, although walls are not required between the storage area and the service aisle. Pay particular attention to the location of ducts and pipes which will conduct noise unless properly insulated and isolated . The depth of this structure generally varies from 8 to about 14 ft, while the width depends on the space required for the above mentioned operations . A minimum of four sets of pins per lane is usually stocked. The size of a corrugated cardboard carton of 10 pins is 9 in . deep by 16 in . by 18 in ., approximately. 2 . Equipment Length
The length of the bowling equipment installstion is determined by using a recommended 5-ft (minimum 3-ft) clear service passage behind the lanes plus the overall length of the bowling lanes, which is 83 ft-2 in . and includes the pit, bed, and approach . To these figures, add 12 ft for bowlers' settees used with cluster subway returns or with in-line subway returns (alternate location). If in-line subway returns (standard location) or in-line surface returns are used, substitute a minimum 9-ft dimension for the 12-ft settee dimension stated above. Several examples of lane installations are provided in Figs . 4 to 7. 3 . Spectator Seating
Each desired row of straight spectator seating requires a rninimum of 3 ft-6 in . If the new tables and ball racks are to Ire
Fig . 3
Column spacing illustration .
incorporated behind or in place of the spectator seating, check carefully with your sales engineer regarding the suggested layouts for this equipment. Concourse tables and chairs can help convert the spectator audience into an income producing audience . 4. Concourse
The concourse or promenade, which is in back of the spectator seating, may vary in width. The clear width of the concourse should be ample to accommodate at least a peak load of 10 people per lane, and its maximum width is at the milling area, generally centered around the control counter, check rooms, and entrance lobby. The peak traffic load is usually experienced at changeover time when more than one league is in the house. Vending machines, ball cleaners, ate., are frequently located on the concourse. Adequate wall area or other provision should be considered for bulletin boards, league standing score sheets, and other announcement boards. Unless house ball storage racks are considered with spectator seating as outlined under "Spectator Seating," it will be necessary to consider this factor on the concourse. 5 . Variables-Companion Accommodations
The design of the companion accommodations includes such items as the following . Cocktail bar Liquor bar Snack bar Precooler Game room Toilets Locker rooms Lounges and powder rooms Janitor's closet Pay phones Meeting rooms
Billiard room Nursery Office Checkroom Control Heating-humidity control and airconditioning equipment Quick service bar Retail sports shop
The control desk, the bar, snack bar, checkroom, and shoe rental must be proportioned to capacity conditions in the lanes and should be easily accessible from any part of the lanes. Normally, a full-scale restaurant is not considered a profitable adjunct to bowling. There are exceptions, however, to disprove this rule . All air-conditioning equipment need not be placed within the building . Often some of this equipment is placed alongside of, or on the roof of, the front end of the building in an area where space is not so valuable . All of the foregoing are ideally placed behind the concourse, although they may be placed alongside the lanes, if necessary--provided care is taken to eliminate the hazard of distraction to the bowlers (Fig . 8) . Control The control complex is the functional heart of the entire bowling operation and sets the character of the house. Since the control is constructed by the owner or his builder, it varies with each house in size, decor, and location (Fig . 9) . The following things are constant in all control counters : 1 . It is the point where management greets and serves its customers. Therefore, it should be located prominently and should be well defined and lighted. From it, the operator should be able to supervise main exits and entrances, as well as the bowling lane area . 2. Since the control counter attendant assigns lanes to the public, it should contain necessary switching equipment to activate the bowling equipment and house lights over the bowling area . 3. To facilitate internal communications with patrons, the control counter also contains the public address equipment, which may be also connected with music. Intercom or phone facilities to the office, pits, or other areas of the building are also located here . A public telephone for receiving reservations or phoned messages for the house or its patrons should be included, but patrons should not be permit-
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS
Fig. 4
(al 4-lane installation, in-line surface ball returns. (bl 6-lane installation, in-line surface ball returns.
Fig. 5
12-lane installation, cluster ball returns.
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS WITH BILLIARD ROOMS tad to use this phone to conduct lengthy conversations . They are instructed to use pay phones provided for that purpose . 4 . The control issues score sheets, which are collected at the end of the play . The tally of these sheets must correspond with the bowling revenue collected . For this reason, storage space for new and used bowling score sheets and a cash register are required. 5. Depending on the selected operating procedure of the installation, rental bowling shoes may be issued at the control desk directly to the customer, or a receipt may be issued to the customer at the control desk for rental shoes to be procured at the checkroom or pro shop or the house ball storage room . In the event the control counter will issue the shoes, sufficient storage space for these shoes must be provided . This space should be ventilated and so designed as to prevent the accumulation of dust and dirt . A shoe sanitizer is needed . Shoes should be kept within easy reach of the attendant . 6. Many proprietors use the control counter
Fig. 6
24-lane installation, cluster bell returns.
to help display resale items, such as balls, bags, and shoes. They also dispense such bowler's aids as ball cleaning fluid, bowling sox, grip aids, etc . These items should be displayed within sight but not within reach of the customer . In larger establishments, retail sales of bowler's equipment and supplies are often handled at a pro shop where these items, together with bowling apparel and trophies, are stocked. The merits of this decentralization must depend on each individual installation . 7 . Control area should be able to observe billiard activity and have easy access to bar and/or snack restaurant area . This provides maximum utilization of personnel in slow periods of play to keep payroll at a minimum. Billiards In many areas of the country, the companion use of billiards in bowling establishments has proved to be an extremely lucrative addition to the business . Some communities have distinct ordinances governing public billiard rooms. On an ever widening scope, the billiard room is being planned as a semi-
open area off the concourse and within easy control of the bowling control desk, which issues the playing balls (including the cue ball and chalk) in plastic racks . The customer is obliged, then, to return the full set of balls when play is completed or forfeit his deposit paid earlier (Fig . 10). Adequate player seating is a must . Generally, a minimum of two seats per table is provided . Sand urns for cigarettes are also needed-ash trays get lost . Cocktail tables for soft drinks and sandwiches may also be provided . Frequently, small groups of tables are sectioned off by screen-type dividers within the room . This requires considerably more space, although it affords a luxurious air of semiprivacy . Care must be taken to see that visual control is still maintained . A small space will be required for repair of cues and general billiard storage. Normally, three cushion or carom or snooker tables are isolated from pocket billiard tables . A rtiinimum of 57 in . for cue clearance is
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS WITH BILLIARD ROOMS needed between the table rail and any obstruction over 30 in . high . The rooms generally have floors of vinyl asbestos tile or carpet . Carpet wears out three times as fast ; vinyl tile or vinyl asbestos is recommended . Lighting of 50 to 75 footcandles of even intensity on the entire playing surface, which is 30 in . above the floor, is usually accomplished with flush ceiling-mounted-type fixtures centered over each table or with a complete luminous ceiling to eliminate shadows on the tables . Light sources should be shielded with louvers . Walls are light colored, decorative, and resistant to scuffing and soiling . Vinyl-coated products are frequently used for wall covering . Meeting Rooms and Nurseries Meeting rooms and nurseries are often combined to perform a dual purpose . In this respect, it is necessary to
Fig. 7
survey the potential use of each function to ascertain that schedules will not coincide or overlap . Meeting rooms generally require storage closet and toilet facilities, food and beverage service, secondary egress, motion picture machine outlet and screen . Nurseries require storage closet and toilet facilities, drinking fountain, and secondary egress (may be to an enclosed exterior play yard) . General lighting should be no less than 50 footcandles of even illumination . In some areas, the word nursery implies the use of a registered or practical nurse . Therefore, the word is often changed to children's playroom or toddlers' room . Locket ROOMS The locker room is for ball storage cabinets only . Normally, separate locker rooms are provided for male and female patrons . These are
36-lane installation, cluster ball returns; 8-table billiard room.
generally located in conjunction with the main bank of toilet facilities, and it is advantageous to plan access to the toilets through the locker rooms . This continuous traffic through a locker room is a deterrent to loiterers and malefactors . A bench for changing shoes is needed . In the case of women's locker rooms, this area often encompasses the powder bar area and lounge . In some areas, particularly the west and southwest, the locker room is a combined area open to the concourse and accommodates both sexes . The popularity of this arrangement is growing rapidly since it conserves space and provides for family use of one facility . The locker room usually has a vinyl asbestos tile, ceramic tile, or terrazzo floor for easy cleaning . The room should be well lighted and ventilated . Since the ball storage cabinet units stand 6 ft tall against the walls, no particular wall treatment except paint is needed . In many
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS WITH BILLIARD ROOMS
n Ë u âe n ô md
4 W
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS WITH BILLIARD ROOMS NOTE. CONTROL
MANAGER'S AUTOMATIC
PINSETTER CONTROL BOX ILOW VOLTAGE) ONE PER EVERY EIGHT LANES . n' WIDE XS2'LONG, 4" DEEP . SUPPLIED B " BRUNSWICK-INSTALLED BV CUSTOMER SWITCH UNITS FOR TEL - E-SCORE,TEL-E-FOUL,MASKING UNIT LIGHTS, APPROACH B LANE LIGHTING, EXTERIOR SIGNS ETC., TO BE SUPPLIED AND INSTALLED BY CUSTOMER . SUPPLIED AND INSTALLED BY CUSTOMER .
INTERCOM & TELEPHONE. EQUIPMENT
Fig. 9
Typical control desk .
Recreation and Entertainment BOWLING ALLEYS WITH BILLIARD ROOMS cases, open locker rooms use. carpeted floors instead of tile or terrazzo. Washrooms Public toilets are areas of heavy traffic and require constant cleaning . Since they receive constant inspection by the public, they must be kept immaculate . The entry to any public toilet must be screened to ensure privacy . In some areas, the law requires a couch or lounge in public rest rooms for ladies . Mirrors are required in all rest rooms . Janitor's CIDs6I The janitor's closet should contain a slop sink and storage area for general cleaning supplies and vacuum as well as floor polishers, lane dusters, gutter mops, lane maintenance machines, etc . It should be located close to the front of the lanes, usually off the concourse, and should be ventilated to the outside . An adequate size janitor's closet, minimum 4 by 6 ft ; 6 by 6 1t preferred, is an asset to maintenance . Most establishments of 16 Manager's Office lanes or over, and many smaller installations, provide an office facility . It is used by the manager and bookkeeper to perform necessary routine clerical duties such as material ordering and record keeping . The office should be under the supervision of the control, checkroom, or pro shop . The office should be well lighted, 75 to 100 footcandles . A private toilet facility for the office is not normally provided ; if public toilets are not clean enough for the manager, they are not suitable for the customer . Snack Bars Generally, the snack bar is the only food-handling facility in the bowling establishment. Except in circumstances that show con, pletejustification, a complete restaurant operation is not recommended, since experience shows that a restaurant operation normally does not show profit on the same scale per square foot as the other functions in the building . The exceptions to this rule might be local areas where the restaurant is required for a
bar or liquor license, or local areas where the success of such a restaurant is assured independently of the bowling trade . In any food-handling operation, the keynote to success is experience in the business . Such experience will point the way to efficient layout of space and equipment . As a rule, snack bars should be brightly illuminated and decorated in lively, bright colors conducive to food consumption . Maintenance of walls and ceilings, as well as floors, counters, and equipment, is of prime importance ; and the careful selection of these materials is mandatory . Air conditioning and exhaust of cooking odors require very careful planning . Automatic fire extinguishing systems should be installed over grills and deep-fat fryers and in hood and duct assembly . This will provide maximum safety .
Fig . 10
Bars and Cocktail Lounges In the majority of installations, the bowling center bar (or bars) functions for the convenience of bowlers and is not intended to rely on street traffic as a normal tavern must . The location of the bar within the bowling center is of prime importance and is related to local laws, traffic flow, and drinking habits of bowlers in the local area . If bowlers usually enjoy alcoholic beverages while bowling, a simple quick-service bar may be indicated in addition to the cocktail lounge . In bowling centers too large to be serviced by a single bar, a service bar or quickie bar on the concourse can furnish soft drinks, beer, or highballs convenient for waitress service to the lanes or for consumption at the quick-service bar . Cocktails or fancy mixed drinks would be available only at the cocktail bar . Sometimes a service bar or quickie bar requires a special license . The decor of cocktail lounges and bars runs the gamut of interior decorating . It can be as plush or as simple as the owner decides . It may have live entertainment and it may even double as a restaurant facility . Bar size and seating capacity may be governed by local or state ordinances . Normally in planning, consideration is given
to some food service in the cocktail bar, if only short-order sandwiches . For this reason it is wise to locate the bar close to either the kitchen or snack bar . Often the meeting room facility is an extension of the cocktail lounge, which can be easily screened off by use of a folding door for private functions . Toilet facilities, separate from the bowling toilets and lockers, are frequently provided for the convenience of bar patrons . Often these facilities are required by law locally . State and municipal ordinances govern, to a large degree, the construction of walls and entrances for places where alcoholic products are sold and/or consumed . Private "key club" operations are sometimes allowable where public bars are prohibited . Provisions must be made for storage areas for supplies . Liquor storage should be locked . Beer requires supply storage (cases may be stacked), precooling, and an empty bottle sorting and storage area . Often a conveyor chute is used to remove empty bottles from the bar to sorting and storage areas . Easy access from the street to the storage areas is necessary for delivery of supplies .
Billiard table and spacing dimensions .
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS Minimum standards prepared by the National Swimming Pool Institute engineer or architect holding registration in the state where pool is to be constructed, shall be, as a prerequisite, submitted to and approval obtained from said state reg. ulator agency prior to award of any contract for equipment purchase or construction .
PUBLIC SWIMMING POOLS
DEFINITION AND POOL TYPES 1 . All
artificially constructed swimming pools other than residential pools shall be deemed to be public swimming pools. This shall not be applicable to residential pools as defined or wading or spray pools, which shall be covered under separate sections .
STRUCTURAL FEATURES, MATERIALS, MARKINGS
(a) Private pools which are excepted herein shall be defined as follows : "Residential swimming pools include all constructed pools which are used or intended to be used as a swimming pool in connection with a single-family residence and available only to the family of the householder and private guests ."
2. Structural Stability : All public pools shall be constructed of an inert and enduring material, designed to withstand all anticipated loading for both pool empty and pool full conditions . Working stresses shall be based upon predetermined ultimate strengths of materials used, with a factor of safety of not less than 2t/z .
(b) Classifications of Pools: For purposes of minimum standards, public swimming pools shall be defined as listed in the fol-
lowing categories, based upon specific characteristics of size, usage and other factors: Type pool, ming Type
"A"-Any municipal pool, community public school pool, athletic or swimclub pool . "B"-Institutional pool (such as Girl Scout, Boy Scout, YMCA & YWCA, Campfire Girls and Boys' and Girls Camps) . Type "C"-Country Club, large hotels of more than 100 units, with pools having a water surface area in excess of 1600 sq ft. Type "D"-Motels and apartments, multiple housing units, small hotels of less than 100 units, not open to the general public and with pools having a water surface area
not larger than 1600 sq ft. Type "E"-Treatment pools, therapeutic pools and special pools for water therapy. Type "F"-Indoor pools. Exceptions : The above categories shall be the basis for certain specific variations from the Minimum Standards for public swimming pools as a whole.
Provision shall be made for the relief of pressures which might occur as a result of unbalanced exterior hydrostatic pressures, or means shall be provided for positive and -continuous drainage from under the pool floor or around the pool walls, whether
ground water is present, or might occur at some future time . Special provisions shall be made to protect the pool structures from both internal and external stresses which may develop due to freezing in cold climates .
3. Obstructions : There shall be no obstruction extending from the wall or the floor, extending into the clear area of the diving portion of the pool . There shall be a completely unobstructed clear distance of 13 ft above the diving board. 4. Wall & Floor Finish : Wall and floor finish shall be of masonry, tile or other inert and impervious material and shall be reasonably enduring . Finish shall be moderately smooth and of a white or light color. 5. Depth Markers: Depth of water shall be plainly marked at or above the water surface on the vertical pool wall and an the edge of the deck or walk next to the pool, at maximum and minimum points
The technical data presented here gives basic requirement, for public and semipublic pool design, systems and equipment . It is intended by the NSPI to serve as recommended minimum standards, and not as a model code.
NOTE : plans and specifications with supporting data, prepared by a professional
STANDS & BOARDS
3-Meter Board
1-Meter Board
Deck Level Bo ard
D-1 Min.
5-0
Max. Min.
Max.
Length of Section-Feet & Inches
D.2
D-3
D-4
D-5
A
4-6
10-0
9-9
8-6
5-0
'6-0
6-0
10-0
5-0
'6-0
6-0
10-0
2-6
t6-0
4-0
10-0
5-6 5-0
Max. Mi n.
Depth-Feet & Inches
4-6
8-6
8-3
5-6 5-0
4-6 5-6
8-0
7-6
7-6
D-2 vanes between min. and mox., D may vary, but slope of D may not exceed 1 it vert . to 4 ft horiz. D-1 shall be of end wall of diving area, or not more than 12 in . from if As
B
D
E
F
'9-0
20-0
)-0
8-0
'9-0
15-0
1-0
8-0
±6-0
12-0
1-0
8-0
C
" B & C May vary to attain 15'--0" Mm . f B & C May vary to affain total 12'-0" Min.
Recreation and Entertainment
SWIMMING POOLS and at the points of break between the deep and shallow portions and at intermediate increments of depth, spaced at not more than 25 ft intervals. Depth markers shall be in numerals of 4 in . min . height and of a color contrasting with background . Markers shall be on both sides and ends of the pool .
6. Lifeguard Chairs: Each public swimming pool shall have at least one elevated lifeguard chair. This shall be presumed to be adequate for 2,000 sq ft of pool surface area and one additional lifeguard chair shall be provided for each additional area of 2,000 sq ft or fraction thereof . Where a pool is provided with more than one lifeguard chair and the width is 40 ft . or more, they shall be located on each side of the pool . In Types D & E pools, lifeguard chairs need not be provided . 7. Life Line : A life line shall be provided at or near the break in grade between the shallow and deep portions of a public swimming pool, with its position marked with colored floats at not greater than 5 ft spacing. Life line shall be not less than s/4 in . min . die. ; its terminals shall be securely anchored and of corrosion-resistant material and of type which will be recessed or have no projection which will constitute a hazard .
8. Ladders: A minimum of one ladder shall be provided for each 75 ft of perimeter and not less than two ladders shall be provided at any pool . Where stairs are provided in a pool, one ladder may be deleted for each set of stairs provided . A side handrail extending up above and returning to the horizontal surface of the pool deck, curb or coping shall be provided at each side of each ladder. All stairs entering a public pool shall be recessed . An exception to this may permit the construction of steps directly entering the pool and not recessed into the pool walls, in Types C, D, & E. POOL DIMENSIONS, WALKS, FENCES 9. Shallow Minimum Depth- Every public swimming pool shall have a minimum depth in the shallow area of the main swimming area of not less than 3 ft, nor more than 3 ft 6 in . from the overflow level to the floor. Exceptions may be made for Types B, C, D & E pools, or in pools built principally for instruction, or in a recessed area of the main swimming pool where pool
:s of an irregular shape such as the leg of a T,LorZ . 10 . Shallow Area : In a swimming pool with a diving area, the shallow portion of the pool shall be defined as the portion between the shallow end and the break point between the shallow area and the diving area . The slope of the floor shall be uniform from the break between the diving area and the shallow portion to the outside edge of the shallow portion and shall not
be greater than 1 ft of slope in 12 ft, except in small Type B pools where the pool is less than 42 ft in overall length, in which case the rate of slope shall not exceed 1 ft in 8 ft . 11 . Diving Area- The area of a public swimming pool where diving is permitted shall be, in the case of a rectangular pool, at one end, or may be in a recessed area forming one of the legs of a T, L or Z shaped pool, divorced from the main swimming area by a life line, or may be a wholly separate pool structure . Exceptions to this may be made in special-purpose type pools intended for training and instruction . Pools of the types wherein diving is permitted shall have adequate area and depth of water for safe diving and the minimum depth and area characteristics for this area shall be as indicated in the accompanying chart.
12 . Diving Towers : Diving towers in excess of 3-meters in height shall not be considered as acceptable in a public pool without special provisions, controls and definite limitations on their use. 13 . Vertical Wall Depth: As a minimum, the pool walls shall be vertical at all points for a depth of not less than 2 ft 6 in . 14 . Walks: Walks shall be continuous around the pool with a minimum width of 8 ft of unobstructed clear distance including a curb at the pool edge, if such a curb is used . Exceptions may be made in Types B, C, D, E, & F as follows : B-4 ft ; C4 ft; D-4 ft ; E-No minimum; F-4 ft . A minimum of a 3 ft walk width shall be provided on the sides and rear of any piece of diving equipment. All walks, decks and terraces shall have a minimum slope of '/4 in . per foot to drains or points at which the water will have a free unobstructed flow to points of disposal at all times.
The finish texture of walks must be non-slip and such that there will be no discomfort to bare feet. Hose bibbs shall be provided around the perimeter of the deck area at intervals such that all parts of the swimming pool deck area may be reached with a 50 ft hose . 15 . Fence: A wall or other enclosure of 4 ft minimum height and with maximum 2 in . mesh, 2 in . wide vertical openings, or otherwise so constructed as to be difficult to climb, shall be provided completely enclosing the pool area, all of which shall be paved .
Exceptions may be made for Types C & D In Types C & D where the fence is dispensed with, a hedge or other clear demarcation shall be provided, with instructions and posting clearly defining the pool area as for bathers only and from which spectators and others in street clothes ore rigidly excluded .
Access to the pool by bathers shall be provided only through the bathhouse or dressing room facilities, and any other fence opening shall be for service operations only. GUTTERS AND SKIMMERS 16 . Overflow Gutters: An overflow gutter shall be installed continuous around all public swimming pools, with the exception that it may be eliminated in Types B, C, D & E. The overflow gutter may be eliminated across the top tread where steps occur.
Overflow gutter shape, wherein the outer edge of the lip is flush with the pool wall above and below and the gutter entirely recessed, shall not be permitted . The overflow gutter depth below the overflow lip shall be a minimum of 2 in . at the high points between drains. T}te drains shall be spaced at a maximum of 15 ft on centers and a slope provided in the bottom of not less than 21/z in . i n 10 ft. In no sense is this intended to preclude the use of roll-out or deck level type pools where other conditions are met and satisfactory design is provided . In an installation where the overflow gutter is not carried to waste but is a part of the recirculation system, the provisions of spacing of drains and slope at bottom of gutter may be modified but shall conform to good hydraulic design . The branch piping to each overflow gutter drain shall be not less than 2 in .
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS Where overflow gutter drains discharge into sanitary sewers, a trap shall be provided in each main before discharge into the sewer . The
overflow gutter mains shall have a sufficient minimum size and be increased as necessary to carry the overflow water freely with a maximum of 2 ft pressure head or surcharge, at all times . Where
overflow
gutters
discharge into a sanitary sewer or storm sewer, an air-gap of not less than 1 ft shall be provided be .
tween the point of discharge of the gutter and the drains into the sewer, or a relief manhole shall be provided where surcharge
(e)
shall
automatically open at a differential of not more than 4 in . between the pool level and the level of the overflow tank .
Under-drain system shall be such that uniform distribution of backwash water shall
(f) The overflow weir shall be of sufficient to maintain a rate of flow of at least 20 gallons per minute per lineal foot
total
An equalizer line shall be provided with a valve that will remain tightly closed under normal operating conditions, but will
length
of weir lip . (g)
Skimmer shall be of substantial, enduring and reasonably corrosion-resistant material .
One skimmer will be placed at a point in the pool opposite the direction of prevailing
Disposal of water from the overflow gutters may be either to waste or may enter the
FILTRATION
re-
summer winds .
18 . Recirculation
19 . Filters, Sand :
the
Skimming
pool
floating
wall, oils
devices shall be
built into
shall adequately remove and waste and shall meet
and
Filtrations :
All
public swimming pools shall have recirculation and filtration equipment provided for
viding acceptable handhold is installed . At least one skimming device shall be provid-
line .
area
of bed
orifice
shall be
area
not less
to
than
0 .25 per cent . Orifices in the under-drain system shall be spaced at
approximately b in . on centers
both ways throughout the area of filter bed . means of porosity of the material over the total under-drain area .
in
which
is corrosion-resistant
and
en-
during, wherein the orifices shall be so de-
water purification
ed for each 800 sq ft of surface area or fraction thereof . The handhold must be no more than 9 in, above the normal water
Ratio of total under-drain
terial
teria
bed area .
provided over the entire
Under-drain system shall be provided of ma-
17 .
Surface Skimmers : Skimmers may be permitted in lieu of overflow gutters on swimming pools of Type B, C, D & E, pro .
be
The total orifice area may be provided by
or back pressure will overflow at a point not less than 12 in . below the elevation of the overflow gutter fittings in the gutter.
circulation system and be filtered and turned to the pool .
be the subject of individual design, based upon specific gravity of the media .
in
accordance with cri-
this report . These minimum stand-
ards shall apply, where applicable, to either gravity or pressure sand filters . Filter tanks shall be designed with a factor of safety of 4 in relation of working pressure to ultimate strength .
Where the
under-drain system is of manifold and lateral type, the total area of the manifold shall be equal to not less than the
total area of the laterals . The total area of the laterals shall be not less than 1' .4 times the total area of the orifices . Design rate for sand filters shall be 3 gallons per
minute,
area, as a
per square
foot of bed
minimum standard .
The filter plant shall be provided with influent and effluent pressure gauges, back-
the
following general
(a)
Each skimmer shall be designed for a
of graded gravel or other porous material
flow-through rate of at least 30 gallons per minute and the total capacity of all skim . mers in any pool shall be approximately
which shall serve to support the filter bed and distribute both filtered and backwash water uniformly . The supporting bed con-
The filter plant shall be provided with face piping and valving to permit the functions
50% of the required filter flow of the recirculation system .
sisting of graded gravel or other material shall support not less than 20 in . of filter
with
specifications :
(b) They shall be automatically adjustable to variations in water level over a range of at least 3 in .
The
signed and of such material that they will maintain approximately constant area,
filter bed shall consist of suitable grades of filter sand and a supporting bed
media
consisting
durable,
inert
of
silica
material
or
an
other
effective
size between 0 .4 and 0 .55 mm, and a uniformity coefficient not exceeding 1 .75.
(c) An easily removable and cleanable basket or screen through which all overflow
The
water must pass shall be provided to trap large solids .
the
(d) The skimmer shall be
filter bed per minute .
provided with a
sand
with
minimum
point
shall be normal
freeboard
to the draw-off not less than 12 in . above
level of the
top of the filter
bed . The minimum backwash rate shall be not less than 12 gallons per square foot of
wash sight glass and air-relief valves .
of filtering to pool or backwashing to waste the
battery as a whole or any unit
operated singly . The
filter
means
for
plant
shall be provided with draining all filter units and
piping, so that all parts of the system may be completely drained to prevent damage from freezing . Each filter
unit shall be provided with an access opening of not less than a standard 11 in . b y 15 in . manhole and cover .
device to prevent airlock in the suction line . If an equalizer pipe is used, it shall provide
Where anthracite coal or other filter media
an adequate amount of makeup water for
is employed, the freeboard
pump suction, should the water of the pool drop below the weir level . This pipe shall
quate to prevent the media being carried off to waste when the filter bed is back-
permit access for painting .
be at least 2 in . i n diameter and shall be
washed
at
Filter
located at least 1 ft below the lowest overflow level of the skimmer .
foreign
material
The
a
rate
shall
be ade-
adequate to carry
filtered
from
freeboard and the rate of
the
off
water .
backwash
Pressure filter tanks shall be supported by jack legs or other supports to give a free
movement of air under each tank and to
turn-over cycle shall be of capacity to completely filter the entire pool body in not more than 8 hours .
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS 20. Filters, Diatomite : Where diatomite filters are used, they may be of either pressure or vacuum type . The filter rate shall not exceed 2 .5 gpm per square foot of filter surface area . The cycle of operation between cleaning of the diatomite filters shall be not less than a 24 hr period of continuous operation and this shall not be deemed to apply to initial operation of a pool, but only after operation for a period of 3 days or such period as is necessary to initially clear the pool . Provisions shall be made to introduce a pre-coat to completely cover the filter elements, upon placing the equipment in initial operation and/or after each cleaning . The equipment shall be so arranged that during pre-coating, the effluent will be refiltered or disposed to waste without passing into the pool until the effluent is clear of suspended matter . Equipment shall be provided for the continuous feed of filter aid to the filter influent and the equipment shall have a capacity to feed not less than 0.1 Ib of this material per square foot of filter area over a 24 hour period .
Exceptions to the above may be made in Types B, C, D, E & F pools, in cases where this equipment need not be provided . The tank containing the diatomite filter elements shall be constructed of intermediate carbon steel, plastic or other suitable material which will satisfactorily provide resistance to corrosion, with or without coating, and shall be of adequate strength to resist all stresses resulting from loading with a factor of safety of 4, in relation to the ultimate strength . The septum or elements which support the filter aid shall be of corrosion-resistant material and shall be provided with openings, the minimum dimension of which shall be not greater than 0.005 in . The septa shall be constructed to be adequately resistant against crushing or deformotion, with the maximum differential pressure between influent and effluent of not less than the maximum pressure which can be developed by the circulating pump and of adequate strength to resist the stress es developed by the cleaning operation, with the impact developed from an acceler .
up galvanic electric currents, the metals shall be insulated with a suitable dielectric which will satisfactorily prevent corrosion from electrolysis .
The filters shall be designed and installed in such a manner that they can be readily disassembled and elements removed and they shall not be installed where inadequate working space above or around is available for such disassembling. The filter plant shall be provided with pres . sure differential gages and air-relief outlets where necessary . 21 . Filters, Other: In the absence of complete information on operating characteristics, durability, etc., of cartridge and other type filters, no minimum standards can be established at this time and their installation on public pools may only be made on a trial basis. 22 . Compound Gauge : The pump suction header shall be provided with a compound gauge between the pump strainer and the pump, which will indicate both positive and negative head.
23 . Strainers: At all pressure type filter plants or where the circulating pump is used for vacuum cleaning the pool, a suitable strainer or screen shall be provided to remove solids, debris, hair, lint, etc. Where a wet well is provided, the strainer shall consist of a removable screen through which all water entering the pump shall pass . Where no wet well is provided or where the suction cleaner or any other suction line is piped directly from the pool to the pumps, a pot-type strainer with removable strainer basket shall be provided . The strainer basket shall be of rigid construction sufficiently strong to prevent collapsing when clogged. One extra strainer basket shall be provided . Any type of screen or strainer basket shall be fabricated of a corrosion-resistant material or shall have a protective coating of such material .
ated washing operation .
Screen of strainer basket shall have maxi . mum openings no greater than 3/4 the size of the solids which will pass through the pump impeller without clogging and the total clear area of all openings shall be not less than 4 times the area of the largest sized pipe from the pool to the strainer influent .
In the complete filter installation, where dissimilar metals are used which may set
24 . Rate-of-Flow Indicator: Every swimming pool provided with recirculation and
refiltration system shall be provided with
a rate-of-flow indicator on the pump discharge line leading to the filters and shall be calibrated for measuring both water for filtration and backwash and the activating element creating the pressure differential for indication of flow shall be installed with adequate clear distance upstream and downstream to obtain a reasonable degree of accuracy .
The rate indicator shall be calibrated for and provided with a scale reading in gallons per minute and shall have a range of 10% below the established filtration rate and 10% above the backwash rate established . Where diatomite filters are used, the activating element of the flow indicator shall be installed in the filter effluent line . POOL POPULATION, SANITARY FACILITIES 2S . Capacity of Pool in Bathers: The maximum number of persons in bathing attire within the pool enclosure or the bathing area shall be limited to one person per 20 sq ft of pool and deck area combined . 26. Bathhouse: Adequate dressing and sanitary plumbing facilities shall be provided for every public swimming pool . An exception to this may be made in Types B, C, D, E & F pools where available facilities are provided in connection with the general development for other purposes, etc., of adequate capacity and number, in close proximity to the pool . Every bathhouse shall be provided with separate facilities for each sex with no interconnection between the provisions for male and female. The rooms shall be well . lighted, drained, ventilated and of good con. struction, with impervious materials employed in general, finished in light colors and so developed and planned that good sanitation can be maintained throughout the building at all times. (a) Minimum sanitary plumbing shall be provided as follows :
facilities
Mates: One water closet combination, one lavatory and one urinal shall be presumed to be adequate for the first 100 bothers . One water closet and one urinal shall be provided for each additional 150 bathers or major fraction thereof . One lavatory shall be provided for each 200 additional bathers .
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS A minimum of three shower heads shall be provided which shall be presumed to be adequate for the first 150 males and one shower outlet shall be provided for each additional 50 male bathers . Females: A minimum of two water closet combinations shall be provided in each bathhouse building and this shall be presumed to be adequate for the first 100 fe . males. One additional water closet combination shall be provided for each additional 75 females or fraction thereof . A minimum of two shower heads shall be provided, which shall be presumed to be adequate for the first 100 females and one shower shall be added for each 50 ad . ditional females . One lavatory shall be provided as a minimum, which shall be considered adequate for the first 75 females. One additional lavatory shall be provided for each additional 75 females in attendance, or major fraction thereof . These minimum criteria for bathhouse plumbing facilities shall be based upon the anticipated maximum attendance in bathers. Facilities for either sex shall be based upon a ratio of 60% of the total number of bathers being male and 40% being female .
(d) Hot Water: Heated water will be pro-
vided at all shower heads. Water heater and thermostatic mixing valve shall be inaccessible to bathers and will be capable of providing 2 gpm of 90 F. water to each shower head, and no other water shall be supplied . No differences in elevation, requiring steps, shall be provided in the interior of male and female dressing areas. No steps shall be permitted between the bathhouse and the pool deck areas adjoining and should it be necessary that the bathhouse floor be at a different elevation from the pool decks, ramps shall be provided at the access doors. Where romps are used between the bathhouse and pool decks, the slope shall not exceed 3 in . per ft and shall be positively non-slip . All partitions between portions of the dressing room areas, screen partitions, shower, toilet and dressing room booths shall be of durable material not subject to damage by water and shall be so designed that a water way is provided between the partitions and floor to permit thorough cleaning of the floor area with hoses and brooms .
(e) Soap dispensers : Soap dispensers for providing either liquid or powdered soap shall be provided at each lavatory and between each pair of shower heads and dispensers must be of all-metal or plastic type and no gloss permitted in these units.
Shower and dressing booths shall be pro. vided in female dressing space and dressing booths shall be provided with curtains
(f) Mirrors: Mirrors shall be provided over each lavatory and toilet paper holders shall be provided at each water closet combination .
other institutional use where a pool may be open only to one sex at a time .
(g) Water: All water provided for drinking fountains, lavatories and showers shall be potable and meet the requirements and conform with the standards of the U . S. Public Health Service .
or other means of seclusion. This condition may be subject to variation for schools and
(b) Drinking Fountain : Not less than one drinking fountain shall be provided available to bathers both at the pool and in the bathhouse. (c) Hose flibbs : Hose bibbs shall be pro. vided for flushing down the dressing rooms and bathhouse interior . The floors of the bathhouse shall be concrete, free of joints or openings and shall be continuous throughout the area with a very slight texture to minimize slipping but which shall be relatively smooth to ensure complete cleaning . Floor drains shall be provided to ensure positive drainage of all parts of the building with a slope in the floor of not less than 1/4 in . per foot, toward drains.
27 . Food Service: Where provision is made for serving food and/or beverages at the pool, no containers of glass or other material which might be a hazard to bothers' feet, when broken, shall be used . The area shall be so arranged and posted to prohibit the consumption of food and beverages on the pool decks proper . ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS 28 . Lighting and Wiring (a) Submarine Lighting : Where submarine lighting is used, not less than 0.5 watts shall be employed per square foot of pool area .
(b) Area Lighting : Where submarine light. ing is employed, area lighting shall be provided for the deck areas and directed toward the deck areas and away from the pool surface insofar as practical in a total capacity of not less than 0.6 watts per square foot of deck area . Where submarine lighting is not employed and night swimming is permitted, area and pool lighting combined shall be provided in an amount of not less than 2 watts per square foot of total area .
(c) All wiring in connection with requirements for a swimming pool for lighting or power shall conform with the codes of the National Underwriters' Laboratories (National Electric Code). (d) In addition to any other grounding, each submarine light unit shall be individually grounded by means of a screwed or bolted connection to the metal junction box from which the branch circuit to the individual light proceeds . .'e) Overhead Wiring : No electrical wiring for lighting or power shall be permitted to pass overhead within 20 ft of the pool en. closure. DRAINAGE PIPING 29. Mechanical Pool Fittings : Where overflow gutters are installed, outlet spacing shall not be greater than 15 ft on centers . Overflow gutter branch lines from each drain fitting shall be not less than 2 in . I .P .S . Pool inlets and outlets shall be provided and arranged to produce a uniform circula. tion of water and the maintenance of uni. form chlorine residual throughout the pool ; there shall be at least four inlets for the smallest pool . Provisions shall be made to adjust the flow through all inlets. Maximum flow
rates (in gpm) through various sized inlet branches shall be not more than as follows : Size & gpm; 1 in. = 10 ; 1!4 in . =20; 1Yzin.=30 ;2in .=50 . In pools with surface area greater than 1500 sq ft or length in excess of 60 ft, inlets shall be placed around the entire perimeter . In any case, an adequate num. ber of inlets shall be provided, properly spaced and located to accomplish complete
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS recirculation and the maintenance of a uniform and adequate sterilizing medium at all times. 30. Main Drain Spacing: When the outlets to pool pump suction are installed near the end of a pool, the spacing shall be not greater than 20 ft on centers. An outlet shall be provided not more than 15 ft from side wall . The outlet grate clear area shall be such that when the maximum flow of water is being pumped through the floor outlet, the velocity through the clear area of the grate shall not be greater than l'/i ft per second . Outlet grates shall be anchored and openings in grates shall be slotted and the minimum dimension of slots shall be not more than '/2 in . Where outlet fittings consist of parallel plates, of so-called anti-vortex type where the water enters the fittings from the sides rather than through a grating facing upward, entrance velocities may be increased to b ft per second . All pool fittings shall be of non-corrosive material . 31 . Piping : The determination of sizes of pipe, fittings and valves on the complete main pump suction line from the swimming pool shall be based upon a rate of friction losses for piping of not more than 6 ft per 100 ft of pipe, based upon Hazen-Williams formulas for 15-year old piping .
All piping on the discharge side of the pump for filtration and to the point for discharge of backwash water from the filter plant shall have pipe sizes determined on a basis of friction losses which shall be not more than 12 ft per 100 ft and the velocity in any pipe shall not exceed 10 ft per second and pipe selection shall be made based upon Hazen-Williams formulas for 15-year old pipe . In the determination of pipe sizes required, the criterion which would call for the largest pipe size shall govern . All pool piping shall be supported by piers or otherwise to preclude against possible settlement which will either provide dirt traps or air pockets and a condition which would rasult in rupture of the lines . All pressure and suction lines shall have a uniform slope in one direction of not less than 3 in . per 100 ft . Gravity waste lines around the pool 6 in . or smaller shall have a minimum slope of '/é in . per ft . Lines larger than 6 in . and all outfolf waste mains shall be designed with a size of pipe
and slope to freely carry the maximum flows required with no surcharge or back pressure in the lines. All piping and equipment shall be provided with positive means of completely draining all water to prevent damage from freezing . 32. Direct Connections to Utilities: No direct mechanical connection between a source of domestic water supply shall be made to a swimming pool or to its piping, thereby eliminating a cross connection to what may become a source of contamination . The water supply for filling the pool, when derived from a potable supply, shall be by means of an over-fall fillspout to the pool, or an over-fall supply to a surge tank, wherein the water will freely overflow at deck level or the top of the surge tank, before coming into contact with the water supply outlet .
The disposition of sanitary sewage from the bathhouse shall be into a sanitary sewer, a septic tank or other waste line which meets with the approval of local health authorities . Whenever any waste from the swimming pool is connected to a sanitary sewer or a storm sewer, an air-gap or a relief manhole shall be provided which will positively preclude against surge or backflow introducing contaminated water into the swimming pool or the water treatment plant as covered elsewhere.
33 . Pump and Motor : Pump and motor unit shall be provided for recirculation of the pool water which has been selected for performance and will meet the conditions of quantity required for filtering and cleaning the filters with the total dynamic head developed by the complete system . The requirements for filtration shall be based upon the maximum head loss developed immediately prior to washing the filters . The motor shall be non-overloading in continuous operation for filtration under all conditions but may be overloaded within the service factor for conditions of backwash and for emptying the pool .
Pump performance curve for the unit to be installed shall be provided and submitted
to proper authorities .
34. Vacuum Cleaner: Where facilities are installed integrally in the pool piping system for the operation of a vacuum cleaner, the piping shall be required to produce not more than 15 ft total head loss at the pump,
while moving four gallons per minute per lineal inch of cleaner head . 35 . Sterilizing Agent: Some means of sterilizing the pool water shall be used which provides a residual of sterilizing agent in the pool water. Either chlorine or bromine may be used for this purpose. In either case, adequate feeding equipment and equipment for testing residuals must be employed . Inasmuch as chlorine is almost universally used, minimum standards for the use of chlorine are given below . In all public pools, chlorine shall be supplied by means of a gas chlorinator which controls and introduces the chlorine gas into water solution and introduces it into the pool water. Exceptions to this may be made in Types B, C, D, E & F swimming pools, where chlorine may be applied in the form of hypochlorites fed by a positive feed pump suitable for use with hypochlorite in solution . Equipment for supplying chlorine or compounds of chlorine shall be of capacity to feed 1 Ib of available chlorine per 3000 gallons of pool volume per 24-hour period . This may be reduced by 50% for Type E pools. 36 . Instructions: All valves shall be permanently tagged and valve operating schedule shall be provided for every operation . Instructions shall be supplied in not less than two copies . POOL WATER AND TREATMENT 37. Chlorine Compartment: Where gaseous chlorine equipment is provided below grade in a filter room or in any part of a building which provides housing, the mechanical proportioning device and cylinders of chlorine shall be housed in a reasonably gas-light corrosion-resistant and mechanically vented enclosure . Air-tight duct from the bottom of the enclosure to atmosphere in on unrestricted area and a motor-driven exhaust fan capable of producing at least one air change per minute shall be pro.
vided . Automatic louvers of good design near the top of the enclosure for admitting fresh air are required . An opening at least 18 in . square, glazed with clear glass, and artificial illumination shall be provided in an amount such that the essential performance of the equipment may be observed, at all times, without opening the enclosure . Electrical switches for the control of artificial lighting and ventilation shall be on the outside of the enclosure adjacent to the door . The floor area of the enclosure shall
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS
Diving Pools
be of adequate size to house the chlorinater, fan, scales and one extra chlorine cylinder . Gas mask approved by the Bureau of Mines for protection against chlorine gas shall be provided, mounted outside the chlorine compartment . 33 . Coagulant Feeder : Coagulant feeder of cast-iron pot type with piping arranged to provide a restriction in the flow or other means of creating a pressure differential which will circulate a portion of the filter influent on a ratio proportionate to the rate of flow shall be provided . Pot shall be of good grade gray cast iron with quick-removable, tight-gasketed cover and will be piped with IPS brass pipe to circulate through the feeder with a tapping at the bottom of the
feeder for entering water and a tapping at the top for supplying coagulant solution to the filter influent . Control valves, one of which shall be needlepoint type, and a drain cock for draining the equipment when the plant is out of operation shall be provided . The capacity of the pot shall be not less than 2 oz of lump or nut potassium alum per square foot of filter bed area . 39 . Testing Equipment: A test set shall be provided for the determination of free chlorine residual and the pH hydrogen-ion content in the pool water of calorimetric type with test tubes and supply of phenol red solution and orthotoluidine agents .
Color standards shall be as follows and the carrying case and test tubes shall be provided of plastic or other material which is permanent and unbreakable :
41 . Pool Temperature: Temperature of indoor pools shall be maintained between 75 and 85 F., with exceptions made in Type E pools.
Chlorine color standards-0.1, 0.3, 0.6, 0 .8 ppm; pH color standards-6 .8, 7 .2, 7.6, 8.0
WADING POOLS By definition, a wading pool shall normally be a small pool for non-swimming children, only, used only for wading and shall have a maximum depth at the deepest point not greater than 24 in .
40 . Quality of Water: The equipment when operated in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, shall provide water meeting the following standards:
Owing to the high degree of pollution likely to be present, a wading pool shall have a maximum turn-over cycle of 4 hours. The supply to the wading pool shall consist of filtered and chlorinated water from the large pool filtration and recirculation system. The circulating outlets from the wading pool may be wasted or may be returned to the circulation system of the large pool at the suction side of the pump for re-filtration . Also a waste outlet shall be provided at the deepest point of the wading pool, by means of which it shall be completely emptied to waste. In general, standards,of sanitation in circulation, surface skimming and all other details shall be equal or superior to those for swimming pools. It is considered to be very desirable to install a spray pool in
(l) Shall meet U.S . Public Health Service requirements for bacteriologically potable water. (2) Shall have a degree of clarity such that a disc 2 in . i n diameter which is divided into quadrants in alternate colors of red and black shall be clearly discernible through 15 ft of water and the different colors readily distinguishable . (3) Shall have a minimum free available chlorine residual at any point in the pool of not less than 0.25 porn and not more than 1 .0 ppm at any time . (4) The pH or measure of hydrogen-ion content at no time shall be below 7.0 and shall be maintained between this limit and 8 .0 on the hydrogen-ion scale.
lieu of a wading pool, wherein no water stands at any time but is drained away freely as it sprays over the area,
By R. JACKSON SMITH, AIA, Eggers and Higgins, Architects
DIVING POOLS Separation of swimming and diving pools has long been common practice abroad and is an increasing trend in the United States . Diving does not require a very large pool, but it must be deep-at least 14 ft below a 10-meter platform . A swimming pool must be large in area, but it need be no more than 4 or 5 ft deep and can have a flat
Diving pool and platform dimensions for competitive swimming I m Board size
be provided so that the diver can see exactly where the surface of the water is . If outdoors, the pool should be oriented so that the sun is not in the diver's eyes. Underwater observation ports are desirable .
W
a
N E °
=
a
m
bottom .
Olympic requirements for diving pools are shown in the accompanying diagram and table. Minimum requirements can be met with a pool 35 by 45 ft, but a somewhat larger size, e.g ., 60 by 60 ft, is usually advisable . A water curling arrangement should
N ;
0 -, 0 ô o .a
.e w c
r 3
1-meter springboard
16'
20"
3-meter springboard
16'
20"
5-meter platform
18'
7'
10-meter plat I rm
20' 20'
8' 10 ,
3'- 3" 9'-11" 16'- 5" 32'-10"
A-1 7' A-3 7' A-5 7'
A-10 8'
Distances*
-0 0 0 .a
b
0 .a 0 .a ô
° a ° 2
0
c
N E 1° 0
cc
0
V
5'
°
5' 5'
15,
B-5 15'
B-10 20'
-
a E 3 2 o
C-3
8'
10, C-5
12' 15'
6'
8'
12'
8'
10 , C-10 j
10 ,
L
o
C-1
8'
10 ,
0 a
v
B-1 B-3
0
t °: a
E
m
5'
0 0 .o
0 ° .0 _ N °
-
8'
D-1 28' D-3 33' D-5 43' D-10 52'
25' 30' 35' 45'
* i'referred dimensions appear in left-hand columns ; minimum safe dimensions
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS Diving Pools
(in accordance with Olympic requirements) Distances*
Depths
E w 0 ô -a
o >o 0 -
o° C -a . E -~ i
ôm
a
ô 01
ô
r
E-3 E-5 15'
E-10 15'
F-3
15' 15' 21'
6' -
F-5 8'
F-10 8'
o> ô
a m
°,
-d-
V
Û .â
F-1 15' -6'
a o
-a a
v
w E-1
v
5' 5' 6' 6'
11
aw
a
a
- H-1 G-1 - 12' 15' 11' G-3 15' G-5 5' G-10 _- .- --15'
appear in right-hand columns.
w
12'
--
H-5 H-10
I
16'
C
-= a-
r
s â 0j
10'
1-
.--- .
9'
I-3 0,
_
-a H
:E
Z
M-1 -N-
J-3 20'
K-3 91
L-3
M-3
3'
10,
10'-
L-5
M-5
N-5
J-5
K-5
25'
9' -__
I-10
J-10
4
W
_- K J1 -1 L-1 _ _ - _ 3-91 17'
I-5 121/2' 11' 15'
a-
c]
p
Ô
H-3 - 111/2' 12'
12'
12'
r
In area measured from point below end of board __ --u o : -n° d
35
K-10
10'
i
I
3
11'
L-10
M-10
3
.
14'
N-3
10' N-10 10 ,
_
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS
Residential Swimming Pools Minimum standards prepared by the National Swimming Pool Institute
9. Face Piping-The piping with all valves and fittings which is used to connect the filter system together as a unit,
RESIDENTIAL SWIMMING POOLS The technical data presented here give basic requirements for residential swimming pool design, systems and equipment. It is intended by the NSPI to serve as recommended minimum standards and not as a model code .
10. Recirculating Piping-The piping from the pool to the filter and return to the pool, though which the water circulates . 11 . Backwash Piping-The piping which extends from the backwash outlet of the filters to its terminus at the point of dis-
DEFINITIONS AND NOMENCLATURE
posal .
1 . Swimming Pool-Any constructed pool, used for swimming or bathing over 24 in, in depth, or with a surface area exceeding 250 sq f t .
12 . Receptor-An approved fixture or device of such material, shape and capacity as to adequately receive the discharge from indirect waste piping, so constructed and located as to be readily cleaned.
2. Residential Swimming Pool-Any constructed pool which is used, or intended to be used, as a swimming pool in connection with a single family residence .
13 . Filter-Any material or apparatus by which water is clarified .
3. Main Outlet-The outlet(s) at the deep portion of the pool through which the main flow of water leaves the pool .
14. Underdrain-An appurtenance at the bottom of the filter to assure equal distribu . tion of water through the filter media.
4. Main Suction-The line connecting the main outlet to the pump suction.
15 . Filter Element-that part of a filter device which retains the filter media.
S. Vacuum fitting-The fitting in the wall of the pool which is used as an outlet for connecting the underwater suction cleaning equipment.
16. Recirculating connected with the skim the pool over a return the water to filter.
6. Vacuum Piping-The piping which connects the vacuum fitting to the pump suction.
Skimmer-A device pump suction used to self-adjusting weir and the pool through the
17 . Overflow Gutter-A trough in the wall of the pool which may be used for overflow and to skim the pool surface .
7. Return Piping-The piping which carries the filtered water from the filter to the pool .
18 . Filter Media-The fine material which entraps the suspended particles .
8. Inlet-The fitting or opening through which water enters the pool .
19. Filter Sand-A type of filter media.
20. Filter Rock-Graded rock and gravel used to support filter sand . 21 . Pool Depths-The distance between the floor of the pool and the maximum operating level when pool is in use . 22 . Pool Decks-The paved area around the pool . 23 . Width and length-Shall be determined by actual water dimensions . 24 . Lifeline Anchors-Rings in wall of pool at transition point between shallow and deep area . CONSTRUCTION The design and construction, as well as all equipment and materials, shall comply with the following requirements : 1 . Structural Design-The pool structure shall be engineered and designed to withstand the expected forces to which it will be subjected . 2. Wall Slopes-To a depth of 5 ft from the top, the wall slope shall not be more than 1 ft horizontal in 5 ft vertical . 3. Floor Slopes-The slope of the floor in the shallow end shall not exceed 1 ft vertical to 7 ft horizontal . The transition point between shallow and deep water shall not be less than 4'/2 or more than 5 ft deep . 4. Lifeline
Anchors-Provide recessed lifeline anchor in wall of pool at transition point between shallow and deep area .
S. Diving Area-Minimum depths and distances shall be as shown in table below,
DIVING AREA-MINIMUM DEPTHS AND DISTANCES Diving Boards
Maximum Distance Above Water, In .
Deck Level
18
8
10
10
2'/x
30
8
11
11
21/2
39 .37
8'/2
12
12
3
Residential 1 meter
i
Minimum Depth, ft
Distance from Diving Wall, ft
j
Distance from Deep Point to Transition Point, ft
I
Minimum Overhang, ft
j
Minimum Width to Center of Board, ft 7 7 1/2
Î
8
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS
Residential Swimming Pools MECHANICAL 1 . Filters-Every pool shall be equipped with a recirculating system capable of filtering the entire contents of the pool in 18 hr', or less, when the flow is calculated at a maximum of 5 gallons per minute, per square foot of filter area . a. Filters shall be capable of maintaining the clarity of the water to permit the ready identification, through an 8 ft depth of waer, of a disc 2 in . i n diameter, which is divided into four quadrants in alternate col. ors of red and white. b. Filter capacity shall be such that it need not be cleaned more frequently than once every four days under normal operation. c. All filters shall be equipped with influent and offluent pressure gauges, to de. tsrmins the pressure differential and frequency of cleaning . d. All filter systems shall be equipped with an air release at the high point in the system. Each filter shall be provided with a visual means of determining when the filter has been restored to original cleanliness . e. Operating instructions shall be posted on every filter system and all valves shall be properly designated with metal tags, in . dicating purpose.
2. Sand Pressure Filters-Sand filter systems shall be designed and installed to operate at a rate not to exceed 5 gallons per minute, per sq ft of filter area and to back-
wash at a minimum rate of 10 gallons per minute, per sq ft of surface area . a. Filter tanks shall be fabricated to 1956 ASME Specifications for noncode pressure vessels, with the exception that standard type dished and flanged heads may be used . Tanks shall be built for a minimum of 50 pounds working pressure and tested at 150 psi. The filter underdrain shall have an effective distribution of at least 25 per cent of the cross-sectional area of the tank . Tanks placed underground shall be steel plate at least 3/16 in . i n thickness, with an approved non-corrosive exterior coating . b. Filter tanks shall be supported in o manner to prevent tipping or settling .
. Filter Media Specifications" a. Filter sand shall be a hard uniformly graded, silica material with effective particle sizes, between 0.45 and 0.55 millimeters in diameter, with uniformity coeffi . cient of 1 .45 to 1 .69. There shall be no limestone or clay present . b. Filter sand shall be no less than 19 in . *Note: Standards for diatomaceous earth fsltere are presently being prepared by a National Committee of diatomaceous earth filter manufacturers.
in depth with a freeboard of no less than 9 in . or more than 12 in . c. There shall be no less than four grades of rock, which shall be clean, non-crushed, rounded, non-calcareous material . d. The total depth of the rock supporting bed shall be no less than 15 in . and each grade shall be 2 in . or greater in depth.
shall be brass. Sizes over 2 in . may have cast-iron or brass bodies . All working parts of valves shall be non-corrosive material . c. Combination valves may be installed if the materials and design comply with the intent of these standards.
The bottom layer shall vary in size between 1 and 1 1/2 in .
ing.
Each layer of rock shall be leveled to prevent intermixing of adjacent grades . e. The top layer shall vary in size between '/a and ', in . The next layer shall vary in size between 1i. and th in . The next layer shall vary in size between t/z and s/ in .
4. Recirculating Pumps-The recirculating pump shall have sufficient capacity to provide the rated flows of the filter system, without exceeding the head loss at which the pump will deliver such flows. The pump motor shall not be operated at an overload which exceeds the service factor . a. Pool pump shall be equipped on the inlet side with an approved type hair and lint strainer . The basket of the strainer shall be non-corrosive and have on open screen surface of at least four times the cross sectional area of the inlet pipe . S. Pool Piping-Shall be sized to permit the rated flows for filtering and cleaning without exceeding the maximum head, at which the pump will provide such flows . In general, the water velocity in the pool
piping should not exceed 10 ft per second . Where velocity exceeds 10 ft per second, summary calculations should be provided to show that rated flows are possible with the pump and piping provided . The recirculat . ing piping and fittings shall meet the fol. lowing requirements : a. The vacuum fitting(s) shall be in an accessible position(s) below water line. b. A main outlet shall be placed at the deepest point in every pool for recirculating and emptying the pool . c . Pool recirculatinn piping, passing through the pool structure, shall be copper tubing (with a minimum wall thickness of Type "L") brass or an approved equal, d. Filtered water inlets shall be provided in sufficient quantity and shall be properly spaced to provide a maximum circulation of the main body and surface of water.
6. Valves-Fullway valves shall be in . stalled throughout, to insure proper func. tioning of the filtration and piping system . a. A valve shall be installed on the main
suction line located in an accessible place outside the walls of the pool . b. Valves up to, and including 2 in . i n size
7, Tests-All pool piping shall be in compliance with these standards and the installation and construction of the pool piping system in accordance with the approved plans . The entire pool piping system shall be tested with a water test of 50 psi and proved tight before covering or conceal-
WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT The potable water supply to any swimming pool shall be installed as required in AWWA Standards. a. Unless on approved type of filling system is installed, such as is required by AWWA, any source of water which may be used to fill the pool shall be equipped with backflow protection . b. No over the rim fill spout will be accepted unless located under a diving board or installed in a manner approved by local authorities so as to remove any hazard . GENERAL Wherever building regulations are established, generally the requirements are similar to those listed below. a. Before commencing the installation of any swimming pool, a permit authorizing such work shall be obtained from the building department . b. Application for permits shall be accomponied by plans and calculations in duplicate or triplicate and in sufficient detail showing the following : 1 . Plot plan, elevations with dimensions all drawn to scale . 2. Pool dimensions, depths and volume in
gallons . 3. Type and size of filter systems, filtration and backwash capacities. 4. Pool piping layout, with all pipe sizes and valves shown, and types of materials to be used . 5. The rated capacity and head at filtration and backwash flows of the pool pump in gpm with the size and type of motor. 6. Location and type of waste disposal syste m. 7. Structural, calculations and details prepared and signed by a registered engineer . c. Set Back-Swimming pools shall be clas-
sified as accessory structures and conform to setbacks as required for such structures in local building codes.
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS Residential Swimming Pools MINIMUM FILTER AND PIPE SIZES FOR
RESIDENTIAL
WITH
POOLS
SAND
CONVENTIONAL
PRESSURE
FILTERS
Based
on : Maximum filter rate-5 gpm per sq ft of filter area . Minimum backwash rate-10 gpm per sq ft of filter area . Complete turnover of pool capacity in 18 hours .
Backwash Rate
Filter Rate
Maximum Pool Capacity
Filter Diameter
9,550, gal 11,750901
18 in 20 in
1 .77 ft 2 .18 ft
9 gpm 11 gpm
18 gpm 22 gpm
17,000901 26,400 gal 38,200 gal
24 in 30 in 36 in
3 .14 ft 4 .90 ft 7 .07 ft
16 gpm 25 gpm 35 gpm
32 gpm 50 gpm 71 gpm
51,900 gal 67,800 gal
42 in 48 in
9 .62 ft 12 .57 ft
48 gpm 63 gpm
PIPE VELOCITIES
Filter Area
IN FEET PER SECOND (Based on Standard Pipe Size
Fl ow Rate
3/4
in
I
1 in
I
5 .4 6 .0 6 .6
32 gpm 35 gpm 48 gpm
16 gpm 18 gpm 22 gpm
9 .6 10 .8`
6 .7 8 .2
50 gpm 63 gpm 71 gpm
9 .3 11 .9'
96 gpm 126 gpm
25 gpm 32 gpm
Steel
96 gpm 126 gpm
1
Pipe) Pipe Size
Flow Rate
9 gpm 10 gpm 11 gpm 1
RATES
FILTER AND BACKWASH
FILTER SIZE
POOL CAPACITY
1 1/4 in
11/2
6 .6 7 .5 10 .2'
in
7 .6 7,9 9 .9 11 .1 `
I
2!12 in
2 in
Ï 6 .9 8 .4 .4
2. 1' .1
'Do not select suction or backwash line sizes where velocity exceeds 10 ft per second without engineering calculations .
MINIMUM PIPE SIZES' Diameter of Filter
Maximum Length Suction Line
i
Main Suction Line
Vacuum Line
ReturnLine
i
3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
in in in in
1 in 1 in 11/a in 1114 in
I in 1 1 /4 in 1 1/4 in 11/4 in
3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
in in in in
1114 11/4 1114 11/4
1 1/4 in 1 1/4 in 11/4 in 11/2 in
1 1/4 in 1 1/4 in 1 1/4 in 11/4 in
1 1 1 1
in in in in
in 1V2in 1 1/2 in 2 in
1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2 1V2
in in in in
11/a in 1 1/4 in 1 1/4 in 11/4 in
11/2
1I/2 11/2 1 1/2 1 1/2
in in in in
2 2 2 2
in in in in
18 in
20 30 40 50
ft ft ft ft
1 in 1 in 11/4 in 1 1/4 in
20 in
20 30 40 50
ft ft ft ft
I in 1 1/4 in 1 1 /4 in 1 1/4 in
24 in
20 30 40 5D
ft ft 1t ft
20 30 40 50
ft ft ft ft
11/2
30 in
1 1 1 1/4 1 1/4 li
in in in in
li
-
Approx . Total Backwash Heed
Backwash Line
32 35 22 24
ft ft ft ft
29 24 25 26
ft ft ft ft
1I/4
in 1 1 /a in 1 1/4 in 11/4 in
28 31 34 29
ft ft ft 1t
in 1 1/2 in 1 1/2 in 1V2 in
29 32 35 28
ft ft ft ft
25 27 29 31
ft ft ft ft
in in in 1n
j
I
36 in
20 30 40 50
ft ft ft ft
2 2 2 2
in in in in
1 1/2 11/2 11/2 11/2
in in in in
42 in
20 30 40 50
ft ft ft ft
2 21/2 21/2 2 1/2
in in in in
V/2 11/2 11/2 1V2
in in in in
11/2 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2
in in in in
2 21/2 21/2 2 1/2
in in in in
31 22 24 26
ft ft ft 1t
48 in
20 30 40 50
ft ft ft ft
21/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2
in in in in
11/2 2 2 2
in in** in" in"
11/2 1 1/2 11/2 11/2
in in in in
21/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 2,12
in in in in
25 27 28 33
ft ft ft ft
. Allowable loss due to friction through 'Assumes filter at deck level with backwash outlet plus or minus 2 ft of deck level-not over 30 ft long filter and face piping-15 ft. five 90' bends in each line is maximum considered . ' " 11/2 in lines acceptable, but not recommended.
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS 50-Meter Recreational Pool
i
ce h m O b > è Ô E 0 m ei 0 0" ar Lm
-
nu
m ô c 0
0 é, c E Es ô
3 O piz c m O .E E .~ 0 0 ôm E ât 0 aa c m
.É o .E mw C
. V 1L b
m*6 OC O ^2 w Ô Wr
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS 25-Meter Recreational Pool
Fig . 2 Recreational swimming pool 25 m long will accommodate 340 bathers . From Definitive Designs for Naval Shore Facilities, Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C., 1972.
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS 25- and 50-Meter Indoor Pools
Fig . 3
Fig . 4.
Twenty-five-meter pool .
Fig . 5
Fifty-meter pool.
Figures 3-9 from Definitive Designs for Naval Shore Facilities, Department of the Navy, Washington, D .C ., 1972 .
Recreation and Entertainment SWIMMING POOLS 25- and 50-Meter Indoor Pools
0
a w c i E 3 E a ô ô d 10
m
m W ô Ca E r ô m m ô tm n
w
Recreation and Entertainment LOCKER ROOMS
Based on information from "A Guide for Planning Facilities for Recreation, Athletic
Physical
Institute,
&
Inc .,
Health for
the
Education," National
published
Facilities
by
The
Conference .
LOCKER ROOMS
These plans show three dressing-locker room arrangements, each with its own particular advantages. Dressing lockers are marked with X's . Plan 1 : storage lockers are grouped in small space for economy in drying uniforms with forced warm air ; some congestion may result from dressing lockers being next to one another. Plan 2 : distributing dressing lockers over entire area gives each participant ample dressing space. Plan 3 : dressing lockers distributed over entire suite ; units can be installed in any number desired and lend themselves to group dressing method for girls . By constructing walls A, B, C and D, putting a grille to ceiling above locker tiers and installing grille sliding doors at E, each unit becomes a complete dressing room for community use. Walls A, B, C and D can be omitted and gates F added to get some use and permit towel service and toilet units to be installed at points A and D
DESIGN NOTES Dressing-Locker Room. An average
of 14 sq . ft . per pupil in the designed peak load should be provided exclusive of the locker space so there will be adequate dressing area . Check list : sufficient mirrors, built-in drinking fountain and cuspidor in boys' dressing room, tack board.
Storage Lockers. Each pupil enrolled
should have a storage locker, with an additional 10 per cent to allow for expansion. Recommended sizes, in order of preference are: 7j2 by 12 by 24 in ., 6 by 12 by 36 in ., 7V2 by 12 by 8 in . These were selected as being the minimum size lockers to store ordinary gym costumes and allow free hanging for ventilation .
Lockers. Lockers large enough to accommodate street clothes should be provided . The number should equal the peak load plus 10 Dressing
per cent . Lockers 12 by 12 by 72 in . are recommended for secondary schools and 12 by 12 by 54 in . or 12 by 12 by 48 in . for elementary schools. Shower Room . In the group or gang type shower, the girls should have a number of shower heads equal to
40 per cent of the designed peak load ; for boys 30 per cent . Shower heads should be at least 4 ft . apart, of a non-clogging type ; height of spray should be adjustable by use of a lock. If stationary heads are installed, they should be placed
Recreation and Entertainment LOCKER ROOMS so that the top of the spray will be shoulder height (usually -11 , to S ft .) . on(- to three individual shower booths, 3 bv- 31 2 ft ., should be provided additionally for girls. For boys, if walk-way or %alkaround shower system is desired, the number of sho% e~r heads in the sho% er room can be reduced by one-third . In the walk-way, spray outlets attached to the water pipe must be focused to provide coverage from shoulder height to feet . 'l'here must be a conlinuous spray the length of the %alkway arranged so that there %ill be %arts, tepid and cool water as one progresses along the %elk-%%a,, . 'I'lie walk-way should be arranged in l shape with a total length at least 35 ft . and from 3 to 4 ft . in width. An entrance from the group shower soaping space and egress to the toNel. ing room and s%inuning pool should he provided . Both individual and master con. trol should be provided for all groups or gang showers. "flee booth showers *hould have individual control; the %elk-%av only master control. Toweling Room . 'l'he toweling room should have the same total area as the sho%er rooms and be immediately accessible to both showers an(] dressing room .
1 ledge 18 in . high and 8 in . wide coned at %all and hale . %ith bull nose edge, as foot drying aid is desirable. If totsel distribution is such that hanging of to%els in drying room is necessarN - . a I -in., non-corrosive to%cl bar t ft . from the floor and 1 to 1 ~ in . from the %call is recommended . k non-shatterable, transparent panel for supervision of toweling between the toweling and dressing room may be desired . Towel Service and Storage Room. Adjustable shelves in sufficient numher to accommodate the load are
required . A check-out %indo%% should open into or be immediately adjacent to the toweling room . If uniforms are distributed from here, a clutch door or cheek-out % iudow, %-ith counter, should open into the dressing room . Toilet Room . Facilities should be provided in proportion to the peak load on the follo%ing basis: 1-30 Min . 3 'l'oilets Girls Toilets Bovs I--,70 Min . 2 I rinals Boys 1-2i Min . 2 Lavatories Girls and Boys 1--;f0 Min . 3
Typical combined storage-dressina locker arranaements Area of the dressing-locker roomy suite required for di f ferent types of storage and dressing lockers in a typical unit fur 2'11 0 girls or boys . Proportionate adjustments to be made for varying school ettrolltneeits . Class Periods Per Day six
I
Size of lockers and Battery Arrangement 6-storage 7/z 1-dressing 12 or 6-storage 7~/z 1 -dressing 12
x 12 x 24" x 12 x 48" x 12 x 24" x 1 2 x 72"
six
6-storage 6 x 12 x 36" 1-dressing 12 x 12 x 72"
six
6-storage 7t/2 x 1 2 x 18" 1-dressing 12 x 12 x 54"
eight
8-storage 7t/: x 12 x 18" 1-dressing 12 x 12 x 72 "
eight
8-storage 7 1/2 x 12 x 24" 1 -dressing 12 x 12 x48"
Typical Installation
`III'll101 .11
`
III 11
~Ilull,
II l~
III'II 111~Î1 11 II
II II II II I~ ~" ~~
It
11' 11
~// 1t11 11 11_ 1111
RUSH[
1111
141
~~,,.
Overall height with base
Number students per day
Peak load period
54" or 80"
240
80"
Area Required, sq . ft .
Recommendation t
40
114 .80 or 90 .0
1 a . grades 1-12 b . grades 9-12
240
40
100.0
3 grades 10-12 only
62"
240
40
90.0
2 grates 1-12
80
240
30
67.50
grades 9-12
54"
240
30
105 .0
1 grades 1-12
Recreation and Entertainment BATHHOUSES
BATHHOUSES
Information in this section was prepared by Ronald Allwork from data assembled by the Portland Cement Association ; Joint Committee on Bathing Places, American Public Health Ass'n. ; Conference of State Sanitary Engineers . General. Capacity and operation of the bathhouse must be such as to avoid overcrowding at times of maximum demand ; however, it is better to have an overcrowded condition a few times a year rather than to have facilities so large as to be uneconomical . Location of bathhouse depends partly or. size of pool and space available. When possible, bathhouse should be placed so as to protect pool from prevailing winds. A location at one side of the pool, or better still, at the shallow end, will reduce the danger of poor swimmers and children falling or jumping into deep water. Six* of bathhouse and selection of equipment, in relation to pool size depend on such factors as the need for : lockers, or central checking system ; individual dressing rooms, or the "dormitory" system ; private or group showers ; and extra facilities . If patrons are permitted to use their own suits, some will come ready to swim, and dressing and check rooms may be small . But since all bathers should be required to take a cleansing shower, the number of showers needed will remain the same . Area of bathhouse is usually 1/3 of pool area ; area of dressing room approximates 1/5 pool area. It is recommended that bathhouse facilities, based on the number of bathers present at any one time (2/3 of whom may be assumed to be men), be provided as follows 1 1 1 1 t
shower for each 40 bathers lavatory for each 60 bathers toilet for each 40 women toilet for each 60 men urinal for each 60 men
For rough estimate of maximum number of persons within a pool enclosure (pool and walks) assume one person for every 12 sq . ft . of pool area . Hence for a pool 30 x 75 ft., assume 190 persons.
Elements of a bathhouse vary with local requirements, but usually include : entrance lobby, ticket or cashier's booth, concessions, manager's office, public telephones, checking room, suit and towel room, dressing rooms, toilets, showers, first aid room, guard's or attendant's room, mechanical equipment, storage space, etc. Dressing rooms. Method of checking clothes must be decided before the layout can be determined, as the method chosen affects the entire arrangement. Both individual lockers and central check rooms have been used successfully. Choice depends mainly on local conditions . A combination of the two systems may become the most desirable, since obviously requirements for a welldressed adult and for a boy in play clothes are not the same . Lockers should be placed on a raised platform to keep them dry and to simplify floor cleaning . Lockers require most space, but tend to keep clothes in better condition . Individual dressing rooms must usually be provided for women and girls, whereas men and boys ordinarily dress in aisles between rows of lockers. A few individual dressing rooms are sometimes provided in men's dressing rooms. Regardless of the system adopted, dressing and locker rooms should be arranged to admit a maximum of sunlight and air in order to maintain clean, sanitary conditions . Satisfactory results have been obtained from the "opencourt" type, in which the roof is omitted over part of the dressing room area . Toilets of the wall-hung type are recommended . Showers may be either individual or group-controlled ; some type of control, which eliminates any possibility of bathers being scalded, is essential . There are many types of bathhouse equipment on the market which add to the convenience of the patrons and increase the popularity of the pool . Hair driers, comb-vending machines, exercisers and scales are frequently installed.
Planning of bathhouse elements should be such as to permit operation with minimum of personnel, particularly during slack periods. Circulation . Arrange all facilities so patrons can pass through quickly, without confusion. The only route from dressing room to pool should be past toilets and shower rooms. Each bather should be required to take a thorough cleansing shower with soap before putting on bathing suit . By requiring each bather to pass through a group of showers before entering the pool a superficial bath will be obtained, but this must not be considered as replacing the required shower in the nude . Toilets should be accessible directly from both dressing room and pool . Separate ones for "wet" and "dry" bathers are desirable. Disinfecting foot, baths should be placed between pool and toilet. Bathers returning from the pool should preferably pass through a separate drying room to the dressing room, and the "wet" and "dry" bathers should be separated as much as practical. Exit from bathhouse to street should be so arranged that an attendant may collect all keys, checks, suits or other supplies belonging to the establishment. Construction . Resistance to deterioration and fire is especially important. The constant. dampness which usually prevails is harmful to many materials and causes rapid deterioration . Therefore materials which are entirely satisfactory in ordinary buildings may not be desirable for bathhouses . Fire hazard must also be considered in selection of materials, particularly since the building is generally in an isolated location and without attendants a good portion of the year . Bathhouses must be kept scrupulously clean by frequent washing. Construction should be such that washing with high pressure hose will not damage the building . Floors of bathhouses should be pitched 1/4" per ft . to frequent outlets to assure rapid drainage . Provide an ample number of hose connections to make cleaning easy . Connection should be not less than 1 in . to insure adequate water volume and pressure .
Recreation and Entertainment BATHHOUSES
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Recreation and Entertainment GYMNASIUM
Recreation and Entertainment ZOOS
By LAURENCE CURTIS
Z00 PLANNING A. Display Arrangements or Themes The categories described below IntrodUCtion are representative more of planning concepts than of existing facilities . Classification of any given zoo depends largely on its history, i .e ., whether it was developed from the very beginning along a definite theme or whether it "grew like Topsy," with buildings and exhibits constructed as immediate circumstances and interests dictated . By fer, the vast majority of zoos are in the latter category with very few institutions "master planned" from their inception and then built along orderly planned lines and stages of growth . It is hoped that master planning in zoos will increase . The general present day lack of masterplanned zoos is due largely to an absence of adequate financial support at the zoo's inception . In general, most zoos attain a stage somewhat after their inception where future developmental potential is assured . It is at just such a stage that a comprehensive and overall plan for future growth and development is frequently prepared, namely a "master plan ." As a result of such a history, most zoos today are in a transitional period wherein remaining ele . ments of the "Topsy" period coexist with new stages of master-planned growth . Since a zoo is never really "finished," the typical zoo that has attained a stage of planning maturity is actually in some phase or other of its master plan development . The older a zoo, the more periods of reevaluation and master planning it generally passes through, since new ideas and new techniques of animal display are constantly being developed, altered and then discarded in response to new philosophies of zoo functions . Certainly, wherever possible and practical, a city contemplating either a new zoo or a vast remodeling of an old one should give top priority to the preparation of a master plan . A zoo may be classified as one of the following display types according to the nature and arrangement of its exhibits ; systematic, zoogeographic, habitat, behaviorial, "popular," or, most frequently, some combination of these . (See Fig . 1 .) 1 . Systematic Themes The arrangement of exhibits according to their taxonomic or systematic relationships ; thus, all cats in one exhibit area, bears in another, hoofed animals together, etc . Historically, the earliest zoos ("menageries") were developed along this theme . From a practical standpoint of design and construction, the systematic theme allows a certain ease of daily maintenance and husbandry. One of the distinct advantages of a systematic arrangement is the opportunity to emphs-
Zoological Park Fundamentals, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, a professional branch of the National Recreation and Park Association, Washington, D C . 1968 .
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size differences and similarities of related species within a single animal group . Such advantages are gained through the adjacent exhibition of related species permitting comparative viewing . An entire zoo planned along systematic lines has been criticized as a source of "exhibit monotony ." That is, when the visitor is confronted with several species in the same animal group (e .g ., monkeys, bears, cats, etc .) the relative similarity in these animals tends to inhibit exhibit interest . Also, in such a display a species, which may be an outstanding exhibit by itself, may lose its attractiveness or effect when shown alongside other perhaps more spectacular members of its family group . In short, when the average visitor is confronted within a limited area with several similar animal species, he tends to be attracted to the more spectacular species often to the detriment of the others ; also visitor interest declines as the number of similar animals increases until, when his saturation point is reached, he may leave an otherwise outstanding exhibit of animals for something simply "different ." By breaking up such systematic exhibits (as in a zoogeographic theme) visitor interest is maintained at an optimum level with maximum exhibit diversification of similar species . 2 . Zoogeogisphic Themes The arrangement of animal exhibits according to their geographic origin, e .g ., New World, Old World, European, Asian, Eurasian, African, Australian, Australasian, Tropical American, Temperate American, Polar, Texas, etc . Thus, all of the animals in an entire zoo may be arranged zoogeographically or continentally . With such arrangements, there is practically no limit to the extent of imaginative exhibit supplements such as the use of native props from the same area as the animals, background music geographically keyed, architectural style, planting, and other exhibit features also geographically oriented. Such themes need not be worldwide in scope, but can be restricted to a given geographic area . Thus, "animals of the Southwest," "animals of Idaho," "animals of the Rocky Mountains," etc ., with the concepts limited only by the imagination of the planner and available resources . Regional zoogeographic themes would seem ideal for smaller zoos as they permit an institution with limited finances to do a small job well rather than do a big job poorly . Regional pride and expression also are important and advantageous factors in support of a regional theme . From a practical standpoint, utilization of a local regional theme offers several inducements ; ready availability of most animal species ; few or no acclimational problems ; generally less expensive and less complicated demands for physical structures, maintenance and operation when compared to the needs of exotic animals ; and a ready availability of acclimated plants and natural exhibit props for naturalistic landscaping . With so many apparent advantages it is diffi-
cult to understand why so few regionally oriented zoogeographic theme zoos have been built . 3 Habitat or Ecological Themes The exhibit presentation of animals selected from a given habitat has been practiced for years in public aquariums where animals (end plants) of an aquatic habitat are displayed in a single building . Thus, although an aquarium with a comprehensive exhibit may show a predominance of fishes, other representatives of the animal kingdom may also be displayed, e .g ., invertebrates (sea anemones, starfish, crabs, crawfish), amphibians (frogs, toads, salamanders), aquatic reptiles (turtles, crocodilians, snakes), aquatic birds (penguins) and aquatic mammals (seals, sea lions, manatees, porpoises, walruses, and even whales) . Surprisingly, although aquariums are generally associated with fish displays, the non-fish exhibits* such as octopuses, seals, porpoises, large turtles, often are the most popular with the public . The development of other habitats as theme exhibits has met with excellent public acceptance . Such habitats as "grasslands" (the popular African veldt displays, Pampas scenes, North American prairie exhibits, etc .), rain forests, subterranean exhibits (animals in burrows and cave settings), desert exhibits, etc . are forerunners of a potentially very popular and educational exhibit theme trend . In such ecologic displays naturally associated plants and animals of diverse groups (mammals, birds, reptiles, etc .) may be shown living together (or, more correctly, apparently together-often separated from one another by hidden barriers) . Frequently, predator-prey relationships can be implied . The educational and popularity potential of a habitat display is extremely high . It emphasizes the higher relative value of a single, large and well-executed exhibit of dozens of species and individuals as compared to a series of several dozen smaller cages each showing a single species . Depending on design, the single habitat display may involve less maintenance costs than the series of single cage units . Thus, for relatively small zoos or limited operations, adoption of a habitat theme permits maximum display for minimum budget expenditure . Due to inherent problems in such community type exhibits (competition and predation among species, plant-esters, etc .), a small zoo should restrict itself to those designed, built and operated with a minimum of complications . 4 . Behavioral Themes This relatively unexploited display area offers considerable exhibit potential . More time, research and development will undoubtedly be required before many of these display techniques are within the operational scope of the average zoo . Typical of a behavioral exhibit theme is a nocturnal animal display where animals normally active only at night, are exhibited in darkened buildings . Special lighting is used which causes them to "reverse" their normal activity cycle, thus rendering them observable
Recreation and Entertainment zoos
Fig. 1 Five basic display arrangements . Hatched areas indicate buildings . An entire zoo designed strictly along one display theme presents several practical problems of animal exhibit husbandry. Hence the display concept of a zoo's master plan usually involves a careful selection and combination of several themes.
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by the visiting public in the daytime. In this way animals which are otherwise seen curled up asleep in the conventional "daytime' zoo exhibit are changed into active and fascinating creatures in the nocturnal display . Another example of a behavioral theme are the relatively new "automatic" trained animal acts wherein the conditioned reflex is utilized as a means of extracting certain behavior from an animal . To date these acts have been more or less limited in their application to domestic animals and a few wild species. Application of this technique to zoo exhibits holds tremendous potential for the future . Thus, in effect, zoos may exhibit not just an animal but, at the push of a button or drop of a coin, an animal going through a given sequence illustrating natural or instinctive behavior . Examples might be a raccoon removing bird eggs from a nest or a cheetah pursuing an artificial antelope . In addition to the above, other behavioral themes which could be considered are 'flying animals," "swimming animals," "burrowing animals," 'climbing animals," etc . Even a comprehensive exhibit of the love life of animals---courtship, nest building, egg laying, incubation, birth, and care of offspring---has exhibit potential and stirs tire imagination, perhaps in more ways than one. Depending on interpretation, the dividing line between habitat and behavioral themes may become indistinguishable.
Taken as a whole, selections from the above "building-block animals" would form an excellent basic collection for any small zoo. In such a plan each exhibit should be carefully selected and designed so as to achieve maximum visitor appreciation and education. Imaginativeness of display and presentation can spell the difference between a poor exhibit and an outstanding one. Compare, for example, a "caged" lion inmate in a cellblock-type enclosure to a king-of-beasts in a planted veldt and viewed across a hidden moat . Both are lions but any exhibit similarity ends there. Also, under the heading of "popular" type themes might be included exhibits of animals that are oriented to a particular group, such as children . These exhibits are called by such names as "Children's Zoo," "Petting Zoo," "Story Book Zoo," "Mother Goose Zoo," "Junior Zoo," etc. Often nursery rhymes or children's story themes are used as the basis of such exhibits . Perhaps their main value is the presentation of an opportunity, especially to children, to hold, feed, or merely to touch an animal in safely . Thus, in these exhibits children are able to establish an especially close relationship with a live animal, a situation usually impossible in the conventional zoo. Certainly, many child-oriented zoos attract adults as well as children, anti their design is frequently an adult inspiration of what children should be attracted to .
d. Both zoological and botanical gardens have essentially the same basic purposes as reasons for their existence . Hence separate operations involve overlap of functions and subsequent fiscal overlap . Possible disadvantages of combined zoological botanical exhibits might exist where separate facilities are desired so as to reduce visitor concentration in a single area .
5. "Popular" Theme Some zoos, particularly relatively small facilities, may wish simply to exhibit a limited number of animals selected and presented strictly on the basis of popular appeal rather than zoological orientation ; thus the display theme would have no particular basis as regards geographic origin, systematic relationship, or such . On the basis of visitor interest, the following list might be considered a reasonably complete selection of the more popular animals generally available to zoos :
6 . Combination Theme
Generally, a combination entrance and exit for the public is most practical and preferable . Obviously, the fewer entrances and exits, the better the grounds security and visitor control . A single entrance-exit centrally located is optimum. Turnstiles with counters afford actual attendance checks which are always of interest in measuring the popularity of the zoo, evaluating peak loads, etc. Dogproof turnstiles are available and have special value since pet animals of any kind should be prohibited from zoos for reasons of animal health and safety . A separate entrance and exit for service vehicles should be available and as fer removed from the visitor entrance as possible.
Mammals: Giraffes Camels Zebras Elephants Lions Tigers Birds : Colorful, exotic, perching species Toucans Eagles (and other birds of prey) Flamingos Penguins "Giant" birds (rhea, cassowary, ostrich, emu) Reptiles : Large boas and pythons Venomous snakes Large lizards (monitors) Exhibits and others : Aquariums Herpetariums (reptile and amphibian exhibits) "Open-fronted," ''walk-through," or free-flight bird displays (indoor or outdoor)
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Bears Apes Monkeys Otters Sea lions Kangaroos Hummingbirds Waterfowl (ducks, swans, and geese) Parrotlike birds Pheasants
Obviously, unless master planned from the very beginning and along a single exhibit theme, most zoos are arranged in combinations of the above categories . Due to practical maintenance factors (animal factors as well as mechanical and arrhitectural considerations) it is often more feasible to develop exhibits along a basic systematic theme; however, it is possible to combine display themes, thus gaining the multiple advantages and increasing the educational value of the displays . For example, in a single building, a bird house (systematic theme), the individual exhibits might be grouped according to country or area of origin (zoogeographic theme) . included among the exhibits might be a rain forest or "jungle" scene consisting of birds, selected other animals and plants (habitat theme) . A demonstration display of eggs incubating and hatching (a biological theme?) and a pushbutton activated trained bird dernonstration of the pecking and scratching instinct (behavioral theme) . Thus illustrated in a single building would be several different exht themes . Utilization of various theme combinations has the further advantage of presenting the visitor with a variety of interest appeals and further reducing the possibility of exhibit monotony .
7 . Zoo-Botanic Garden Combinations Giant tortoises Native snakes Colorful reptiles Alligators and crocodiles Contact areas for children Trained sea lion shows Monkey islands
A most natural, logical, and financially sound arrangement is the combining of zoological and botanical gardens into a single entity . The advantages of such a combination are as follows: a . Since zoos require landscaping, the combination operation enables the botanical aspect to serve a dual purpose. b. In habitat and zoogeographic theme exhibits, the use of landscape materials appropriate to the animal's place of origin adds further to the educational and esthetic value of the display . c. In nature, animals and plants are not separated systems but closely interrelated and interdependent upon one another . Such is the basis for the science of ecology. Separation of the two groups exhibitionally is thus an unnatural and generally unfortunate division .
GROUNDS Specific features of the grounds, features which are not considered as part of the animal exhibits or maintenance structures, are discussed here .
A . Parking Areas
Adequate parking facilities should be planned to accommodate the average periods of maximum visitation . Various indices are available to planning engineers by which the estimated number of parking spaces needed to accommodate such periods can be determined . It is perhaps questionable to attempt to provide adequate space at a zoo to accommodate the two or three peak days of the year, which are generally the fourth of July and Labor Day.
B . Entrance
C . Landscaping
Proper horticultural treatment of the zoo grounds adds tremendously to the naturalistic and esthetic setting . Selection of plants of course is generally a function of local conditions of soil, climate, topography, as well as available irrigation facilities . As discussed above, continental plantings can be imaginatively incorporated into continentally oriented exhibits plans. Floral displays add color to the grounds and especially fragrant plantings provide a pleasant atmosphere . If plant species are labeled, then the zoo functions as a botanical exhibit as well .
0, Animal Sculpture Zoos are ideal settings for sculpture gardens, especially animal sculpture . Many zoos locale specific pieces of animal art in association with live exhibits of the same animal . Correlation of the arts with zoo display is another example of the modern multipurpose zoo. Models and restorations of prehistoric animals also are appropriate for zoos, especially when integrated into exhibit areas of their living relatives.
E. Miscellaneous Several items are considered here :
1 . Walks Adequate sized walks of concrete,
asphalt, or similar low-maintenance and per-
Recreation and Entertainment
zoos manent materials should be used . Nonskid walks should be provided wherever grades indicate . Zoo visitors frequently have their interest (and eyes) on exhibits rather than where they are walking and hence grounds planning should be especially safety oriented . Steps should be avoided wherever possible for the same reason . Low-incline ramps should be substituted wherever possible. Such planning also facilitates visitors with wheelchairs, baby carriages and especially baby strollers, the latter a frequent and useful vehicle of zoo visitors . Use of nonstabilized materials for walkways should be avoided in zoos as any likely object can become a missile in the hands of a vandal . The width of zoo walks is an important factor since they are used for both walking as well as standing and looking. Walks fronting exhibits of high popularity require extra room to avoid traffic jams . Adequate space for future walkway enlargement should also be provided . Some zoos have postponed initial installation of permanent walks and planting until the grounds had been used for a period of time by heavy visitor traffic. In this way, the public in effect determined their own walking routes-a habit pedestrians are often prone to do anyway unless extensive barriers are installed. 2. Visitor Transportation Systems Provisions for a visitor transportation system should be included in the initial zoo plan . Many zoos which have omitted this provision in their early planning have suffered later from cramped transport facilities as a consequence. Systems using tractor buses, miniature or narrow gauge trains, monorails and cable cars have all been successful in zoos . 3. Barriers Depending on the danger involved, barriers of one type or another are necessary to maintain the visitor at a safe distance from the animals. Guard rails, chains, cables, low fences, masonry walls, hedges (often with wires concealed in them), spiny plantings, etc., all function in this respect . In general, the least conspicuous (yet effective) barriers are to be desired. 4 . Benches Since considerable walking is usually necessary in zoo visiting, rest areas for visitors should be available throughout the grounds. At the more popular attractions many spectators enjoy an opportunity to view the exhibit while seated and proper planning takes this need into account. Bird exhibits are particularly well suited for such passive recreation . Benches are best located on paved areas to simplify litter . 5. Perimeter Fence In addition to a controlled entrance and exit, the installation of a complete perimeter fence permits added visitor control and grounds security . With a complete perimeter fence, the ingress of predatory animals (such as raccoons, cats, dogs) is limited . Likewise, escaped zoo animals are more or less confined within the grounds. The addition of barbed wire et the lop and a concrete footing or curb at the base adds to the effectiveness of the perimeter fence.
ANIMAL EXHIBITS A. Introduction In general, there are three basic and sometimes conflicting needs to be considered in planning a zoo animal exhibit, namely those of the animal, the visitor, and the attendant. The needs of the animal take precedence
over those of the other two. Since different animal species have different needs, it is important to select those species whose needs can be met without conflicting with those of the visitor and the attendant . Intelligent exhibit design, however, resolves many such conflicts and thus increases the variety of animals which may be exhibited in zoos . It therefore behooves the zoo architect to seek as much technical information and help as is available on the biological needs of the animals to be exhibited . What has been termed the "social environment" of captive animals is as yet a poorly understood phenomenon but one which may very well exert strong influences on the health and longevity of animals in captivity. Enclosure design should reflect our knowledge of species' requirements, optimum group size, space needs, sex ratios, and facilities for exercise . B. Design Factors to Be Considered In order to properly design an animal exhibit which will satisfy the three basic needs cited above, the following factors should be considered : t . Exhibit Size Largely determined by the size arid activity of the animal . As a general rule, with many exceptions, however, the larger the quarters, the greater will be the husbandry success of the species. 2. Exhibit Shape Also determined largely by the specific kind of animal involved . In any case, acute corners are to be avoided since animals very often will panic when driven into a tight place. 3. Exhibit Orientation Where large areas are involved, the greatest dimension should parallel the public viewing area so as to keep the viewing distance between the visitor and the animal to a minimum. Orientation of the exhibit to the sun, especially during the summer season, should also be evaluated for special requirements or problems . Excessive glare in the viewers' eyes should be avoided, and the amount of sun which might be beneficial or detrimental to the particular animal involved should be considered . Excessive exposure to sun can be a serious health as well as maintenance problem. This is especially true of aquatic exhibits with their problems of algal control . 4. Materials Should be selected for ease of maintenance (nonporous, long wearability, low upkeep, permanence), naturalistic appearance, nontoxicity, readily available construction items in standard sizes, shapes, and specifications, etc . Due to constant exposure to weather, cleaning abrasives and detergents, acidic animal wastes, etc ., the selection of exhibit construction materials used in a zoo require special investigation. Nontoxic paints should always be specified where animal contact is possible . 5. Eye Level Depending on the habitat preferences of the animal is nature (ground-living, tree-living, etc.) the visitor's eye level should be considered accordingly in planning the floor and ceiling elevations of the exhibit . In this way the animal will be within maximum viewing range of the visitor. In especially large exhibits, several visitor observation areas are often included-frequently at varied levels . B. Step-spa Since zoo visitors occur in all sizes, from very young children on up, it behooves the designer to ensure adequate obser-
vation facilities for everyone . Where cage floors must be above floor level, the use of step-ups for children and short adults are helpful. Observation platforms of several 'steppedup" levels or ramped up decks are useful for highly popular exhibits where crowds cause visibility problems . 7. Preps or Decorations Such items as are used to impart a natural setting for the exhibit in addition to fulfilling certain biological and psychological needs of the animal . Examples such as plants, trees, and rock work, termite nests (any one of which may be real or artificial), and even native artifacts (spears, shields, temple ruins, huts, etc.) all contribute to the display value of an animal exhibit. Strategically located cage props are important in providing hiding places for animals from one another, objects on which to rub, exercise, mark, sun, etc. B. Shift Cages Enclosures should be designed so the animal may be easily shifted from the exhibit into an adjacent holding, isolation or reserve area without having to restrain or catch the animal . Viewing apertures should be designed into such facilities so that animal movements may be observed from a safe place by the attendant and, especially where flighty animals are involved, without the animal viewing the operator . Prisms used in such installations provide a wide angle of observation . The inclusion of a sliding wall of removable bars in a shift cage expands its function to that of a ''squeeze cage" ; another very useful item of animal husbandry. With the built-in squeeze cage an animal may be immobilized for veterinary treatment without the need of removing it from its exhibit area . 9. Barrier Depending on the kind of animal exhibited, many different types may be used to contain it within its enclosure. For esthetic reasons, those barriers which are the least visible are the most desirable . Barriers which have been used are of the following types (see Fig. 2) : a. Vertical wires held under tension b. Bars c . Rails d. Moats (dry and water-filled) e . Fencing f. Walls (including such naturalistic features as vertical rock formations) g. Glass (both flat and curved or "invisible") /r . Psychological (such as birds exhibited in a well-illuminated exhibit area and reluctant to fly into a darkened visitor area) i. Electrical ("shock" fences as well as charged glass windows) j. Thermal (refrigerated coils and hot water lines) When structural barriers are used which interrupt the visibility of the exhibit, such restrictions may be reduced to a minimum by lowering the amount of light reflection from the barrier . With bars, fencing, etc., reflections can be reduced tremendously by painting the barrier flat black or other flat dark colors . Glass barriers, when improperly installed, become viewing barriers themselves when they pick up so many extraneous reflections that the exhibit is actually hidden from view. Tilted installations, the use of light-deflecting drop curtains and walls behind the viewer and the use of curved "invisible" glass all serve to reduce and eliminate reflections . Glass, of one design or another, is so widely used in zoos that its proper installation to avoid reflections is of paramount consideration . Glass may also serve as a viewing barrier when opaqued with condensed moisture . Frequently properly
Recreation and Entertainment ZOOS
FENCING
BARS
RAI LS
DRY
VERTICAL
Fig. 2 1162
Barriers.
WARES
MOAT
G L A S S
PSYCHOLOGICAL
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Recreation and Entertainment zoos
directed ventilation can correct this problem . So many zoos have suffered such unsatisfactory results that avoidance of these pitfalls cannot be overly stressed .
10 . Security Adequate measures should be taken to prevent animal escapes, both by the animal breaking out through human error or because of vandalism . Exhibits in any way accessible to the public should always be key locked . Aces& doors and operating levers to dangerous animal enclosures should be clearly identified . 11 . Illumination Adequate lighting must be available for satisfactory observation of the exhibit . Daylight has the advantages of being both natural and inexpensive . However, it is not always dependable, varies seasonally, and prevents interesting lighting effects obtainable only with controlled artificial lighting . Each exhibit has its own lighting requirements which must be resolved through investigation of the animal's needs and the effects desired . Installation of infra-red, ultraviolet and germicidal lights are often of special value with certain animal species . For indoor exhibits, the use of operational skylights has several advantages where direct unhindered sunlight and ventilation are of value to the health of the animal . As has been mentioned, shade is another important planning factor and is especially important where aquatic exhibits with their attendant algal growth are concerned . C. "Grottos," "Pens," and "Islands" 1 . The term "grotto" as applied to zoo exhibits usually has reference to designs in which the animal is separated from the visitor by a most and prevented from escape elsewhere by sheer vertical walls (often leaning slightly inward) . Pigmented concrete sprayed over irregular forms lends itself well to grotto
construction resulting in interesting and neturalistic artificial rock outcrops . Natural stone for such purposes is generally not conducive to realistic outcrops . However, carved natural stone has been used effectively in some instances . Properly designed grottos can be most effectively and beautifully landscaped . Adequately drained planter "pockets," if naturalistically located, will greatly "soften" otherwise drab rockwork . Grottos may be used effectively for many kinds of animals--reptiles, mammals and flightless or pinioned birds . The value of the grotto is in the naturalness of the setting and the lack of a barrier to interrupt the visitor's view. Designers should give careful considerations to vertical elevations so as to avoid placing the animal in a "pitlike" atmosphere . Also, excessive use of rockwork may conflict with the animal's actual habitat ; therefore, a study of the animal's natural history will prevent building an unnatural "natural habitat" setting . In northern climates where outdoor exhibition may be impractical the year round, indoor exhibit cages often are included and connected directly to the outdoor exhibit . 2 . The term pen generally implies a yard or area enclosed by fencing, quite large spatially and without top fencing . Animals which cannot climb or fly are adaptable for display in pens . Because of the large area involved, fast-running animals (especially hoofed stock) are usually kept in pens . The section of fencing along the visitor's side of a pan may be replaced with a most barrier for a more effective display . 3 . "Island" exhibits are essentially grottos which are surrounded by a mont . Generally, the same type of animals workable in grottos will do well on islands . Where wide water moats are used, islands can successfully restrain animals capable of great leaping activity (e .g ., gibbons, chimpanzees, monkeys, etc.) .
Retreat quarters or "dens" must be designed into the island . With large island exhibits, socess tunnels are often included for the use of attendants .
O. Outdoor Cage Units These are structures which are completely enclosed by fencing or bars . Barriers used are generally bars or fencing and with structural floors . Functional for most any animal except those which are not psychologically adaptable to the relatively close confinement characteristic of a cage . The disadvantages of visible cage barriers can be lessened by painting the bars or fencing a flat black or similar nonreflective color . Cages grouped together should be designed with variations of size and shape so that one may avoid the monotony of a continuous series of boxes . Also, the imaginative use of naturalistic props, such as trees, driftwood, rockwork, planting, and pleasing colors helps to avoid the cellblock effect of the old menageries (Fig . 3) .
E. "Walk-through" Cages A variation of the cage concept wherein the visitor actually walks through the cage (generally through double-doored "anti-escape' entry and exit compartments) . A low pedestrian barrier keeps the visitor from entering the animal area . This display concept has the advantage of permitting closer contact between the visitor and the animal without a conspicuous barrier separating them . Such displays result in a more intimate and more esthetically pleasing experience for the visitor . Walk-through cages are applicable with any relatively harmless animal species whose ability to escape can be effectively controlled with the necessary visitor entry and exit arrangement . Confinement of the animals to the exhibit area can be encouraged by supplying the proper psychological needs .
F. Animal Pools A body of water in which aquatic or semiaquatic animals are shown, such as waterfowl, wading birds, otters, sea lions . etc . The pool may be enclosed by sheer walls, fencing, or other barriers . Underwater observation windows are extremely effective but require clear water for successful operation . Otters, seals, sea lions, penguins, and diving birds lend themselves particularly well to such display effects (Fig . 4) .
G. Exhibit Buildings
Fig. 3
A simplified plan for an outdoor animal cage complex.
Structures entered by the public in which the animals are maintained indoors, either seasonally or throughout the year . Often, outdoor cages, pens or grottos are located adjacent to a building and connect directly to exhibits inside the building . In this way, the animals may be shifted indoors, or out---according to the weather, the year around . Indoor exhibition may be desired for reasons of climate control (most animals of tropical origin) or for reasons of display effect where a darkened visitor gallery is essential (especially with glass-fronted displays) . Whenever possible it is desirable to restrict an animal display to a single exhibit area (either indoor or outdoor) for reasons of economy and to avoid practical problems of exhibition . In the latter case, the problem usually resulting from dual exhibit cages (indoor and outdoor) is that when animals have access to
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both areas, the visitor must search both areas or miss the animal . Indoor cages can be designed so that the benefits of outdoor exhibition are brought indoors through the use of operational skylights, movable roofs, adequate ventilation, etc . Where adequately large indoor exhibits are impractical or too expensive, an effective compromise is to locate the indoor exhibit cage adjacent to the outdoor exhibit so that the visitor can view both from the same vantage point . The variety of kinds of exhibit buildings is limited only by the imagination of the zoo designer . The following is a list of a few which have been either planned or built : Mammals : Monkey house Ape house Feline house Small mammal house Large mammal house Nocturnal mammal house Pachyderm house Aquatic mammal house Birds : Tropical bird house Aquatic bird house Penguin house
Other animals : Insect house Reptile house Herpetarium (reptiles and amphib ians) Habitat buildings : Aquarium (aquatic life) Underground zoo Rain forest "Habitat house" (several different habitat scenes exhibited) Miscellaneous : Special exhibits buildings Nocturnal animal house
Combinations of several of these into one building are frequently made . Because of the exceptionally large crowds which visit zoos, details of design and materials selection roust be carefully considered in planning the public areas of zoo buildings . Floor type is important as zoo visitor traffic is generally of a "shuffling" nature . Since zoo refreshments patrons frequently consume while walking, food spillage and the resulting hazards must be anticipated . Romps (often imbedded with nonskid materials) are much preferred to steps . Adequate ventilation is mandatory and must be separated from animal areas . Some zoos include refrigerated air conditioning for visitor comfort . Traffic flow is another important factor and with careful planning should be as well-controlled and orderly as possible, preferably one-way on busy days . Clearly marked emergency exits are generally required by law. H . "Visitor Cages" This concept has been used most successfully on the game plains of Africa, but has recently been adapted to zoo use . It involves allowing the animals to roam free, or apparently so, in a large enclosure and placing the visitors in a closed vehicle such as a bus or a monorail car .
SERVICE STRUCTURES A . Administrative Depending of course on the size of the total zoo operation, the administrative facilities will vary in both area and complexity . 1 . Size Three suggested categories based on tin, level of administrative complexity are discussed below :
Fig . 4 The otter display shown in sectional plan here permits the observer to view these animals underwater, above various diving the water, of on the stone deck . The exhibit design is applicable to other species of aquatic mammals, birds, and aquatic reptiles . (Fort Worth Zoological Association .)
a . Minimum A single administrative office may be incorporated with other service facilities in a combined zoo service building . Or, if a zoo exhibit building is already present or planned, the administrative office can be located in such a building for reasons of economy without adversely affecting efficiency . b . Median A separate structure for administrative offices for the zoo director, secretary and other administrative personnel . of median c . Maximum Enlargement facilities based on additional needs of a larger operation such as additional staff members, business office(s), library, meeting room (for staff, board and other small groups) and auditorium where audiences may be assembled for pretour orientation, educational activities, etc .
2 . Location it is well to have the administrative building occupy a centralized location on the zoo grounds and be near or at tire main entrance, the latter being where many administrative activities occur or radiate from . Direct access of this activity to a street and parking area outside the zoo grounds facilitates the administrative operation (Fig . 5) . B . Maintenance This facility should have top priority in any zoo construction program and certainly precedes the acquisition of any live animal collection . Included here is animal maintenance concerning the daily feeding, cleaning, and care of the animal collection in addition to animal health requirements ; buildings and grounds maintenance ; accession, storage, and handling of supplies ; and service facilities for personnel . 1 . Commissary A function directly proportional to the size of the animal collection . Size of this facility should reflect anticipated growth and its design permit future enlargement . Prevention of rodent access to stored foods and ease of pest control should be incorporated in the design (Fig . 6) . Basic requirements for this activity are as follows : Facilities Both Holding a . Refrigerated chilled and freezer storage space is needed for food holding even in the smallest of zoos . Often, however, it is more economical for a small zoo, initially at least, to rent commercial freezer locker space rather than build and operate its own expensive facility . with Diet preparation area b . Kitchen equipment such as grinders, choppers, mixers, blenders, juicers, stoves, ovens, scales, knife sharpeners, utensils (knives, steels, spoons, etc .) and containers (pails, dish pans, trays, etc .) . Thawing facilities for frozen foods are especially useful . c . Storage Nonrefrigerated food storage
including grains, commercially prepared foods, and canned goods . Dispensing hoppers should be designed into the facility and available to either the kitchen or diet delivery vehicles . Fodder materials need to be conveniently located . The combustibility of these materials must be considered in locating this facility . d . Location The location of the commissary ideally should be central to all operations . In large institutions, it is often more practical to develop a main and centralized commissary facility where food is stored and prepared in bulk in addition to small departmental kitchens located in the main buildings . Ease of access for the regular deliveries of foodstuffs from outside the zoo should be provided . a. As an Exhibit? A recent trend in zoo design is to install visitor observation windows in food preparation facilities so that the public can see the complexities involved in these formerly "behind-the-scenes" activities . Valuable byproducts of such installations are neater employees and more orderly and better kept facilities . Other applications of the same prit, ciple have been made with public view windows installed for specialized equipment such as filters and pumps . Even operating, post mortem and examination rooms and laboratories have been made viewable, resulting in excellent visitor reception with consequently improved public education to the total zoo operation . 2 . Hospital-lluerantine Every zoo should have facilities where newly arrived and sick animals can be isolated from the rest of the collection, preferably in a structure completely separated from animal exhibit areas . Here also may be located the headquarters for the veterinarian, whether he be a consultant or on the staff . Facilities to be provided for are as follows : a . Quarantine section b . Sick wards with "squeeze cages" and outdoor recuperating pens c. Operating room d . Pharmacy and laboratory e . Post-mortem room f. Refrigerated holding boxes for specimens to be autopsied g . Equipment and supplies : microscope, centrifuge, autoclave, operating table, portable cages, restraining devices, surgical and medical supplies, laboratory ware, testing equipment, pharmaceutical refrigerator, etc . Since babies must frequently be raised without a mother for one reason or another in zoos, the establishment of animal nursery facilities should be provided for . Often such activities are placed on public view as an exhibit . A human incubator is a useful piece of equipment in this facility . Accommodation for egg incubators and chick brooders should also be included in zoo
Recreation and Entertainment
zoos planning . There are practical reasons for locating such in the animal health facility . Depending on the size of the zoo operation several of the above activities can be combined into a single structure . It is desirable to either isolate this operation from direct contact with the public or locate it away from the visitor area (Fig . 7) . 3 . Reserve Animal Area Zoos constantly accrue animals for which exhibit space is either not presently available or when it is desired to isolate the animal from the public for purposes of breeding, holding for other zoos, etc . Also, some animal species may be exhibited seasonally outdoors and require winter holding quarters . Such animals, acclimated and healthy, invariably find their way into hospital sections or are scattered in rear service areas . A special reserve section built for the purpose is a practical and useful adjunct to the service facilities of a zoo . 4 . Building and Grounds Maintenance This activity houses facilities for the conventional needs of repairs to buildings and grounds, minor construction jobs, grounds maintenance and horticulture . A shop area is a useful facility and should be included in even the smallest of
operations . Objectionable noises from the operation of power tools should be considered when locating this activity . Greenhouses to implement buildings and grounds beautification as well as planted exhibits should be included if needed . Storage facilities for tools, cleaning supplies, equipment, etc ., should be located here . Waste disposal is another important activity which should be included in maintenance planning . Incinerators are sometimes required for the disposal of dead animals . 5 . Personal Facilities Employees' quarters with lockers, shower, restrooms and dining area are necessary for any operation . Not only is employee morale bolstered but personnel can be expected to be neater and more presentable when such facilities are available . B . Combinations For a small zoo most of these maintenance functions can be efficiently designed into one central structure . 7 . Location Due to the constant activities of pickup, delivery, and disposal of materials involved in the various maintenance operations, the structure or structures housing them should be located with direct access to an
Fig . 5 The service building shown here includes commissary facilities on the left, attendants' quarters in the center rear, and animal health on the right . All activities along the building front are viewable by the public from the elevated and hooded ramp . The specially designed hood and double tilted glass eliminates reflections and yet maintains an open feeling . The kitchen area (lower left) shows the large observation windows. The amphitheater (below right) adjoins the post mortem and operating room . Here biology classes observe operations and autopsies and may take tissue specimens back to their school laboratories for further study . A two-way public address system permits question and answer interchange between the veterinarian and class. (Fort Worth Zoological Association .l
"outside" or off the zoo grounds street . Service drives leading from maintenance areas to the various zoo facilities should be included in the grounds plans, preferably isolated as much as possible from public areas . C . Public Services Any operation which attracts the tremendous crowds which zoos engender must have adsquate facilities which cater to the personal needs of visitors, as well as provisions to handle emergencies and maintain security . 1 . Restrooms Inadequate and/or unclean restroom facilities do more to give a public institution an unsatisfactory reputation than any other condition-a fact which service station operators have been aware of for some time . Zoos are well advised to include the installation of toilets especially designed for children due to the large number of youthful visitors . Urinals for female visitors are also being utilized in some public. restrooms . 2 . Special Services Problems of crowd control are common to every zoo and proper planning must take the following factors into consideration :
Recreation and Entertainment ZOOS a. Public Address System For locating lost children, lost and found items, making special announcements (e.g ., animal feeding times, animal demonstration and acts, etc.) and often the playing of background music . b. Emergency Properly supplied first-aid facilities with trained personnel available should be a part of every zoo . Special instructions for the handling of intoxicated visitors, heart attack and heat victims, ate ., should be available to all personnel. install zoos c. Transportation Many vehicular systems to take visitors from one point to another or for tour or sightseeing purposes . Tractor trains, animal-drawn carts and rides, rail trains, buses, and even an overhead monorail are a few examples currently in operation in zoos . Generally, a public address system is available on such conveyances which permits lectures during tours. Availability of stroller and wheelchair rentals are also a convenience to zoo visitors .
Fig. 6 The commissary shown in this plan permits an efficient operation for food storage end preparation . Facilities are provided for slaughtering food animals. (Cheyenne Mountain Zoological Park, Colorado Springs .)
$. Concessions several pamphlets published by the National Recreation and Park Association are available concerning this area of design and operation . In general the following basic concessions have proven to be effective in zoos : a. Refreshment stands for minor food and beverage items b. Cafe and restaurant facilities c. Vending machines for beverages, snacks and special animal foods d. Souvenirs, gifts, and numerous educational items zoologically oriented (books, pamphlets, maps, post cards, models, etc .), jewelry, photographic film, rental cameras, etc. e. Parking lot fees I. Transportation systems Profits from zoo concessions can be an important factor in subsidizing zoo budgets, thus decreasing the zoo's dependence on tax revenues .
GENERAL A. Display
The difference between a menagerie and a zoo might be defined as follows: a menagerie is simply a collection of animals on public exhibition . A zoo is an educationally planned and oriented animal display presented to the visitor in the most esthetically pleasing, interesting and naturalistic context practical . Several display fi-furs co,itribute to the qualities of a zoo and sit! listed i,s follows : Signs and Labels These perform several functions and can be of the following four major varieties: a. Natural History Common name, scientific name, habitat, geographic range and interesting natural history information. Where several species are exhibited together, these signs should be illustrated for easy identification . b. Visitor Information Signs which advise the visitor of opening times for exhibits, acknowledgment of donations, feeding times, etc. c. Visitor Instruction Signs for protection of animals, such as "do not feed," and warnings of potential dangers to visitors, such as crossing guard rails, entering off-limit areas, etc. d. Directional Signs directing the visitor to exhibits, buildings, service facilities, etc.
Fig. 1 A combination administration and hospital building . Facilities include a library, offices, quarantine and ward rooms, laboratory, pharmacy, and winter quarters . Zoo buildings, especially service facilities, require a careful selection of construction materials, particularly those which will stand up under constant humidity and abrasion of daily cleaning . (Franklin Park Zoo, Boston .)
Recreation and Entertainment zoos
2. Special Technique The imagination has few limits with respect to animal exhibition . Such features as special lighting, sound effects and the like have been favorably received by the visiting public . Museum displays which supplement the live animal exhibits are extremely effective in zoos and enhance their educational value. Visitor activated pushbutton exhibits are excellent. Also, slide and film projectors which illustrate an animal activity, life cycle, or other such features, otherwise impossible to demonstrate in a live exhibit, are most effective display supplements. 3. Demonstrations With many animals it is possible to go beyond the concept of the "animal sitting in the cage ." The presentation of demonstrations showing specific behavior activities may be done by a variety of techniques . Some of these demonstrations must be planned with an adequate number of animals available so that the welfare of the animal subjects is not compromised . A few examples of such exhibit supplements are as follows :
a. Electric fish demonstrations b. Spitting (archer) fish feeding demonstration c. Rattlesnake rattling and striking d. Cobra hood-forming demonstration e. Animal weighings on built-in scales f. Conditioned-reflex demonstration g. Otter slides h. Porpoise and fish sounds picked up by underwater microphones i. Observation chick incubators j. Microprojection of invertebrates k. Any scheduled special feeding Demonstrations such as the above represent perhaps the greatest potential today in the development of educational zoo display . B, Visitor Participation Any design feature which establishes a closer relationship between the visitor and the animal is generally to be desired . Care must be taken, of course, that the welfare of neither the animal
nor the visitor is endangered . For example, public animal feeding of a proper ration is a good revenue producer and, to an extent, a budget saver. Coin-operated vending machines are available which are manufactured for animal wafers . Coin-operated or pushbutton animal acts are also of interest . A number of commercially available installations have been developed for providing prerecorded information for zoo and museum visitors through "talking labels," transistorized receivers with earphones and similar devices. These devices increase the effectiveness of the zoo's educational program while also adding a personal touch to the exhibits which printed labels do not provide. Since amateur photography is widespread, it behooves the zoo planner and operator to facilitate such activity as much as possible . Signs with meter checked camers settings for highly photographed exhibits, public dark rooms for film changing, and of course a film sales desk are facilities which zoos can make available to the photographer .
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS
The Need and Concept An aquarium built almost anywhere will prove to be a popular attraction . Nevertheless, to be successful, whether financially or in terms of education or recreation, it must be sited where a real need exists . The concept of the aquarium, what it will be and do, must be determined early. Within the funds available, what usual and what special features will be included must be decided upon . An initial simple design should be prepared which presumably will provide adequate space for the expected visitors and will also provide the necessary operating areas. These must then be considered with knowledgeoble persons and be modified as required . If the aquarium is to be more than a house for living aquatic animals and plants, an exhibit specialist should be at hand to design presentations to meet the objectives of the institution . Public aquariums are leaning more and more toward educational recreation for their visitors . It is felt that a mere lineup of tanks containing specimens identified by photographs, names, and range may be interesting, but is not sufficiently informative . Groupings of specimens may be made to illustrate environmental preferences, means of locomotion, sight, hearing, food habits, schooling, use by man, and any number of other interesting and informative themes. If these are properly presented, the visitor will unknowingly absorb and retain much knowledge of aquatic life . Planners should, then, include in the design particular configurations of tanks, in separated groups, as a means by which a theme can be effectively carried to the audience . Contributing information can be furnished by pushbutton filmstrips, guidebooks, and by lighted legend boxes. The Planners
We shall assume that the promoters of the aquarium have the necessary financial backing and that they realize that at least 60 per cent of the cost will be for facilities, equipment and design, most of which are peculiar to aquariums are not visible to the public . The promoters have a site that appears to be suitable . It should be readily accessible by both public transportation and private vehicles, and should, if possible, be easily reached by tourists . Adequate vehicle parking in the area is desirable . The most vital factor is the water supply . Usually the promoters are not competent to judge this essential ingredient, the quality of which must be known before the project can be further developed. Too often promoters assume that the water is of good quality and of sufficient, continuous volume . At this point in the planning the promoters
Aquarium Design Criteria, Drum & Croaker, National Fisheries Center and Aquarium, U.S . Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C ., 1970 .
should seek professional advice, both as to the quality of the water and the volume required for the proposed facility . From here on the planning staff should include individuals competent in the aquarium field. Designing for visitor guidance will be based upon the building and site size and an estimate of the expected visitor load . More often than not the funds available for a public aquarium will dictate the size, regardless of expected visitations . If the site is large enough, the original design may provide for future expansion . It is desirable to have a flow pattern for visitors . Design can quite readily lead the visitor into the desired path in most situations. Upon entering, a visitor will generally turn right, provided no attractions draw him elsewhere. By placing display tanks at an angle, with the viewing glass facing the oncoming visitor, he will normally proceed in that direction . Open-floor exhibits can serve as shields and also continue to draw the visitors along the desired path (Fiq . 1) .
Fig. 1
Visitor's flow pattern.
Fig. 2
Plan of tank gallery.
Monotony is to be avoided in the placement of display tanks. They should not be lined up like railway car windows. All of them should not be set at an angle . Alcoves and jut-outs will provide variety and surprises, and can serve as dividers between special exhibits . Variety also serves to orient the visitor. Handrails to keep the public about 3 ft from the viewing glass may be desirable . Opinion
is divided among aquarists regarding rails . When large numbers of visitors are present, a rail keeps them back from the glass and permits more people a better view . On the other hand, close inspection of small organisms is then not possible . (See Figs . 2 and 7.) A step-up for small children is often provided . This usually is about 1 ft high and 1 ft wide, and should be part of the building structure and continuous . The Operations Area As previously stated, planners of aquariums often consider the facility only from the visitor's viewpoint. They do not realize that the welfare and attractiveness of the specimens and minimum costs for operation and maintenance depend upon the attention given to behind-the-scenes design . The immediate work area behind the display tanks may be considered first . The work-area floor should be about 3 ft higher than the public area floor. This is dictated by the height of the average visitor looking into the approximate center of the viewing glass of the average large display tank . Most display tanks are placed on the floor of the work area . Obviously, very small and very large tanks will have to be placed differently . Tanks should be placed to permit ease of cleaning by aquarists . Holding tanks to receive new specimens for quarantine and space to hold surplus or sick specimens should be placed along the rear wall of the work area or in any other convenient locations . Each of these holding tanks should have its own recirculating system . The total holding capacity should be equal to about one third of the display volume but may vary considerably, depending upon the sizes of display tanks and specimens as well as the mortality rate and replacement need (Fig . 7.) All quarantine tanks should be provided with drain valves to permit rapid drainage after treatment procedures . All tanks should have removable pump screens. Many aquarists feel that practically all
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS healthy specimens ought to be on display since they use space when held in reserve and require the same care as specimens on display . Nevertheless, too few quarantine or treatment tanks can greatly hamper operations . The exhibit/holding ratio should be carefully considered. The various main supply pipes from the reservoirs should extend around the aquarium over the display tanks. These should be a minimum of 7 ft above the work-area floor and should have frequent tap valves from which, by flexible hose, replacement water or a continuous flow may be fed to the tanks, depending upon the system . It is important to have shutoff valves conveniently located along the major supply lines to facilitate plumbing repairs . To reduce the possibility of accidental flooding to a minimum, automatic cut-off switches, built-in overflow drains, and failsafe devices should be planned in connection with tanks and reservoirs that are periodically drawn down and refilled . All electrical appliances and equipment, including connector boxes, must be grounded . Outlets should not be located near the floor. Fixtures over the tanks should be protected to avoid breakage and possible danger to personnel working in water. Poles attached to brushes or other cleaning devices should be of wood or other nonmetallic material . Natural light should be held to a minimum, unless completely controllable . Natural light
Fig. 3
Cross section through coral reef tank .
promotes algae growth on interiors of tanks. A flexible lighting system over each tank should include the capability of being lifted out of the way when cleaning tanks or feeding specimens. Sufficient waterproof outlets should be provided for auxiliary or special lighting . A clear passageway about 6 ft wide should extend along the back of all display tanks in order to permit the easy transport of tanks, incoming specimens, etc., by fork-lift truck or four-wheel flatbed . No stairs or other obstacles should be located in this passageway . The surface of the work-area floor should have a nonskid finish . Floor drains with sand traps are absolutely necessary and floors should be sloped to drains . Water-resistant materials should be used in all places adjacent to tanks. Storage space for tools, nets, chemicals, and other items in frequent use should be provided . Refrigerators often are convenient for the storage of special foods, and may reduce trips to the food preparation room . Stairs should be placed conveniently from the work area to the public area, with lock doors. Small wall desks may be provided for record keeping. Deep washbasins with hot and cold water and towel boxes should be located conveniently in the work areas. Also, suitable containers for net sterilization should be provided . Centrally located and convenient to the live
exhibits should be the grouping of loading dock, food preparation room and freezer, offices for the biologist and chief aquarist, a room for the shipping and receiving of live specimens, and a crew room with showers and toilets. Space for the chief engineer and control and monitoring panels should be provided . The size of each of the foregoing, as well as the necessity for offices and crew room, will depend upon the size of the aquarium and the number of personnel involved in operations . The above can be located on either the workarea level or the public-area level. If the latter is the case, a ramp should extend from the loading dock area to the work level. It is also desirable to have easy rolling access to the public area and to the administrative offices . In any aquarium a two-way intercom system is very important. The work area should be separated acoustically from the public area . Interior windows may be desirable to permit visitors to view the more interesting operational features .
By JAMES W. ATZ, Associate Curator, The American Museum of Natural History Water Quality
The chemical condition of the water in which fishes and aquatic animals without backbones (invertebrates) are kept is vital to their health . Anything suspended or dissolved in the water comes into the most intimate contact with these animals, mostly through their gills, and there is little they can do to keep harmful substances from entering their bloodstream or body . For example, only two parts of copper dissolved in a hundred million parts of water can kill some fishes within 24 hours, while acutely toxic concentrations of pesticides like Endrin need have a strength of less than one part per billion. The invertebrates are even more sensitive than fishes . In order to keep animals as sensitive as this alive in captivity, there is only one safe rule to follow : all aquaria and other parts of water systems must be made of chemically inert materials . The source of any water that is to be used in aquariums must be scrutinized to make certain it always has the proper chemical composition and never contains substances harmful to the exhibits . Ordinary standards of water purity are not adequate because perfectly potable fresh water or seawater, perfectly safe for bathing, may be deadly to fishes and aquatic invertebrates. As far as their water supply is concerned, these animals are much more delicate than man. Frequent troublemakers in municipal tap water are chlorine, excessive hardness, and brass or galvanized piping . A single small metallic fixture can quickly bring about the death of fish when the water running through it is soft . As far as the aquarium's visitors are concerned, the only necessary water quality is clarity, so that they can easily see the exhibits . For large tanks (500 gal or more) the water must be very clear indeed ; the water of some municipalities contains colloidal clay, and although it looks crystal clear in small tanks, its milky appearance in large ones makes viewing through it quite unsatisfactory . (Animals may live in such cloudy water without any difficulty, but water that is cloudy from the
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS presence of myriads of bacteria is unsatisfactory for both visitor and exhibit animal, although for different reasons .) In some aquarium water systems, the water is used only once and is then discarded . These are called open systems . Closed systems are those in which the water is recirculated, being used over and over again . Sometimes it is necessary to treat the water as soon as it enters the aquarium building, usually by filtering it . Natural seawater should always be filtered before being put into reservoirs or closed systems of any kind in order to remove the tiny animals and plants (plankton) that inhabit it . These floating mites cannot live under the conditions of captivity and when they die, they decompose and temporarily make the seawater toxic to larger forms of marine life . Even filtered seawater "rots" to some
Fig . 4
extent and may have to be stored in the dark for as long as 6 weeks before becoming fit to use, particularly in small tanks . For the great majority of exhibits, however, fresh, filtered seawater may be used without delay if it has not originated from polluted sources and if each water system contains at least 1,000 gal . On the other hand, untreated natural seawater can be used in open systems provided it is clear enough not to obstruct the view of the exhibits . An important advantage of this kind of arrangement is that it makes easy the exhibition of plankton-feeding animals, which subsist on the small plants and animals they strain out of the water . Unless the aquarium can be built near a dependable source of water of the proper quality and sufficient quantity, closed water systems will be a necessity, but water that
is used over and over accumulates waste products from the animals living in it, and as time goes on, the concentration of these substances becomes intolerable . Their removal, however, presents special problems . Aquarium animals, just like terrestrial ones, must consume oxygen to stay alive and at the same time must get rid of the carbon dioxide they produce . If the water in which they find themselves has either too little oxygen or too much carbon dioxide, they will die . Fortunately, the atmosphere provides an unlimited supply of oxygen and can take up unlimited amounts of carbon dioxide--at least the small amounts produced by aquariums . Therefore all that needs to be done is to expose enough of the aquarium water to air above the vessel so that the two gases will be exchanged at a sufficiently rapid rate . This is most easily done by
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS the use of aerators, although circulating the water and otherwise agitating it is also very helpful . (See Fig . 4 .) The animals' other wastes are not so easily disposed of, however ; in fact, no economically feasible way has yet been devised to remove them from aquarium water . Most important of all is ammonia . This is the principal waste product in the urine of fishes, and these animals excrete ammonia through their gills as well . Ammonia is also the principal excretory product of aquatic invertebrates . Other waste products, such as urea, are broken down into ammonia by bacteria in the water . In addition, ammonia is produced when bacteria bring about the decomposition of fecal fish wastes as well as any uneaten food or plants and animals that have died in the tank . It would not be far wrong to state that every bit of food put into an aquarium, except that utilized in the growth of its inhabitants, eventually turns into ammonia . Ammonia is exceedingly toxic to almost all fishes and invertebrates . For example, trout living in water with as little as six parts per billion of ammonia show abnormal gills . Even freshwater pond fishes, which are much less sensitive to ammonia than trout or coral-reef fishes, should not be exposed to concentrations of more than one part in ten million of water . At the present time, there is only one economical way to avoid ammonia poisoning in closed aquarium systems, and this is by taking advantage of the bacteria that change ammonia into nitrate (by oxidation), a chemical that is much less harmful to aquatic animals . These nitrifying bacteria occur naturally in all aquariums and water systems, but not in large enough numbers to quickly convert the toxic ammonia into relatively harmless nitrate. In a well-managed tank, these bacteria thrive on the walls and other surfaces, but not in the water itself, because they must be attached to some kind of solid material in order to grow and multiply . There are not enough surfaces in an aquarium to provide "homes" for sufficient numbers of nitrifying bacteria to keep the concentration of ammonia as low as it needs to be, that is, virtually zero . One of the principal functions of a filter is to provide living space for nitrifying bacteria, and countless numbers of them cover the grains of sand or gravel of the filter bed . In the future, other ways of eliminating ammonia may be found, but biological filtration is now the only practical way to do so . In addition to the solid surface they require, nitrifying bacteria need oxygen ; the water should be aerated both before and after filtration--afterwards in order to replace the oxygen used up by the filter bacteria . Nitrifying bacteria are slow multipliers (as compared with many other bacteria), and cold temperatures, acid waters, high salinity, and lack of calcium slow them down even more . Whenever an aquarium or a water system is put into operation, the number of animals put into it ought to be limited until the filter has acquired its full complement of nitrifying bacteria . A "healthy" filter is essential to a "healthy" closed aquarium water system and vice verse . The longer the aquarium or water system is in operation, the greater the amount of nitrate that accumulates in the water . Although certain aquatic bacteria (denitrifiers) change nitrates into nitrogen gas and thus eliminate the nitrogen from the system, this process does not take place rapidly enough to prevent the buildup of nitrate in aquarium water . More-
Fig . 5
Simplified diagram of the aquarium water system .
over, there are other less well-known substances that accumulate in the water in which animals are living . None of these is at all as toxic as ammonia, but they do have an inhibitory effect, especially on marine invertebrates . The only practical way to get rid of them, at the present state of aquarium technology, is by replacing part of the water at regular intervals . This is the procedure used by home aquarists who want their fishes to reproduce . By keeping the concentration of nitrates (and undoubtedly other inhibiting substances that were not measured as well) below 10 parts per million with regular replacements of fresh seawater, the London Aquarium has been able to maintain marine invertebrates it otherwise found impossible to keep alive . Another cumulative change that takes place in aquarium water is an increase in acidity . Oxidation is a process essential to all life, and oxidation is an acid-producing process . Aquatic animals produce carbon dioxide, which becomes carbonic acid in water . All of their other waste products are eventually oxidized by bacterial action, and this, too, produces acid . In order to prevent the aquarium system from suffering from acidosis, it must be alkalized . This is absolutely essential for closed seawater systems and is usually accomplished by keeping the water in very close contact with some form of calcium carbonate (coral sand, calcite, marble chips, bivalve shells) . Proper aquarium water quality depends primarily on the following factors : " Chemically inert material " Suitable source of water " Adequate circulation, aeration, and filtration " Cleanliness, achieved mostly by avoiding overcrowding and overfeeding
" Control of waste end-products tion, alkalization, and dilution
by filtra-
Water Systems The water system includes, in whole or part, the incoming line, a clarifying or sterilizing unit if required, storage reservoirs, the pipelines furnishing types and temperatures of water serving the display tanks, the display tanks, inflow and outflow and drainage, and filters . Piping should be of nonmetallic materials . Water should come in contact with metal only as absolutely necessary . Metal or other piping may be used to serve cetaceans, seals, penguins, and aquatic reptiles, but expensive replacement may be necessary because of corrosion . (See Figs . 4 and 5 .) 1 . Open system (use and waste) . This method is the least complicated and least troublesome provided an adequate source of excellent disease-free water is available . The requirement that metal not come in contact with water may not be quite so important here, as the animals are exposed to water that has passed aver the metal only once and as the toxicity potential decreases due to the formation of inert oxides, etc ., on the interior of metal pipes, thus forming an insulating barrier, but corrosion is a factor to be considered . Economics must be considered when water is to be discarded after one use . As a general rule of thumb, the average display tank of specimens loaded at the rate of 1 lb. of fish per 100 gal of water should have a turnover or replacement rate of one volume each one to two hours . If the gallonage of all display tanks is 100,000 gal, a flow of 50,000 to 100,000 gal per hour would have to be maintained . Thus,
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS
Fig. 6
Typical vanishing side wall tank installation .
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS
Fig . 7
1 .2 to 2.4 million gal would be required each 24 hours. An added cost would arise if some waters had to be heated or cooled . When water is used only once and discarded, the rate of turnover usually need not be as great as in closed systems, as waste products from the specimens are continually carried away . It should be noted that the rule of thumb cited above is just that . Many species of fish can be loaded heavier, and some species, particularly invertebrates, may require a more rapid turnover of water. 2. Closed system (recirculating total system) . Water continuously enters the display tanks and the overflow returns to the reservoirs after passing through filters. In theory, this method requires only the replacement of water lost by evaporation or in the process of cleaning a tank or backwashing a filter . However, seawater should be replaced at the rate of one-third of the total volume every two weeks, if possible . If this cannot be done, monitoring of nitrite, nitrate, and urea buildup becomes very important. One serious disadvantage in a closed system is the real possibility of disease organisms from one tank being carried to all tanks. Filtration will not remove many of these. Ultraviolet radiation or passage through a reverse
osmosis process, however, is effective in removing or destroying organisms both desirable and undesirable. Reverse osmosis cannot be used with salt water . 3 . Closed system (recirculating individual systems) . Each display tank is provided with its own recirculating water system . Filling and minor replacement is from the main supply lines. In operation, the overflow passes through a biological filter and is pumped back to the display tank . Desired temperature range can be maintained by cooling or heating units placed in the filter or line . In the recirculating systems, the main supply lines of water, preferably overhead, also are continually circulating at a low rate to preclude dead water and the growth of organisms in the pipes. The plans for the National Fisheries Center include the above system (3). The city water supply contains traces of zinc and copper, detergents and chlorine . After all display and reservoir tanks are filled (approximately 3.5 million gallons) the replacement water estimated to be required is 100 gallons per minute . It is planned to pass this incoming water through the reverse osmosis process to remove the metals and detergents . The chlorine will be removed by aeration or charcoal filtering .
Display tanks of up to 2,000 gal can, for some species, be recirculated through bottom filters with water circulation controlled by air-lift pumps. In recirculating systems it is desirable to replace at least 10 percent of fresh water and at least 40 percent of salt water each month to avoid a buildup of harmful substances . Usually a greater amount than this is replaced when the display tanks are regularly cleaned and filters backwashed . Display Tanks
Tanks for the display of aquatic specimens are expensive. Materials in tanks for seawater must be more carefully chosen than for fresh water. Nevertheless, all tanks should be made of inert material to the greatest extent possible . Ideal tanks are those that are least costly, light in weight, readily altered or drilled, inert in seawater, with hard and smooth interiors, among other things . No currently available materials from which tanks may be produced have quite all the foregoing desirable features . For smaller tanks (up to about 2,000 gal), fiber glass or plastic-impregnated plywood appear to be quite satisfactory . A number of companies manufacture fiber
Recreation and Entertainment AQUARIUMS
Fig . 8
glass aquaria or holding tanks. Moreover, some of these will fabricate to specifications . It is desirable to plan to install tanks of standard sizes, preferably those that are available "off the shelf" or for which fiber glass-fabricating forms are still available. Fiber glass is completely inert, is light in weight, and can be readily altered and drilled. Some experience by aquarium personnel will permit them to make repairs . It is quite possible, with an experienced technician, for an aquarium to fabricate its own tanks of reinforced fiber glass. For larger tanks, reinforced concrete, steel
plate, or some other substantial and suitable material will be required . Concrete tanks should never be poured as an integral part of the building . Each such tank should be an independent unit, capable of being broken up and removed without damage to the building . The design of tanks should consider the problems of drainage, cleaning, viewing, etc . Some tanks, because of the specimens to be held therein, may require special features, e.g ., scuppers at the surface to remove oily film produced by some foods. Rapid drainage is desirable . It is preferable that gravel or sand
not touch the viewing glass. Disappearing side walls may be desired (Fig. 11 .1 All concrete and metal surfaces should be coated with an epoxy sealer . This will continue to seal the inevitable hairline cracks in concrete, and thus prevent seawater (particularly) from attacking the reinforcing iron . (If possible, Monel bars should be used .) The seal also inhibits the growth of algae. Color may be added to the epoxy. Epoxy may also be used with sand to provide skidproofing for wet floors, ramps, etc. Careful application of epoxy paints over concrete will prevent blistering .
Recreation and Entertainment INDOOR TENNIS BUILDING
INDOOR COURTS AND BUILDINGS Number of People Per Court
An indoor facility generally has a capacity of 125-150 members per court, since the indoor court is available at least 14 hours per day, 7 days a week . There are some players who show up infrequently, while others wish to play 5 hours or more per week . Most sets played are doubles and require four people per period . Site Selection
As previously suggested, a site should be selected which is reasonably level to avoid excessive grading problems. It should be sufficiently large to allow expansion of the number of tennis courts, the club facilities, and parking and still allow sufficient room for required setbacks of the building from the lot lines . The site should be properly zoned for tennis establishments, located as close as possible to the active tennis playing group in the community, preferably within 15 minutes driving time. Availability of utilities at low cost is highly desirable. Restrictions on height and types of construction should also be considered when choosing the site. Clubhouse Facilities and Layout
It is generally more economical to place courts side by side if there are less than six. It then may be feasible to place three courts side by side and the additional courts end to end with the first three. Of course, the shape of the property may dictate the shape of the building to be constructed . The person in charge should be able to see everyone who enters or leaves the building and Community Tennis Facilities Operations, Robert M . Artz. Notional Recreation and Park Association, Inc., Ariington, Virginia, 1972 .
goes to or from the locker rooms; it is difficult to see what is happening more than four courts away . A side-court control point is preferred. This position allows the person in charge to see all that is happening without interfering with play . It is highly desirable to separate the teaching court from adjacent courts by a divider net to prevent balls from interfering with play in progress . The divider net can be located directly over the outside alley line of the teaching court or there should be a minimum of 10 ft on each side of the divider net to the nearest outside alley line . Players should be able to get from locker rooms to their court out of sight of players on adjacent courts . Men's and women's locker rooms generally contain seven to eight lockers per court. Generally 1 to 1 /1 2 showers per court is sufficient in the men's locker room ; 3/. to 1 shower per court (with private dressing booth) is generally sufficient for the women's locker room . Building The tennis court building should be 120 ft in the clear to accommodate the length of the tennis court and the space behind the end lines. The walls behind the courts should be a minimum of 16 ft high and the center of the building over the net should be a minimum of 35 ft in the clear. For safety any structural members projecting into the playing area should be padded with foam rubber or other shock-absorbent material from a point 18 in above the floor to a point 6 ft above the playing surface . Court Surfaces All surfaces used outdoors can be used indoors . However, certain types of porous courts require the addition of moisture on a daily basis. Adding moisture to the air will make it humid and may create condensation problems on the structure in the colder climates unless adequate precautions
are taken to insulate the outside surfaces. Because frost is not a problem indoors, the court base can probably be reduced in thickness to save money. Indoor courts should also be level . Hard courts may be used for other purposes, and porous courts can be covered for other uses or repaired if abuse is minimal. But nonporous cushioned courts cannot be used for any other purposes . Lighting Lighting may be provided by incandescent, fluorescent, mercury vapor, or quartz lighting fixtures . Lighting intensities should be above 50-foot candles for tournament and club play and above 30 foot-candles for recreational play . It is desirable to shield the player as much as possible from a direct view of the light source, and some lighting should be directed upward to reduce the contrast between lighting above and below the lighting fixtures . When louvres are used under fluorescent lights, they can be protected by an expanded metal screen . Natural lighting may create more problems than it cures. Other Considerations Gas or electric radiant units, hot-water perimeter fin-tube units, and warm-air distribution duct systems provide the most uniform healing . Unit heaters can also be used . If air conditioning is to be considered, a duct system might be utilized for both heating and cooling . Ventilation should meet local building codes. If no code exists, it is considered good practice to provide /1 2 to 1 air change per hour. The ceiling of the court area should be a light color. There should be no contrasting colors for structural members. The background behind the courts should be a medium or dark color for 8 to 10 ft above the playing surface.
By ROBERT L. KNAPP, AIA, Charles Luckman Associates, New York
There are three primary sets of requirements which the sports arena designer should clearly define and then keep in proper focus during the design/planning process . They are: 1 . General planning requirements 2 . Spectator requirements 3 . Operation/management requirements On occasion, conflicts will develop among these criteria as the attempt is made to find the optimum solution to a particular set of problerns-as for example between providing a maximum seating capacity for a large variety of events and perfect sight lines for all spectators . As these conflicts develop, the designer should be alert to them and promptly communicate alternatives to his client. In this manner a serious evaluation can be made of the alternatives at the appropriate stage of the design/planning process, thus allowing the flow of work to proceed smoothly with minimum wasted effort .
habits, and recreational preferences. The availability of competing arenas or other attractions will also be a factor . The growing popularity of professional sports in the United States is perhaps the biggest impetus to the construction of new arenas . The professional hockey and basketball leagues require prospective new franchise owners to provide arenas of specified capacity and quality. These regulations should be checked specifically at the start of any design program, but in general terms of capacity they have specified 15,000 to 18,000 seats. The nature of the owner or sponsor of any new arena will have some influence on the capacity decision . College or university arenas, except those with a history of top basketball teams and enthusiasm, will tend to warrant a
GENERAL PLANNING REQUIREMENTS Projected Uses
Among the first program criteria to be determined regarding multipurpose arenas is the list of projected uses or events which are intended to be booked into the arena. Many events require their own unique features or support facilities which if not included in the original design and construction prove very difficult and costly to provide at a later date (e .g ., inserts in playing floor surface for anchoring circus rigging) . Some also have fixed dimensional or space requirements which must be accommodated and checked for sight lines . A list of the more common events currently being held in multipurpose arenas follows (Figs. 1 to 6) : Ice hockey Basketball Boxing/wrestling Indoor track Tennis Circus Ice show Roller derby
Horse show Rodeo Bicycle racing Rock concerts Stage events Conventions Exhibitions
Fig. I
Hockey .
Fig. 2
Basketball .
Seating Capacity
The establishment of maximum seating capacity should be carefully evaluated prior to start of design . Several factors are important in making the determination including : 1 . Market area 2. Professional franchises 3. Sponsor/owner 4. Budget 5. Viewing distance limitations The market area, whether it falls within a large metropolitan region or a small college town, should have an influence on determination of optimum seating capacity . The overall size of the market area radius will depend not only upon total area population but largely on available highways and mass transit facilities . The nature of the potential audience must also be analyzed as to income levels, spending
capacity of 12,000 to 15,000 seats. A municipal arena with one or more professional teams as tenants will tend to be larger as stated above . Also arenas built privately as profitmaking ventures will tend to be even larger, as well as to book a wider variety of attractions. Their economic success depends largely on creative and energetic promotion to keep "dark time" to a minimum. The operator of a municipal arena will be under somewhat less pressure to show a profit as the subsidization of operating deficits can be rationalized against the peripheral revenue an arena may bring to a locality through increased property values and business income from arena patrons. In cases where an overall construction budget has become fixed prior to any physical planning or programming, this alone may
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS
Fig. 3
Circus.
establish the maximum capacity . Construction coats end circumstances very too widely to attempt to quote here any cost per seat figures that would not be misleading . Estimates should be made at the completion of any schematic solution to test the scheme against the budget target . If reductions must be made, they should be balanced between capacity and quality . Too often it is a shortsighted decision to hold on to capacity at the sacrifice of material and systems quality which will have long-term penalties in operating and maintenance costs . Possibly the most relevant factor in the determination of maximum capacity is that of optimum viewing distance . The limitations of normal visual acuity make any seating falling outside a radius of 200 ft from the center of action increasingly marginal . Although the Houston Astrodome and other planned enclosed stadiums either do hold or are promoting the inclusion of arena events, their success in terms of spectator satisfaction is less than ideal . If the 200-ft limitation is adhered to . together with a seating height limit above the floor of 65 to 70 ft (the resultant of sight-line angles and code limitations on riser heights), the maximum capacity will prove to be from 20,000 to 22,000 .
Plan Configurations One of the earliest decisions to be made in the design/planning process must be that of the basic physical form of the arena seating plan . The relative merits and problems of four plan forms in Fig . 7 will be discussed :
Straight Rows Ends and Side
The straight-row arena is the simplest end most economical of all possible seating configurations . Most early gymnasiums with spectator seating took this shape, many utilizing fold-away bleachers or platforms which are readily adaptable to the straight-row plan . There is also minimum waste of seating area due to the absence of wedgeshaped sections between aisles . The seating sections are of course rectangular between pairs of parallel aisles . The aisle spacing can be set based upon the desired seat width and the maximum seats allowed between aisles, and it will remain constant for all rows . In a small arena tailored around the size of a basketball floor this shape is perfectly satisfactory . However, in a larger multiuse space where the rows would be straight for the length of ice hockey (200 ft or more) spectator viewing problems will begin to develop . As an example, s person sitting in seat X will be required to swing his line of sight laterally from left to right far enough to see both goals on the hockey ice . The view to the right requires a quite extensive movement (approximately 60 ° from a straight-ahead position) . This will not only prove uncomfortable to the viewer (and many seats are worse than X in this regard) but visibility is additionally impaired the further the spectator must look left or right . This will be discussed at a later point dealing with sight lines end referred to as the "picket fence effect ."
Straight-Row Sides and Curved-flow Ends
Fig. 5
Stage events .
This is perhaps the most commonly employed plan for arenas now in use . It maintains the economy and efficiency for a good portion of the seating paralleling the playing floor but takes the end seats around in a circular configuration from a radius point near each end of the floor . If the two radii are located well short of the ends of the hockey ice, thus keeping the straight rows as short as possible, a spectator in seat Y will have been relieved of much of
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Boxing .
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS the discomfort of seat X in Fig . 1 . The maximum lateral movement for Y, which is now located in the curved area, is about 45'. Also, the line perpendicular to the seat falls much nearer to the center of the floor or the average center of activity for most events . Straight Rows, and Sides with Diagonal Corners This plan configuration, also quite common, has all the advantages and disadvantages described in Fig. 1 . Only those seats in the diagonal corners have relief from the lateral head-movement problem inherent in the side seats. In terms of construction economy it is the least costly of any configuration with full-perimeter seating, lending itself to precasting or other methods of repetitive trend/riser fabrication . Circular Seating with Straight Rows at Side Lines Upon quick examination it would appear that a circular plan would be the optimum arena seating configuration . This might be true if all arena events were the size of a boxing ring and
Fig. 8
The Forum, Inglewood, California .
seating could radiate outward and upward from a small central floor area . However, the introduction of an 85 X 200 ft hockey rink into the scheme brings with it almost irresolvable problems . In order to clear the ends of the hockey rink the innermost full circular row of seats must have a radius of about 110 ft . The height above the floor of this first circular row can be set no greater than 3 to 4 ft if spectators in the end seats are to see the near goal . Thus if this 4 ft height is followed around the row to the center point of the sidelines, a seat at this point will be 58 ft away from the dasher with only 4 ft of elevation . The seats along the sidelines within the space formed by the hockey dasher and the first circular row pose the dilem. There is space for about 18 straight rows ma of seats, but with only 4 ft of elevation at the rear row of this group each riser could be only 21/2 in . This would be too low for adequate viewing by spectators in otherwise prime seats. If the reverse approach is taken and the height of the first circular row is established at an elevation appropriate for the sideline
seats, the height will be about 10 ft (18 rows at 7 in .) . Following this 10 ft height around to the end of the rink would result in the first row end seats being 10 ft behind and 10 ft above the dasher-much too high for these spectators and those in the rows behind them to see the near goal . About the only possible way to employ this configuration is to omit the sections of straight-row seating along the sidelines and set the circular bulkhead at the low elevation . This has been done in a few arenas, the Palazzo dello Sport in Rome being one, but is not likely to be adopted in a commercial arena due to the large loss of prime revenueproducing seats. There is in addition a loss of intimacy between spectators and the game activity, which is very desirable to maintain, when such a large void exists between them . Elliptical-Row Seating )Fig . 8) This configuration as illustrated for the Forum in Inglewood, California, and also used at Madison Square Garden in New York City has proved to be an
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS optimum plan shape for this type of multiuse arena . It is the best possible adaptation of a curved-row configuration, desirable to minimize lateral head movement to the governing size of an ice hockey rink . In both examples noted above, the outer perimeter of seating was carried to a circular outer wall line. This being done primarily to take advantage of the structural economies of a cable-suspended roof system . The intersection of the elliptical seating form and the circular outer wall generate an undulating line at the perimeter . The high point of this undulation, and thus the maximum number of rows, occurs along the sidelines, and the low point with minimum seating occurs at the ends of the arena . The radius of the outer circular wall was held to approximately 200 ft to stay within the practical limits of spectator visual acuity as discussed earlier . The elliptical seating form was developed from circular arcs on a 4-center point system . Radius points for the two broader sideline curves fall 200 ft above and below the center line for the tighter end curves . They are 61 ft left and right of center . Madison Square Garden seating differs from the Forum in one respect-the addition of a balcony (Fig . 9) . As mentioned above, the main
body of seating has an undulating intersection with the outer wall with a low point at the arena ends . Above these low end seats, space develops which can accommodate balcony seating . Madison Square Garden takes advantage of this option to gain maximum capacity . The balcony is given a circular configuration seven rows deep following the outer wall line . For a portion of the sideline areas the balcony blends with the main body of seating rising from below but is kept separated by a continuous circumferential bulkhead . Seating and Sight Lines The study of spectator sight lines in section should proceed simultaneously with development of the arena plan configuration . Sections should be developed at both the arena axis and several intermediate points in any curved plan configuration to verify the arrival point of sight for the maximum number of seats . The "Picket Fence Effect" It is impractical to provide riser heights sufficient for spectators to see over the heads of persons in the row imrnediately in front . It is assumed view will be between heads of persons one row in front and
over the heads of those two rows in front . Looking straight ahead, a spectator will have a reasonable wide angle of vision between two heads immediately in front . However, the further one looks to the left or right following players' action on the arena floor, the more this cone of vision between heads diminishes . It is the same effect as one gets standing a few feet in front of a picket fence . Looking straight ahead between pickets the view is little impaired, but as the eye moves left or right, the pickets gradually appear to move together until at some point they appear to form a solid surface . It is for this reason as mentioned in discussing alternate plan configurations that the curved-row plans are preferred over straightrow seating as they minimize the lateral viewing angle and thus the picket fence effect . Two-Row Vision When plotting graphically or calculating sight-line sections, assume a spectator's seated eye level at 3 ft 11 in . above tread elevation and 5 in . from eye level to top of head . In most arena situations the hockey floor size will be the most restrictive in determining proper sight-line profiles . If sight lines can be made to work for hockey, they will be more than adequate for all other smaller floor size events .
80 1 Above Center of Arena But Never Less Than Horizontal
To A .P.S. of Balcony Ideally Should Coincide With Top of Dasher Behind Goal
Fig . 9
Balcony .
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS
nonce personnel to clean . Riser heights will vary from 3 or 4 in . t o 221/2 in . Generally risers can go up to 71/2 in . before an additional step must be added in the aisle . Risers over 15 in . will require two steps and to accommodate the two steps the tread must be at least 36 in . wide . These tread and riser dimensions are accepted good practice but should be checked against local codes for specific situations . Aisle Width and Spacing Recommended aisle width is 3 ft 0 in . Spacing of aisles is usually every 14 to 15 seats. Where seating sections abut a wall or railing, the dead-end distance should not exceed 7 seats . Where aisles are radial to one another in curved configurations, each seating section cannot exceed the maximum allowable width et its upper or wide end. Thus some inefficiencies develop as at the lower end of these sections only 7 or 8 seats may separate aisles .
Fig. 10
Vomitory -Typo A.
The arrival point of sight should be made to fall at the top edge of the near hockey dasher (3 ft 6 in . above floor level) . To graphically plot a series of sight lines, begin by assuming a height above the floor for the first row of fixed seats . This should be as low as possible to still accommodate temporary seating which will fall between the playing surface and the first fixed seats. Next extend a line from the arrival point of sight (APS) to the top of head of the first row spectator (tread height + 4 ft 4 in .). If you continue this line up and to the rear the distance of two rows, you will set the eye level for the third row of spectators . The trend height for this row will then be found by subtracting 3 ft 11 in . Tread heights are now established for the first and third rows ; the second row will be midpoint between them . This procedure should be repeated for each successive row working from the bottom up . When e full section of seating is plotted in this manner with all sight lines meeting the same APS, the section profile will have a slightly dished or bowl effect, with each riser height being a fraction of an inch greater than the one below. For
the sake of construction economy, risers are grouped in sections of four or five of the same height before an increase is made. Several trials may need to be made to keep the overall profile within desired limits . Changes can be made in the original assumptions of first tread elevation and tread width which can alter the cross section as successive rows are plotted . For instance, if too high an elevation is selected as the lower row starting point, the upper rows may develop riser heights which exceed code limits, or the overall building height might prove too great. Tread and Riser Dimensions Tread width of rows should vary between 32 and 36 in . The wider dimension is generally used in the lower tiers of seats which ore of shallow slope and where the extra comfort is commensurate with their premium cost . Any tread width below 32 in . should be avoided if possible especially if upholstered seats are used . In addition to sacrificing spectator comfort, narrower rows inhibit travel to concessions at intermissions and prove more time-consuming for mainte-
Crossovers-Width and Spacing Crossover aisles will be needed at one or more locations which run horizontally parallel to the seating rows and connect the vertical aisles with vomitories leading under the seating to exits and promenades . Again local codes should be consulted for specific requirements . However, crossover width should be between 4 end 6 ft depending upon spacing of vomitories . It should be kept in mind that a bulkhead will be required at the rear side of the crossover and the tread of the first row behind it raised to a height to allow sight lines not to be interrupted by the lower seats. Where site conditions permit, it is ideal to have both a lobby/promenade and a crossover aisle at or near grade level. The seating can then be split with approximately one-half below grade and one-half above, which very much simplifies exiting problems . Crossovers at the top of balconies should generally serve not more than seven rows of seats. Aisles running up from a crossover and dead-ending et a wall or bulkhead should not serve more than 18 to 20 rows . Vomitories As stated earlier vomitory width and spacing will be governed by local code conditions . When they are used in connection with horizontal crossovers, stairs will be required to reach the first row to the rear of the crossover which must be elevated 4 to 5 ft . Two types of vomitories are illustrated : Vomitory Type A (Fig . 10). Here a stair leading to the upper seating flanks either side of the vomitory passage. These stairs are entered at their lower end before reaching the crossover and thus minimize crowd congestion . Two
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS
Elevation
Plan
Fig. 11
Vomitory - Type B.
possible elevations exist for the crossover relative to the seating tread levels . It can either be flush with the lost row of seats on its front side or be one riser above this last row. The crossover al the lower level minimizes visual interference for spectators in the upper seating from those walking the crossover and is the preferred alternative . The other option does reduce the height of the bulkhead and thus the number of steps required to reach the upper seating . Railings on these stairs and bulkheads should be solid for their lower portions with open pipe rail above. The total height should be kept as low as allowable to prevent sight line interference . Vomitory Type B (Fig . 11). This detail may be used either as part of a full vomitory or as a stair access only to upper seating tiers. It is not as desirable as Type A in a vomitory situation, as the stairs empty into the traffic path between crossover and vomitory and can cause excessive congestion . Truck Access . Access to the playing floor surface for large trucks will be required at one or more points . Vomitories at least 10 ft
wide and 14 ft high should be provided at one end of the playing floor. Two are preferred in those arenas expecting to book circus performances to allow for the promenade of animals and performers out one and in the other . Temporary treads and risers can be placed over these large vomitories to gain seating capacity when they are not in use. It also follows from the exterior to this floor level by some means as well as to the loading/receiving area of the building . Additional vomitories will be needed to give spectator access to and from the temporary floor seating setups . Also required will be an opening or vomitory at one end of the arena floor to allow for the overrun for indoor track dash events . At least 20 yards should be available past the finish line of the 60-yard dashes for this purpose. Temporary Seating For most events some amount of temporary seating must be set up to fill in the gap between the fixed seating and the size of the playing surface or performance area . This will in some cases be flat on the floor or on shallow riser platforms.
To minimize labor cost for setups, the largest amount possible of this seating should be on platforms which telescope out from the periphery of the fixed bulkhead line. Where riser heights are sufficient to permit it, these seats can be left attached to the platforms and folded flat to allow stands to be pushed against the bulkhead wall . Where this is not practical, the seating and/or the platforms will have to be disassembled, stacked, and moved to storage areas in other parts of the building . Crowd Movement
Great care should be taken in the design/planning process to avoid building in situations which will inhibit the smooth flow of Spectators through the public circulation spaces and to and from the seating areas. This should be true for normal traffic situations or avoiding panic in emergencies . Activities which involve spectators waiting in lines must have sufficient room so that circulation is not blocked behind them . Toilet rooms must be laid out so that peak usage at intermissions is handled
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS as fast as possible to avoid backups within the rooms and the corridors . Shallow pitch ramps should be used wherever possible in lieu of stairs at floor level changes. If escalators are used, ample room must be provided at their landings . Blockages must not occur and force dangerous situations as more spectators are forced into the space as they are delivered by the moving escalator . The general pattern of circulation must be clear, orderly, and easily comprehensible by the spectators. Graphic aids will help as discussed later, but they cannot overcome built-in planning flaws. Building Codes
Code requirements relating to arena planning will be primarily concerned with exiting and seating circulation . It will be found that where they exist at all, regulations will vary widely from one locality to another. Many codes do not have any references to arenas at all, and interpolations must be made between specifications for theaters and outdoor stadiums . When this is the case, the designer's assumptions should be checked at an early stage with local building officials to avoid changes after final drawings are complete .
SPECTATOR REQUIREMENTS Seating
Most arenas now being built are employing theater-type upholstered seats. The minimum recommended width is 19 in ., and they should vary up to 23 in . center to center for the prime areas. In the wedge-shaped sections in curved rows, a mix of widths is usually used to make the ends of each row come out as flush as possible . Where risers are 5 in . or over, seat stanchions should be riser-mounted to facilitate cleaning . Seats should be self-rising with perforated acoustical treatment on the seat bottoms Concessions
Concession stands for food, beverages, souvenirs, and coat checking should be provided at convenient locations in the promenade areas. Counter areas should be as long as practical and if possible recessed in alcoves to prevent backup of patrons into circulation spaces . Stor . age space should be provided immediately adjacent to each counter area so that food items can be restocked to the sales area during a game or performance without a trip to the central supply point. If it is contemplated by the arena management that an outside concession firm be brought in to run the operation, it should be selected as early as possible and participate in the planning process. If the firm is an experienced national operation, it will have strong points of view on counter locations, size, visibility, and utility requirements among others . If not built into the original building, the concessionaire's desires will likely prevail at a later date and unsightly and costly additions result . Toilet Rooms
Sets of men's and women's rest rooms should be provided at one or more locations on each public level . Their layout must provide for peak load* during the 15- to 20-minute intermission periods when hundreds of patrons will pass through each room . It is ideal if a one-way traffic flow can be developed with an in and out doorway separated by some distance . With-
in, the space should be divided with the water closets and urinals located near the entrance and the lavatories in a space near the exit . Also it is desirable if possible to design each toilet room so that half of the space can be closed off by some means during events of small attendance . This will save a good deal of operating cost for cleaning . Plumbing-line capacity should be studied carefully for peak use and generous pipe spaces with good access provided .
cessionaire is involved for the arena, it will also likely manage this club . A typical commercial kitchen will probably be required and should be so located as to be easily serviced from the central trucking/ receiving area . This kitchen may also serve to cater food to other parts of the building such as the owner's suits and press lounge.
Graphics
Administrative Offices
A good graphics and signing control program is important not only for an attractive appearance, but for controlling and expediting crowd movement . Signing can help establish a clear pattern of movement which can easily be comprehended by the patrons . Seat colors in the arena can be keyed to ticket colors to identify the various areas or categories of seating . This can be done on a horizontal basis with rings of seats changing color as they change from one price category to another. Or the arena can be divided into quadrants each with its own color key. In cases where the arena sits within a large parking field, this color system may even extend to the exterior and guide patrons to the proper entrance as they park and approach the building . Within the seating area, signs designating sections, rows, seats, etc., should be large, clear, and located in easily read places . Signs for rest rooms, concessions, telephones, etc ., should also be of good size and clear and consistent in style . In the lobby ticketing area, apace must be provided for coming attraction signs, currentevent pricing, and seating plans for various event setups . It has proved successful also to have a scale model of the arena seating including colors and section identification within the ticket sales area to assist patrons with their ticket purchases.
Areas for the building manager, accounting, personnel, booking, publicity, and engineer are generally provided within the building . In addition, office space may be required for the various teams who use the building, whether they are only tenants or are owned by the arena owner . Additionally, office space should be available for use by shows booked into the arena for an extended period (circus, ice shows, etc.) . Also, the owner of the arena, if it is a private venture, will usually require a suite of rooms including his office, private bath, and a conference/meeting room suitable for entertaining dignitaries . Food may be catered to this area from the central club kitchen ; thus it should be within easy access . It is possible in some instances that a portion of the offices mentioned could be located in other space remote from the arena . This decision and a full program of office requirements should be developed at an early stage of the design/planning process.
Scoreboard
Two basic types of scoreboards are in common use. The center-hung 4-sided type is one, wallmounted single-faced the other. The central type is usually on a drop cable system which allows it to be lowered to the floor for maintenance. The central speaker cluster can also be combined with this type scoreboard, but it should be checked early whether the same suspension height is appropriate for both scoreboard visibility and sound distribution . When the wall-mounted type is used, et least two units will be required so that all spectators will have a proper view . Very often the building management will arrange for advertising display to be incorporated into the scoreboard design as a revenue-producing device . If so, the decision should come as early as possible, as it will have obvious effect on size and detailing. The boards, of whichever type, must have provisions for the major sports that are likely to use the arena and have e portable control console that can operate from several positions depending on the sport involved . Public/Private Clubs
Most new arenas will include a club or restaurant facility . These are often tied to the purchase of season tickets and their use restricted to these patrons . Capacity might vary from 150 to 300 people . This facility should be located within easy reach of the seating area and also be accessible to patrons at hours other than when the building is open to the general public for events . If an outside con-
OPERATING REQUIREMENTS
Ticketing Facilities
This area will vary depending upon the intended scope of events to be booked . However, in most situations, ticket booths will be required in the lobby area or an outer lobby . They should be accessible to the public during nonevent periods without losing security to the remainder of the building . Madison Square Garden has 25 booths, the Forum, 20 . Immediately to the rear of the booths should be a large ticket room for storage and sorting advance sale tickets . Also required will be a money room with vault, group sales office, ticket manager's office, and a work area for storing event posters and making up ticket pricing boards . Storage
Large bulk storage areas will be needed for a variety of uses . The temporary seating setups for the arena floor will require space to store both chairs and riser platforms. These are usually stacked on metal pipe racks as high an ceilings will permit and handled with forklift trucks . Space for storing the hockey dasher boards and glass, basketball floor and goals, end indoor track must also be provided . All of these should be so located relative to the arena floor as to minimize time and cost for the setting up of each event. Locker and Dressing Rooms
If the arena is the permanent home of two professional teams (hockey and basketball, for example), a pair of separate home team dressing rooms will be required (Fig . 12). As illustrated, the teams can share toilets, shower room, a training area, and the trainer's office . The hockey dressing area should be somewhat larger then that for the basketball dressing area becauseoflarger team size and more cumbersome equipment. A pair of rooms for visiting teams somewhat smaller than the rooms for home
Recreation and Entertainment SPORTS ARENAS
Fig. 12
Camera locations for hockey and basketball should all be from the same side of the playing floor with one position high at center ice (at Madison Square Garden it is 64 ft above the floor and 120 ft back from the near dasher) and other positions at low level covering center ice and each goal . Space will also be needed for the station's remote truck, preferably at the building truck area, or a permanent TV monitor room . Any cables from the various camera positions will terminate at this point whether built-in or separately laid for each event. A built-in cable system which can be used by any station's crew is obviously desirable, as it prevents the unsightly view of large bundles of cable as well as avoids interference with circulation at the cross aisles and vomitories .
Dressing rooms .
teams, can be located adjacent to or nearby with home team rooms as shown . Several smaller dressing and interview rooms should be planned in this area . Some can be for individual use, others for four to six people, and each with appropriate toilet facilities . All these spaces should be located at arena floor level with convenient vomitory access to the playing floor . Public exiting traffic should be routed away from the dressing area corridors . Press Facilities
A press workroom with adjacent Teletype room and toilet should be located near the lower seating area . It is also desirable to include a lounge in this group with facilities to set up a small bar and food service from the main concession kitchen . A small photographer's work area and darkroom should also be provided at the arena floor level . Location of the press seating varies widely . Many arenas which have been built with elaborate press booths high above the floor have discovered them unused, reporters preferring to sit at courtside near the action . Radio and TV announcers, however, usually prefer to sit high for an overall view of the action . Booths for this purpose can be located over vomitory openings or suspended from the ceiling or balcony structure . Concession /Vendors'Storage
Large bulk storage areas will be required for the concessionaires'supplies of dry food goods, beverages, meat, general supplies, souvenirs and programs . This may include walk-in refrigerator space and cold rooms as specified by
the operator . Also needed will be a concession manager's office, a security area for counting money and a vault. Ample vendors' stations will be needed at several points around the arena. They must be located within easy reach of the seating and be laid out to allow fast refill of the seat vendor's stock. Separated inout doors are helpful . Employee Toilets/Lockers
As seen from the following space allocation summary, several categories of employee spaces will be necessary. General cleaning and maintenance help, ushers, and concession employees each need separate toilet/locker facilities . As local conditions might warrant, space may also be needed for security guards and parking lot employees . Definitive space needs for each group will depend upon a management analysis of the numbers of staff required . Television Broadcasting
Facilities appropriate for the telecasting of events are an important ingredient of all new arenas . Consensus as to number, location, height, and angle of camera positions is hard to find, especially if several networks or local stations are likely to be working out of the building at various times. However, an attempt should be made during the design/planning stage to meet with those broadcasting groups most likely to use the building and build in as much as possible such items as camera platforms and cable runs . Primary use of television in any arena will be for sporting events rather than stage or performance-type shows.
SPACE ALLOCATIONS
The following space allocations for the Forurn in Inglewood, California, an arena of 18,424 seats, can serve as a planning guide and checklist of required facilities : Area, sq ft 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. B. 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 . 21 . 22 . 23 . 24 . 25 . 26 .
Play floor surface . . . . . . . . . Lobby promenade . . . . . . . . . Concession stands . . . . . . . . . . Public toilets . . . . . . . . . Home team lockers/toilets . . . Visiting team lockers/toilets, . . . Dressing/ interview rooms . . . . . Press work area . . . . . . . . . . . Darkroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . Men employee toilets/lockers . . . Women employee toilets/lockers . Men ushers' toilets/lockers . . . . Women usherettes' toilets/lockers . Men concession toilets/lockers . . Women concession toilets/ lockers . Truck dock . . . . . . . . . . . . . Receiving area . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage-bulk . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage-concessions/vendors . . Storage-temporary seating . . . . Storage-dasher glass . . . . . . . Ice machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administrative offices . . . . . . . . Ticketing facilities . . . . . . . . . . Private club dining and kitchen Pay telephones-22 booths
. .
26,900 20,000
. .
2,500 4,800 4,300 2,100
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
1,200 600 150 1,200 700 400 600 350 500 4,500 1,300 8,800 6,000 6,600 250 250 9,000 7,000
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES
PUBLIC GOLF COURSES Ideally the golf course should be designed and constructed so no major alterations ever will be required . However, even the greatest of golf courses have been revised and the organizers of a new golfing enterprise need not expect that their course will be the one in the world that will not eventually need some changes. It always is advisable to engage the services of a competent golf course architect. Even if funds do not permit initial construction of the course so it will be completed with all the trapping of a finished course, the qualified architect's plan will provide for later installation of traps as money is available and the course will develop according to a wise plan Instead of being a rather expensive and unsatisfactory exhibit of inexpert experiments. There are many instances, particularly in rural areas, where the budget is limited . Services of a professional golf course architect may seem unnecessary. But knowhow is extremely important in planning and building a course. It is a wise investment to have someone experienced lay out the course, end especially to oversee construction . Golf architectural authorities remind us that Nature is the best golf architect . The famed courses of Scotland which now are fundamentally as they were almost a century ego are proof that small town golf club organizers can do a great job if they are fortunate in selecting-or having available-sites that fit golf. Natural hazards make the most interesting and easiest and cheapest maintained hazards. The genius of the golf architect often shines brightest in his use of these natural features of terrain in providing shot problems . But in many instances the ground is flat and without trees. The problem then is to provide a layout that will call for every sort of a shot that the best courses demand end that is usually done, as far as possible, simply by judicious variation in length of holes. Such tremendous advances have been made in mechanical moving of earth that at even the flattest of sites not much money is required to move enough soil to elevate a green, taking the earth from locations where grassy hollows or areas for sand traps are left as improvements in the design of the course .
Selection of Course Site
The golf architect usually considers a number of prospective sites for a course and selects the one that, at reasonable cost of land, can be converted into a good course at minimum construction cost and maintained properly at minimum expense. Size of property is important. For a 9-hole course, 50 acres is generally considered the minimum, and 110 acres for 18 holes . Even these areas involve risk of injury of players playing parallel holes . For the better courses,
Planning and Building the Golf Course, National Golf Foundation, Inc., Chicago.
80 acres for e 9-hole course and 160 for 18 holes is about right. Irregularly shaped plots often afford opportunities for most interesting course design . Land shouldn't be too rugged . A gently rolling area with some trees is preferable . Land that is too hilly is tiring on players, usually necessitates too many blind shots and is more costly to keep well turfed . The course should have practice fairway area close to the clubhouse. Some public and daily fee courses have installed practice ranges, lighted for night use, adjoining their courses or alongside the highways, and from these ranges they get considerable income and develop golfers for day play on the courses.
Accessibility Unless absolutely unavoidable, a golf course should not be off the beaten track . This is especially important in the case of a small-town course planning on having the green fees from transients help to meet maintenance costs. Locate your course along the main highway into town . All other things being equal, design the course so one or two holes parallel the highway ; it is good advertising . Another reason for not locating the course in an out-of-the-way spot is that the club should have good transportation for the members. It should be as near to town as possible, cost of land should be taken into consideration, and the main highway from town to the club should be one that is kept in good condition and is not merely a country lane, unpaved and liable to become impassable with every heavy rain .
Soil Factors Condition of the soil is extremely important because in the final analysis the better the stand of turf raised on fairways and greens, the more satisfactory and more popular will be the course . The ideal golf course soil is a sandy loam . It is not impossible but is expensive to grow a good stand of grass on a heavy clay . Be sure to take the character of soil into consideration when choosing the site . Soil analysis of areas of the golf course site will be made at low cost by state agricultural departments or county agents . Considerable helpful information can be supplied by state agricultural experiment stations and county agents in determining the most desirable site from the viewpoint of good turf development and in recommending the grass seeding, growing, and maintenance program.
Past Use
Closely tied in with the above is the use to which the land has been put in the past . Is the plot a run-down farm where a large part of the plant food has been removed from the soil, or is it rich in the elements that will be necessary for successful cultivation of turf? Has the land lain idle for many years or has it been intensively cultivated by its former owner without his returning plant food to the soil?
The selection of property that has been well kept up as pasture land is highly advisable. Much money is saved in putting the course into excellent condition . Frequently the scenic attractions of a site are such that to the susceptible and uninformed organizers of a golf club, they totally outweigh soil conditions . A happy balance should be maintained between both factors . Pick e site which will offer no serious handicaps to the attempts of the club to grow a stand of grass and maintain it thereafter .
Power and Water Availability Water and power are absolute necessities for any modern golf course . Even in the smallest communities, grass green courses with a clubhouse are being built. To water only greens and tees, or the whole course, and operate a clubhouse, you must have power and water. The source of water should be close to the site, reliable end pure enough to drink and irrigate fine turf . It may be a city system, wells, lake, river or some combination. The cost of connecting to water and power supplies must be included in your plans.
How Much Clearing? Consider next the amount of clearing that will have to be done in building the course . Will it be necessary to move many trees or grub out many stumps? Will it be an expensive proposition removing stones from the soil? Are there large swamp areas that will have to be filled in or drained? Do not misunderstand the statement above relative to clearing out trees. A golf course should, if possible, have patches of woodlands, as trees offer one of the best natural hazards if properly placed with reference to the course . However, it is an expensive matter to remove large growing trees, and the site selected should not have too many of these in those portions of the plot which will be fairways in the final picture .
Natural Golf Features
The last consideration in selecting the site is whether or not it possesses natural golf features . This may seem to the uninitiated to be the first end most important thing to look for, but, as a matter of fact, natural golf features, while extremely desirable, are not nearly as important as the character of the soil and site location . Rolling terrain, creek valleys, woodlands, ravines, ponds end the like, of course, make the job of designing an interesting course just so much easier, but all of these features or a substitute for them can be secured through artificial hazards. For this reason the presence or absence of natural golf features is perhaps less important than any of the factors that have been mentioned above.
Clubhouse Location
Location of the clubhouse, entrance drive, parking spaces, tennis courts, swimming pools, golf practice and lesson tees, fairways and traps and practice greens, is another job
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES
Fig. f An irregular tract of ground lends itself to especially interesting architecture . Note how the architect has taken advantage of trees between fairways to demand accurate shot placement and protect players. Doglegging most of the longer holes presents a variety of problems in shot placement for the long and the short hitters . Note that only one hole-the short eighth-runs in a direct westerly direction, so watching the bell against the afternoon sun doesn't bother players on this course. that requires a great deal of thought. The best location for the clubhouse generally is convenient to but removed from the highway. Road construction and maintenance costs must be kept in mind when locating the clubhouse. Often the clubhouse site is a prominent hilltop, although elderly golfers may bemoan this choice because this means the finishing hole of the course must of necessity be uphill ; they do not like a heavy climb at the end of a strenuous day of golf . Generally, a convenient and practical site can be found at a less elevated spot . Mapping the Course Authorities are well agreed on what makes the ''ideal" nine-hole course in the matter of distance . All agree that such a course should measure over 3,000 yd, preferably around 3,200 yd . These authorities likewise agree that the par' of the course should be 35, 36, or 37, with the first mentioned most general. Just how should these 3,200 yd be apportioned among the nine holes? Most experts suggest two par-3 holes, two par-5 holes, the remaining five holes to be par-4's . Par-6 holes should be avoided . (See Fig. 1 .) Considering first the two par-3 holes, they should vary, for obvious reasons, in length ; the shorter one should measure 130 to 160 yd, ' Par is an arbitary measure of the difficulty of a hole . It is the number of strokes an "expert golfer" would take to play the hole, always allowing him two putts after his ball is on the green. A par-3 hole, therefore, is one the "expert golfer" can reach from the tee in one shot ; a par-4 hole . i n two shots ; a par-5, in three shots. Par figures for men and women, as established by the United States Golf Association, are as follows: Men : Par-3, holes up to 250 yd, inclusive ; par-4, 251 to 470 yds., incl . ; par 5, 471 yd and over . Women: Par-3, holes up to 210 yd, inclusive; par-4, 21 1 to 400 yd, incl ; par-5, 401 to 575 yd ; par-6, 576 yd and over .
thus requiring an exacting four-iron or five-iron from the tee; the other short hole should have the green a full long iron or wood shot away, say 180 yd or more . The par-5 holes also should vary in length ; one being on the short side for a par-5 (about 480 yd) and the other 520 to 550 yd . Both types of par-5 holes call for two full wood shots and well-hit iron approach shots. It is advisable to provide a mixture of pars, points out architect Robert Bruce Harris . He suggests a par order of 4-5-4-3-4-5-4-3-4-36 as one that will be found highly satisfactory . Under U.S .G .A. regulations, the minimum length of a par-4 hole is 251 yd, and throughout the country many courses contain holes of this length . Yet, only in rare instances where some physical feature redeems the lack of distance do these holes rate as even of average interest . They are too short; after the drive nothing remains but an easy chip-shot or runup ; there is no "kick" to playing so short a hole . Indeed, this same objection attaches itself to per-4 holes even as long as 350 yd, where physical peculiarities are lacking This distance, from 251 to 350 yd, is known among golf architects as "No Man's Land," a zone to be avoided if the course is to be genuinely popular with golfers . Now that we have established a minimum length for the shortest of the par-4 holes, how shall we vary the length of the remaining four? It is very simple : They should be graded up by easy stages to the upper limit of par-4 (470 yd) so that after a regulation drive from the tee, the player is called upon to hit approach shots with different clubs. Course Planning Certain standard practices should be observed in making a course layout, among which the important ones are : 1 . The distance between the green of one hole and the tee of the next should never be
more than 75 yd, and a distance of 20 to 30 yd is recommended. Tees should be not closer than 20 yd to a green because of the danger of being hit by an approaching golf ball . 2. The first tee and the ninth green of the course should be located immediately adjacent to the clubhouse. If it is practical without sacrificing other factors, bring the green of the sixth hole also near to the clubhouse . This is a feature appreciated by the golfer with only an hour to devote to his game, as six holes can be comfortably played in that time and at the finish of his available time he is once more back at the clubhouse. 3 . As far as is practical, no holes should be laid out in an east-to-west direction . The reason for this is that a considerable volume of play on any golf course is in the afternoon and a player not only finds it difficult and disagreeable to follow the ball's flight into the setting sun, but it also presents a safety problem to other golfers . If an east-west hole is unavoidable, locate it among the first two or three holes of the layout so that a player will strike it as early in his round as possible . Southwest direction of holes is particularly bad. 4. The first hole of the course should be a relatively easy par-4 hole of no more than 380 to 400 yd in length . It should be comparatively free of hazards or heavy rough where a ball might be lost, and should have no features that will delay the player . This is for the obvious reason of getting the golfers started off on their game as expeditiously as possible.
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES 5 . Generally speaking, the holes should grow increasingly difficult to play as the round proceeds . It takes a golfer about three holes to get well warmed up, and asking him to execute difficult shots while he is still "cold" is not a demand that he will appreciate . 6 . Whenever practical, greens should be plainly visible, and the location of sand traps and other hazards obviously apparent from the approach area, which is that portion of the fairway extending teeward for approximately 125 yd from the green . sloping 7 . Generally speaking, fairways directly up or down a hillside are bad for several reasons : (a) steep sloping fairways make the playing of the shot by the majority of players a matter of luck rather than skill ; (b) the upand-down climb is fatiguing to the golfer ; (c) turf is difficult to maintain on such an area . 8 . If there are ravines or abrupt creek valleys on the property, a splendid short golf hole could consist of a tee located on one edge of the ravine with the green on the other, a suitable number of yards down or up the ravine . This calls for perfect control in carrying the ravine, permits the golfer to "bite off" as much of the ravine as he thinks he can carry, and does not unduly penalize the beginner, who can play straight across the ravine and then progress greenward on the other side . 9 . The par-3 holes should be arranged so that the first of the two is not earlier in the round than the third hole and the other one is not later than the eighth hole . Par-3 holes should not be consecutive . The old days of golf courses that punished the shortcomings of the dub so severely that
fun was taken from the round have passed into extinction . Along with this penal design are going unnatural looking knobby bunkers, geometrically designed traps and tiny, miserably conditioned tees . Trees, slopes, creeks, lakes and other natural details will provide hazards enough for the average well-designed small-town course . If sand traps around the greens can be well maintained, their use provides the course with a feature that is of metropolitan course character . But if the construction or maintenance cost rules out such traps, turfed hollows in which the grass is allowed to grow several inches high and of a design that fits in the natural surroundings will do well (Fig . 2) . An eminent American golf architect sets forth points that are generally agreed on by members of the American Society of Golf Course Architects . He says : The backbone holes of the modern golf course are the two-shotters, of 400 yards or over . The length of the two-shot hole offers plenty of opportunity to develop good strategy. Unfortunately, these holes are a little long for the average golfer to be able to reach in two, but this can be remedied by having sets of alternate tees . The short holes should be kept under 200 yards in length so that every golfer has an opportunity to reach the green with a good shot and thereby obtain his par or birdie . These holes should be attractive and tantalizing in appearance with the greens designed so that they will become extremely formidable or relatively easy depending upon the position of the pin and the angle of the tee in use . There should be as little walking as pos-
Fig . 2 In this nine-hole layout the architect has provided for shot variety by having two fees for each hole . Note too, the practice driving fairway, an important and popular course feature that many clubs have overlooked in their original planning .
sible between greens and tees, but under certain circumstances it is more expedient to break this rule than to adhere to it . For often, where the property is rugged in type, a longer walk between the green and the tee makes it possible to obtain a good golf hole rather than a poor one . The holes should be so different in length, character, end architectural type, that there is no feeling of duplication . The three types of golf architecture penal, strategic and heroic--should be used in good proportion . In penal type construction, the traps guard the greens in bottleneck or island fashion . Here the average golfer must either hit the shot accurately or choose a club to play short in order to avoid the trouble which he would ordinarily find at his normal range . One or two holes of this type are usually sufficient in the composition of an 18-hole golf course, and should be the "short" or "drive-and-pitch" holes . The strategic type utilizes fewer traps, adroitly placed, so that any golfer can hit with his full power but must place his shots to obtain the most favorable results . The modern golf courses are designed with about 50 per cent of the holes strategic in type. This architecture adapts itself best to holes of 400 yards or over, the par-4 holes . The heroic is a blend of strategic and penal design . The traps or natural hazards, such as creeks, rivers, and lakes, are placed on the diagonal so that the player can bite off as much as he feels he can chew . The more he is able to carry, the more advantageous will he find his position for the next shot . This type of architecture is adaptable to all length holes, and should be utilized on 30 to 50 per cent of the holes of the course . There should be no blind shots for ap-
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES
Fig . 3 Double tees add greatly to the variety with little expense . This plan suggests interesting use of two tees on all holes except the first and eighth, to give unusual variety to a nine-hole course . The ninth hole allows the choice of two distinctively different layouts. This sort of arrangement calls for planning that usually is beyond the capacity of any but the experienced golf architect . The 12 rectangular areas at the bottom border of the plan are prospective homesites that make especially desirable residential property when the adjacent golf hole is so laid out that golfers won't be coming into a yard for out-of-bounds balls .
Fig . 4
Typical grading plan .
proaches, and blind shots from the tee should be kept to: minimum There should be a sufficient number of heroic carries from the tee, but the routing should be so arranged that the player, with the loss of a stroke, should always have an alternate route to the green . The character of the course should be so designed that during one round every club in the bag should be used . No stereotype design can be used, but the principles of the design have to be applied in accordance with the natural terrain and the location of the proposed green . On level or flat land a nine-hole course of 3100-3400 yards can be laid out in approximately 50 acres but it will be cramped . An 18-hole course of 6200-6500 yards or more would require at least 110 acres . This is a minimum, making the routing of the course extremely tight . Gently rolling land requires approximately 60 acres for 9 holes and 120 acres for 18 . Hilly or rugged land will require considerably more because of the waste land where the contours are severe ; at least 70 acres will be needed for 9 holes and 140-180 acres for 18 holes . Before starting the routing of the course all the natural green and tee sites on the property should be examined, and as many of these as possible incorporated in the routing of the course . Natural sites should not be passed over in routing the course in order to obtain a hole of predetermined length, unless the hole would fall within the undesirable length of 250 to 350 yards . The minimum length for a standard 18-hole golf course is 6,200 yards . A good average is 6,500 yards, and championship length is 6,700 yards and up . The short holes should range from 130-200 yards (par-3) and there
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES Main areas: Lounge Cocktail lounge Main dining room and ballroom *Private dining and party rooms *Card rooms
Supplementary areas: Entry Vestibule or lobby Men's and women's toilets and women's powder room *Porches and terraces Storage checkroorn
Lounge Fig . 5
Typical drainage plan .
are generally four of these holes, but there may be five . Par-4 holes should range from 350 to 470 yards, and there are generally ten of these. Par-5 holes should range from 471 to 550 yards and there are generally four of these. The length of the hole will be determined by the slope of the terrain and the direction of play, the natural features from tee to green and at the green site, and the desire to obtain a variety of lengths throughout the 18 holes. Fairway width generally is about 60 yards, but will vary depending upon the type of players expected to play the course, and the strategy of the play of the hole . A yardstick of fairway widths is as follows : 75-120 yards from the tee the fairway will be 40 yards wide ; 120-180 yards from the tee the width will be 50 yards ; 180-220 yards from the tee the width will be 60-70 yards. The fairways can then narrow again if desired to the next landing area if the hole is long ; that is in the area from 330-440 yards. The green sizes will vary from 5,000 to 8,000 feet depending upon the length of the hole and the length of the shot called for. The shape of the green will depend upon the strategy of the design, the location and size of the traps, and the length of the shot playing to it. Where the slope of a green is from front to back, the slope should not be more than five per cent, unless there is a break in the slope by a depression . If the depression is not too deep, the slopes of the depression can go from 10 to 15 per cent . The slopes on the approach of a plateaued green can run as high as 20 per cent . Mounds and slopes running from the surface of the green to the sides or back can run up to 20 per cent . The slopes of the traps in front or on the sides playing toward the green will run from 30 to 40 per cent . At the entrance of the traps the slopes should not be over 25 per cent so that the golfer's backswing can be taken with a full, clean stroke .
Golf Course Costs
There are four factors which determine more than anything else the wide range which one gets when trying to gather from all sources how much a golf course should cost . These are (1) the cost of land ; (2) the natural assets and liabilities of the land chosen ; (3) the labor and equipment costs in the area ; and (4) the type of design . (See Figs . 3 to 5.) Practice Area
In laying out the golf course it is well to have an area some 250 to 300 yds long, conveniently adjacent to the clubhouse where golfers can practice their golf shots.
Practice Putting Greens
If at all possible, there should be a practice putting green of considerable area near the clubhouse. This green should be surfaced with the same turf as the greens on the course, should be gently undulating, and is best arranged with nine or eighteen putting cups spotted about the green and numbered so that a player can putt from cup to cup in regular order. Tennis Courts
Tennis courts get a good play at most country clubs. An area of at least 120 by 50 ft should be reserved for tennis, or larger space if survey of tennis possibilities among users of the club indicates greater need of space. Children's Playground
Whether a club decides to operate strictly as a golfing proposition or to include the social aspects of country club life, it is a good idea to plan on a children's playground somewhere near the clubhouse.
By HAROLD J . CLIFFER, AIA
PRIVATE CLUBHOUSES
In private clubhouses functions break down as follows: social, golf and other sports, food service, storage, clerical and administrative offices, maintenance facilities, and on-site member, management and employee quarters . The individual components of these functions will vary from club to club, depending upon the size and class of operation involved . Components marked with an asterisk indicate those which are not absolutely necessary to a minimum operation . Social Functions
In the organization of clubhouse functions the social activities are normally accommodated in the following main and supplementary areas: Planning the Golf Clubhouse, National Golf Foundation, Inc., Chicago, 1967 .
The club lounge is really the stopping-off place for persons or groups waiting to participate in other activities as well as a passive recreation area . It is seldom occupied for long periods and should not be designed to provide seating for large groups gathering for affairs. As a matter of club economics, the space should be relatively small, not too amply furnished and accessible to the cocktail lounge . This acts as an inducement for people not able to find seating in the lounge to gather in the cocktail lounge and have a before-dinner or before-luncheon cocktail . Activity in the cocktail lounge is much more profitable from the standpoint of the management than having the lounge furniture warned by nonpatronizing members or guests . In addition to giving access to the cocktail lounge, the lounge should provide entrance to the dining rooms, men's and women's toilets and powder room, coat room and front desk, as well as to connecting circulation to locker rooms. If there is a demand among the club members for provision of passive recreational activities, a library, museum, trophy room, card rooms, etc., may be provided off the lounge proper . There has been some tendency in newer clubs to combine the lounge with the dining room . This has the unfortunate result of making the lounge into a dining room most of the time, and in creating the problem of constantly shifting furniture or in the accretion of lounge space by the dining operation, thereby reducing or eliminating the effectiveness of such a space. These spaces may well be contiguous, but some permanent full or partial division should be made between them to preserve the status of the lounge . The provision of a fireplace in the lounge usually generates the feeling of what has been termed "a more homelike atmosphere ." Whether a television set should be included in the lounge is a matter of club discretion . If a certain amount of quiet recreation is to take place in the lounge, then it would certainly be better for the television set to be placed elsewhere, preferably in the cocktail lounge or TV room, where it is an attraction and not a distraction . Bars end Cocktail Lounge
The bar and cocktail lounge are almost consistently the profit makers for the club . The main cocktail lounge should be provided in the social end of the building . A secondary and smaller bar should be located in connection with the "Nineteenth Hole" and/or the mixed foursome's grill. Portable bars should be avail-
*Not necessary to a minimum operation .
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES able for large parties and receptions as the occasion warrants . As mentioned before, the main cocktail lounge should be accessible directly from the main lounge for those who wish to enjoy a before-luncheon or before-dinner cocktail . There have been some attempts made to place the bar at one end of the dining room, but this has proven unsuccessful on two counts : the drinkers feel too inhibited about imbibing freely while exposed to the scrutiny of the diners, and as a result of too little patronage, the management has complained bitterly that the bar cannot make money in such a location . Costly remodeling has been occasioned as a result of the incorrect placement of bar facilities and the lack of recognition of the traditional habits of even the most casual drinker . Dining Rooms The main dining room should be designed to take care of the day to day service of the membership as well as the special functions of a more regular nature. This is where the information obtained from the membership survey or from the management will come in handy in determining the scope of the dining area . Once the type and degree of patronage of the dining functions have been determined or estimated, then space can be allocated to handle the traffic . The type of menu and turnover per table are customarily used in arriving at proper apace allocations for commercial operations . About 14 eq ft per seat is generally accepted as adequate in planning dining rooms for clubs. If a dance floor is to be provided, estimates as to proper size for this function should reflect the frequency and intensity of use for a typical operating year . Normally, the dance floor may be used to accommodate tables for regular dining . However, dining space must be adequate to handle seating for those occasions on which the dance floor must remain free ; otherwise a furniture moving problem is created which is both costly to the club and inconvenient to the members and guests. In addition to a main dining room for the day to day service of members, additional private dining rooms should be provided for the private parties which are or will become a part of the club's standard operations . Most club managers at clubs with over 300 members agree that an absolute minimum of two such private dining rooms are necessary, one to handle about 20 to 25 people, and one to handle groups of about 60 to TO people . Where two or more private dining rooms are provided, a pattern of flexibility should be considered such as using folding doors to make the spaces as adaptable as possible to a wide variation in the size of groups . Private dining rooms should be private in the truest sense of the word . To have them open onto other dining or gathering places in any way can be a source of irritation and embarrassment to a host, who may have invited certain friends from among the membership and not others, and to the guests who have to face their uninvited friends as well . To provide privacy for the club members during outside parties or business luncheons taking place in private dining rooms, these rooms should be accessible from the lounge or the main entrance . All dining rooms should be closely grouped around the food preparation center for the maximum speed and efficiency of service . Circulation to and from the kitchen in no case should be across public spaces . Circulation to private dining rooms should, insofar as pos-
sible, be directly from the kitchen and not through other dining spaces . Dining porches and terraces, like other dining facilities, should be convenient to the kitchen. A dining space in or near the kitchen area should be provided for the dining room and kitchen help. Supplementary Functions Ordinarily, very little needs to be said about the supplementary functions of entries and vestibules, toilets, storage and check rooms. Yet, a surprising number of newer clubhouses have overlooked these features either in whole or in part . One northern club with a new clubhouse neglected to provide a vestibule to shield its members from the biting cold of the northern climate. Another club in the midwest forgot completely to include a coat checkroom. And, if any problem is common in the field of clubhouse design, it is the failure to provide adequate storage facilities . This applies to storage in all areas of the club and is discussed in more detail in a following section . Clubhouse entrances, particularly in clubhouses located in climates which experience moderate to severe winters, should be designed with double sets of doors so that occupants of the areas immediately adjacent to the entrance are not subjected to cold blasts of air. In addition to providing more comfort, this arrangement also cuts down on host losses and reduces fuel bills. Provision should be made near the building entrance for a checkroom large enough to per. mit the storage of such items of outer apparel as are usual in the club's local climate . In addition, the checkroom should be large enough to hold a number of garments consistent with the size of the membership . Referring back to the programming in the previous section, the size of the checkroom and number of garments held should beer a direct relationship to antici. pated or known patronage. Occasionally, it is possible to make the toilet facilities of the golf section of the clubhouse available also to the lounge, dining rooms and cocktail lounge . However, it is considered better practice to keep these separate in order to be able to close off the locker room during social affairs. The number of fixtures required in the toilet rooms normally will be dictated by local codes end ordinances . Generally accepted standards for the number of fixtures in the social end of the building are as follows : Number of persons Number of water served closets 75to100. . . . . . . . . . . . 5 101to125............ 8 128 to 150. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 151to175 . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 More than 175. . , , . . . . . . Add 1 water closet for each 30 additional persons Where the number of men end women mem. bers is known, fixtures should be apportioned accordingly. In men's toilet rooms, 66 percent of the water closets may be replaced by urinals. Lavatories should be supplied at the rate of one for every four water closets and/or urinals . A women's powder room in connection with toilet facilities is generally provided, although it is not absolutely necessary. Golfing and Athletic Functions The following are the main and supplementary areas normally provided with golf and pool facilities :
Main areas: Men's locker room, showers and toilets Women's locker room, showers and toilets Pro shop Sales end display area Office Club end cart storage Club cleaning room Stock room Attendant's station shoo cleaning, clothes drying end pressing "Nineteenth Hole" or men's bar and grill Mixed foursome's grill Pool locker, shower and toilet facilities (boys and girls) Caddie house and caddie yard Supplementary areas: Entrance and vestibule from parking area 'Steam room and masseur's room 'Quiet rooms "Auxiliary card room 'Electric car garage Golf Facilities With a little imagination, the golf facilities section of the clubhouse can be made considerably more attractive than they have been in the pest . To say these accommodations often have been treated as an afterthought in clubhouse design would be an understatement . Locker rooms have been placed in dark, poorly ventilated basements, with exposed piping and ductwork overhead . Clubhouse Circulation The natural division of social and athletic activities in club operation is the key to clubhouse circulation patterns . One entrance should be provided to the social activities of the clubhouse, and one entrance should be provided to the athletic activities of the clubhouse from the parking area . Within the clubhouse, circulation from the social activities entrance should proceed in the following manner from entrance to vestibule to lobby to lounge or cocktail lounge ; from lounge or cocktail lounge to main dining room or private dining rooms ; toilets and powder room handy to lounge, dining rooms and cocktail lounge ; front office desk at lobby, offices behind ; coat room at lobby; kitchen centrally located for most efficient service to all dining areas; connecting circulation to golf facilities . Golfers should, first of all, have a separate entrance to the building and to their facilities so as not to interfere with more formal functions of the social activities and of the building . This entrance should be directly off the parking area . From the entrance, both men and women golfers should have access to their respective locker rooms. From the locker rooms, the golfers should be able to proceed to the pro shop either directly or via a corridor to check with the pro on the schedule of play, the status of foursomes, to pick up belle, tees, score cards, pencils, or some other special item of information or equipment which is needed . From the golf shop the golfer should be able to proceed directly to the first lee. From the ninth green the golfer should be able to reach the pro shop or locker room or toilets without a long hike . And, of course, the trip back to the clubhouse from the eighteenth green 'Not necessary to e minimum operation .
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES
Fig . 6
Two-floor scheme with intermediate-floor kitchen facilities .
should be as short and as easily negotiated as possible for the tired golfer . On the return trip to the clubhouse from the course, the "Nineteenth Hole," men's grill or mixed foursome's grill should be immediately accessible to the thirsty or hungry golfer . Circulation should be provided between the locker rooms and the social end of the house . Access to 100n-age facilities should be directly from the parking area without passage through the clubhouse proper . Shown in Figs . hand 7, in diagrammatic form, are three basic types of clubhouse schemes . They are intended to show functional organization only . Topography, space and budgetary limitationswill dictate which scheme is the most feasible in any given case . There may be times when a combination of these types is indicated . From these diagrams, the close correlation necessary between the course and site design and the building design should be apparent .
PUBLIC CLUBHOUSES Clubhouse buildings for the municipal golf course or the privately owned public fee course are so different in operation and accommodations from the clubhouse for private clubs that they really constitute almost a separate building type . While it is true that many public course clubhouses serve as the focal point for the operation of a local golf club, it is rare that the accommodations of these structures approach the scope and quality of those of the private club . Comparison of Private and Public Course Clubhouses Where the private club attempts to make provision for every conceivable social and athletic need its members can afford, the
public course owner or operator, whether a municipality or a private individual, has only one objective in mind : to provide adequate and accessible golf facilities for as many persons as possible at popular prices . This means that all frills and extra services are reduced to a minimum, consistent with a profitable operation . In short, golf is a business and a means of livelihood to the private owner of a public course and a combination business and public recreation service for the municipality, where the private club is usually a cooperatively owned and subsidized social and recreational facility for the exclusive use of the ownermembers . In the case of the public course, maximum turnover of play is of utmost importance from the standpoint of service to the clientele and profit to the owner, while at the private club, controlled play on the course is the objective, to assure the members available playing time without waiting or reservations . Moreover, social activities at the public course are primarily limited to socializing on the course and at the snack bar and generally little if any attempt is made, except under the rare and astute management of an occasional private entrepreneur, to provide social activities or dining facilities on or near a countryclub level . Another difference between the municipal and the privately owned public course operation is in the nature of the management . Of necessity the municipal operation must rest totally upon hired personnel or concessionaires, whereas the privately owned operation rests in the hands of the owner and his family and perhaps a minimum number of hired personnel . Fundamentally, this difference has no important implications in the design of these facilities, since it should be the objective of both types of operation to design and construct buildings which can be staffed with as few persons as possible .
Profits from public course operation are derived largely from green fees . However, most public course operators recognize the revenue producing possibilities of a snack bar, cocktail bar and golf shop . If properly designed and attended, these auxiliary operations can and do produce consistently good returns . The question facing most municipal and individual course owners is : what facilities should be provided, how big should they be and how should they be related? Methods and Criteria for Planning the Public Course Clubhouse Basically, the public course operator must proceed in much the same fashion as the private club to arrive at the proper size and type of building to suit his needs . The number of factors to consider are fewer but no less complex to analyze than in the case of the private club . Preliminary planning must be thorough, design must be attractive and efficient and construction must be economical . Elements of Clubhouse Design In a municipal course clubhouse, the essential elements of the design are the starter's booth, golf shop, food concession, lounge and public toilets . Locker and shower rooms may be incorporated into the design, although they are not necessary in all instances, and their use will depend upon local conditions . At privately owned public courses, the owner, in seeking to capitalize on his food operation, may actually increase the proportions of this accommodation to the extent that he has separate kitchen and dining facilities as well as a liquor bar or cocktail lounge . In privately owned operations, where the owner decides to go into an extensive food
Recreation and Entertainment GOLF COURSES AND CLUBHOUSES service operation, it is advisable for him, as suggested for private clubs, to call on the services of competent food service consultants as well as an architect. Before anticipating a large scale food service operation, however, the private operator would do well to assure himself that he is well acquainted with the intricacies and pitfalls of food service, or that he can obtain the service of competent personnel, concessionaire or catering service . One of the prime considerations in the design of public clubhouse facilities is that the functions be arranged in such a way as to allow for the multi-use of employees, or so that the owner himself may attend to several operations at once . Thus it should be possible for the starter to pinch hit in other operations, such as selling merchandise or food in slack periods. Or it should be possible for the golf professional to double as starter on slow days . Building maintenance is handled in a number of ways in municipal operations, but the most usual manner is that city maintenance personnel handle it . The private operator, on the other hand, either has to do it himself or hire personnel to do it for him . The more compact the facilities, the less overhead . As a general principle, the building should be designed so that as little labor as possible is required to operate and maintain the premises . Clubhouse Functions
In the case of the public course clubhouse, the functions break down in a manner similar to those of the private clubhouse, namely into golf and social functions, in which the social function is reduced to the simple elements of a snack bar and lounge . The golf functions are mainly the golf shop, starter's room and, in some cases, locker and shower rooms. Normally, the public course golfer will arrive at the course dressed to play with the possible exception of his shoes, which generally will be changed in his car . The question which often confronts municipalities constructing golf facilities is whether to provide shower, locker and lounge facilities, and if so, to what degree and in what manner they should be related to other activities . To establish what has been common practice along these lines, a study was conducted in which 38 communities throughout the country came up with some of the answers . Clubhouse Relation to Other Recreational Facilities
Very often, to combine all municipal recreation facilities in one central location, municipalities will integrate the golf operation with other recreational activities .
Fig. 7 One-floor scheme with (a) grade-level service entrance and (h) lower-level service entrance .
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
Site Selection
Whether or not a new indoor range is to be located in an existing building or in a newly constructed one depends greatly on the legal considerations of zoning and special use permits. Anyone planning to build an indoor range should first consult his local government for details of zoning, building codes, and special use permits. Some types of zoning will categorically exclude ranges of any kind ; others will allow ranges, but require annually renewable special use permits and/or inspections by the local police or other governmental agencies . Some zoning codes will permit a recreational facility in many different zoning categories . If the proposed range is to be operated on a nonprofit basis by a civic club, fraternal order, or a group of citizens organized for that purpose, the recreational status of the facility may permit a wider range of site selections . Once the questions or problems in zoning and permits have been resolved, the local building code should be consulted with regard to fire hazards, noise control, insurance liability, health hazards, restroom facilities, etc. This should complete the builder's responsibilities to the local authorities. Next, the physical site selection should be considered in light of (1) accessibility-is it accessible in all weather conditions? (2) Is parking adequate? (3) Can the range be made physically secure so that there can be no unauthorized use? (4) Are water, sewerage, and electricity available? If not, what coats are involved in obtaining them? When all of the site selection criteria are met, consideration may then be given to the decision to use an existing building or to construct a new one within the allowable geographical area . Use of Existing Building
The use of an existing building is usually the most economical way to develop a now indoor range. A number of factors need to be considered . First and foremost among these is space. The room in which the range is to be built should be at least 75 ft long for a 50-ft range. This allows approximately 8 ft (minimum) each for the bullet stop and firing line, plus a 9-ft assembly and spectator area . Emphasis is placed on the fact that the above dimensions are minimum . (See Figs . 1 to 3.) The width of a proposed range can vary depending on how many firing points are desired. Normal points for pistol are 4 ft wide ; for rifle, 6 ft . Rifle points 5 ft wide may be used if space is limited . Since most indoor ranges are used for both rifle and pistol, 6 ft should be allowed if possible .
Range Facilities Section, National Rifle Association, 1600 Rhode Island Avenue N .W ., Washington, D.C .
Once it is established that there is enough space to locate the range in the existing building, the following factors must be considered : 1 . Structural strength-can the floor or framework of the building support the weight of the backstop? A backstop of '/r-in . steel approximately 10 by 25 ft will weigh over 2 tons . 2. Doors and windows downrange must be permanently shut and covered with bulletproof material . 3. The walls, floors, and ceiling must either be bulletproof or be made so . This must also be a part of the structural strength surveysince adding material adds weight . A building which is built of cinder block or brick may be considered to have bulletproof walls for all practical indoor calibers . These are normally .22; .38; and .45 calibers . Wooden buildings should have wall protection of at least 2 in . of plywood. Wooden floors should be protected in the same manner, as should ceilings . 4. An air exhaust system must be supplied, and must be capable of a complete air change from 20 to 40 times per hour . The exhaust fan should be placed above the target line, with the supply to the rear of the firing line, so that combustion gases, lead dust, and other air pol. lutants are exhausted safely from the range area . If funds are available, a second exhaust duct should be placed just in front of the firing line so that the by-products of firing are exhausted immediately. In some states or local jurisdictions, an air filter on the exhaust may be required so that the contaminants are not exhausted into the open air. Construction of New Range Building
A new range building may be put up as a shell, and extras added as more money becomes available, or it may be put up as a complete recreational facility . For instance, it would be entirely possible to include an indoor range as a part of a bowling alley complex which could have a restaurant and other recreational facilities . However, regardless of the approach taken, the new building must meet all building code, zoning, and special use permit requirements as would the conversion of an existing building . In either case, it is strongly recommended that a registered architect be retained to draw up the plans.
DESIGN OF THE ACTUAL SHOOTING AREA
Once a suitable building has been converted to range use, or built specifically for that purpose, primary consideration must be given to the installation of a suitable backstop . Since the backstop is probably the largest single expense other than the building itself, it is worth spending some time in making the decision as to which type should be purchased . There are three basic configurations of backstops which are considered to be safe. They are: t . 45° plate with either water or sand pit
2 . 45" reverse plate with dry lead catcher 3 . "Venetian blind" type backstops According to the NRA Shooting Facilities Survey, the most common type of backstop is the 45` plate with a sand pit. It is also normally the least expensive to install, although maintenance may run slightly higher than for other types. The bullet pit should cover the entire area under the backstop, and should be a minimum of 4 in . deep . The pit should be mined of accumulated lead deposits on a regular basis. The cleaning schedule depends on the amount of use, but would probably average about one mining and sifting operation per month. The sand itself should be changed about once. a year, because of the unsiftable lead dust which accumulates in the sand . The inconvenience of cleaning a sand pit may lead to the consideration of a water pit. This requires a water supply and a drain, but makes cleaning the pit an easier task . The water pit has other advantages as it creates no dust, and thereby reduces any health hazard . The lead retrieved is much cleaner than that from a sand pit, and is therefore easier to use for reloading . Lead dust which falls into the water trap is easily flushed down the drain. Backsplatter occurs when a bullet strikes a hard surface. In the case where the surface is smooth, as a good backstop should be, relatively little backsplatter is redirected toward the firing line, and it travels only about 15 to 20 ft in small particles. Where the surface of the backstop is rough or pockmarked, the amount of backsplatter is increased greatly, and large particles can travel 25 yd or more with enough force to cause injury . This is reason enough to keep bullet traps clean, whether they use sand, water, or are of a patented variety . It should be emphasized that backsplatter is a physical phenomenon which occurs when any bullet hits any surface, and is of a much more serious nature if the bullets are made of a hard alloy than if they are of a pure lead .
Backstop Steel Specification
The type of steel which should be used for plate backstops has been a matter of discussion for many years . Different types of steel have been mentioned in reports and manuals, and it is entirely likely that most clubs have no idea what type of steel is in their present backstop . The previous NRA recommendation for the type of steel to be used in backstops has been SAE 1020 . This is too general a specification, as it deals only with the chemical content of the steel in question . In most forms it is too soft to withstand the constant impact of bullets for a long period of time . Since this specification was inadequate, a study was undertaken to try to determine what type of steel would be satisfactory, and what type of processing treatment would be both economically feasible and have a greater durability than any type of SAE 1020 . It was found that there is a suitable steel which, when processed properly, is of greater
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
Fig . 1 Fifty-foot indoor range with club room facilities . As shown : 10 firing points each 4 ft wide . Width of building is variable depending on size of club and number of firing points . Structural details should be determined by a local architect or engineer.
durability than SAE 1020 . It costs approximate . l y twice as much, but has a much greater life expectancy . U .S . Steel and Bethlehem Steel both have a specification which is available from warehouse stock. Other suppliers should be able to cross-reference this with little difficulty . The U .S . Steel specification is type T1 -A and the Bethlehem Steel is RQC-100-A . These are characterized by the following specifications : " ASTM type-A514, Grade B " Yield strength, minimum-100,000 psi " Tensile strength, minimum-115,000 to 135,000 psi " Elongation in 2 in ., minimum-16 to 18 percent " Reduction of area, minimum-35 to 40 percent " Brinnell hardness-321 This type of steel, since it is heat treated, requires low hydrogen welding practice in order to avoid impairing the performance of the material in the heat affected zone . Low heat inputs are also necessary . Further information on how to weld this material may be obtained from either U .S . Steel or Bethlehem Steel . The General Services Administration has written a specification for target backstop
steel in their bulletin PBS : 3-1395 (INT), and the above specified steels come closest to meeting that specification in steels that are easily available in warehouse stock . The bulletin also carries the following specification for construction standards of a 45 plate backstop : Steel plates supported by concrete or masonry should be anchored by expansion bolts or toggle bolts, as suitable for the construction, with flush countersunk heads, not more than 12 inches on center at all edges of each plate . Joints and edge lines shall be backed with a continuous 1/2 inch plate not less then 4 inches wide . Bolts shall pierce both facing and back plate . Expansion bolts shall penetrate concrete not less than 2 inches . Steel plates shall have milled edges at all joints . Joints shall be butted flush and smooth . Plates shall be free from buckle or wave after erection . Exposed edges shall be beveled at 45 degrees to a fillet approximately '/ , inch thick . There shall be no horizontal joints in any steel plate work . Welding shall be in accordance with the American Welding Society Code for Welding in Building Construction . Steel plate jointed at and supported on structural steel supports shall be spot 'aided to steel supports not more than 6 inches on center .
The 45` plate backstop should be at least in . thick for standard velocity .22 caliber firing only . For .38 caliber wadcutters only, a minimum of 'A in . thickness is suggested ; and for .45 caliber pistol, including hardball, 1/2 in . i s recommended as the minimum . It is recommended that the above minimum figures be exceeded wherever possible . Greater thicknesses are recommended for larger calibers, not because thinner steel is penetrable by them but because the greater impact flows the steel and pocks it more easily . This requires resurfacing more often, and a '/.-in . plate, for example, would soon need replacement . In order to avoid the unsightliness of an exposed backstop and pit, some ranges have a "curtain wall" installed . A curtain wall is simply a studded partition with'/-in . plywood on the outer face, which in turn may be faced with acoustic tile . Removable sections are built in the wall in front of each firing point so that cleaning the pit is facilitated . A curtain wall provides a dual advantage other than neatness and the ability to use the range as a multipurpose recreation room . It stops virtually all backsplatter (which occurs from any backstop of any type), and it helps to keep dust confined to that area behind the wall . The "venetian blind" type backstop is commercially available from several companies, and has the advantage of taking up about 40
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
Fig. 2
Indoor rifle range.
percent of the floor space required by any of the 45' plate types. It is more expensive, however, and should not be installed by anyone other than the manufacturer . The reason for this is that an improperly installed venetian blind type backstop can be dangerous as a generator of ricochets and backsplatter . The steel plates must be set at precise angles and the top lip of each ground off to a knife edge so that it does not generate ricochets . (See Fig . 4.) The so-called "reverse 45' plate" backstops are also commercially available, and because of their unconventional methods of catching bullets should also be installed only by the manufacturer . The safety of all backstops mentioned is equal if they are properly maintained. Shooting Booths Not Recommended The NRA does not recommend the use of shooting booths for the following reasons : They create sections of the range which are concealed from the range officer. Without visual contact with each shooter, the range officer does not have control . Without control, accident potential increases . They may create a careless mental attitude toward the handling of firearms because they separate the individuals using the range from one another, creating the mental attitude of being relieved of the responsibility to handle firearms in a safe manner . Booths can also increase the noise level to the individual shooter even if properly constructed because the muzzle blast tends to be reflected directly back at the shooter. In addition, booths dilute the feeling of being in real shoulder to shoulder competition, which is an important part of tournament shooting .
A Safe Range Interior A safe range should have walls, ceiling, and floor that are either impenetrable to the bullets of the firearms being used within it, or have internal baffling built so that the bullets cannot hit the walls or ceiling. Since the guns being fired normally on an indoor range are .22; .38; and .45 caliber, it follows that walls which are impenetrable to these calibers are adequate. If guns of higher power are to be used, additional precautions must be taken accordingly. It is not recommended that high-power rifles be fired at a conventional 45'' steel backstop because of the probability of penetration rather than deflection . Masonry walls of any type are usually safe in this case, even with the possibility of .44 magnum pistols being used . This type of wall should be relatively smooth and free of pilasters or other protrusions . If pilasters, etc., do exist, it is recommended that the surface of the wall be covered 3/4-in. plywood, at least in the area where the protrusions occur. The plywood should be laid on over standard furring strips so that in case the plywood is struck, the bullet is not likely to ricochet back out. The space behind the plywood acts as a bullet trap into which the bullet tumbles. If the plywood is flush against a wall, a bullet is more likely to ricochet back out. Wooden or plaster type walls on an indoor range should also be smooth and free of protrusions . They should be covered completely with at least 2 in . of plywood, attached in the same manner as described for a masonry wall . The nominal 2 in . of plywood can be two 1-in . thicknesses, or preferably three 3/4-in . thicknesses of plywood. The plywood will stop any of the standard .22, .38, or .45 caliber bullets which would normally be used . If a heavier caliber is to be used, tests should
be made to determine the protection needed . Floors which are over another room should be covered with at least 2 in . of plywood as described above for at least 8 ft in front of the firing line, and by at least 1 in . from there to the backstop, providing that .45 caliber ACP is the most powerful cartridge used in the range. Ceilings present somewhat more of a problem. Since some buildings are constructed using precast concrete, others with steel bar joists for roof or floor supports and still others with wooden beams, measures must be taken to eliminate any possibility of ricochet or penetration. This can be accomplished by the same thickness of plywood as noted above, and at the same distance from the firing line . Another and perhaps better way in which a high ceiling may be protected is by the use of plywood baffles, arranged vertically from the ceiling in such a way that the ceiling is not visible from the floor level of the firing line . They should not be more than 4 ft in depth. Baffles constructed in this manner will use considerably less material than covering the ceiling entirely, and have the capability of being used simultaneously as mounting for range lighting . They will also act as sound baffles, and if treated with acoustic insulating material as described later in this text, will be very effective in helping to lower the noise level within the range. (See Fig . 5.) Any service equipment that is exposed downrange of the firing line should be protected . This may include electric wiring, lighting, water pipes, heating and ventilation ducts and exhaust fans . All of these items should be protected by two thicknesses of 3/4-in. plywood backed by 12-gauge (0 .1-in.) steel. Flat metal surfaces parallel with the firing line should not exist. If such a surface exists, it should be covered with plywood as described above.
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
.
Fig. 3
GENERAL. NOTES. Walls at ends of bullet-stop should be protected from bullet splatter by 1/a" steel plates . Doors between firing line and bullet-stop must be bolted on range side . Arrange lights to have 40 to 50 foot-candles of reflected light from the face of the targets and 5 to 10 foot-candles of indirect light at firing line, Indoor reflector flood lights furnish good light on targets if fluorescent types are not used . Paint walls . ceiling and bullet-
stop a light tint of blue or green . Desirable target carriers may be purchased or made by the club "handy men " .If space permits, mount target carriers behind firing line on steel pipes or 4" x 4 -" wood posts running from floor to ceiling . Provide for drinking water and toilet facilities as well as for heating and ventilation of range areas .
A revolver gallery for the Minneapolis police department. (Caswell Target Carriers, Anoka. Minn .)
Range Lighting
Range Ventilation
Range lighting can be accomplished by use of either incandescent or fluorescent sources . The fluorescent type is more expensive to install, but is far more economical to operate and maintain . Fluorescent lighting is in wide general use, although it can induce eyestrain somewhat more quickly than incandescent lighting because of the higher ultraviolet emission . Whichever type is used, it should be of the indirect or diffused type . The intensity of the lighting should be rather high (approximately 75 footcandles), and there should be little difference in the intensity level throughout the range area . Under no circumstances should the firing line be dark or dimly lit . This can cause eyestrain . A dark firing line causes an enlargement of the pupil which results in a drop of visual acuity and a corresponding enlargement of the blur circle on the target . The lower edge of overhead lighting protective baffles should be high enough so that a shooter has no problem seeing downrange . Ideally, this would be no lower than 8 ft, so that there is as little "shut-in" feeling as possible .
One of the major hazards to health in an indoor range is the lack of proper ventilation . This condition exists on a number of ranges which are otherwise well designed . Air should always be exhausted away (downrange) from the firing line. The preferred spot for a single line of exhaust ducts is over the target line, so that the lead dust generated by bullets striking the backstop is taken out of the area as quickly as possible . If possible, a second line of exhaust ducts should be placed no more than 8 ft in front of the firing line, so that the combustion gases of firing can be taken away quickly . The combustion of smokeless powder forms carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane, and some solid organic material . All of these products are irritants and in enough concentration can make shooting unpleasant . In a poorly ventilated range, prolonged exposure can cause headaches and nausea, and can irritate eyes and respiratory passages . The major hazard of poor ventilation is the lead dust caused by the lead bullets striking the backstop . The maximum allowable concentration of lead acceptable for an 8-hour daily exposure should not exceed 0 .20 milligrams per cubic meter concentration . The reason that the lead dust is considered to be the major hazard is that lead is an accumulative poison in the body and is not excreted . The ventilation system should be designed in such a way that the total volume of air in
Range Painting Painting of the range should be done in light pastel tints with latex flat paint . Bland, pleasing colors such as beige or blue-greens should be selected .
the range is changed from 20 to 40 times per hour . A steady, positive flow of air toward the backstop at a velocity of 50 ft per minute is the acceptable minimum .
Noise Reduction
The discharge of any firearm creates a muzzle blast which has the capability of affecting hearing . Prolonged exposure to such noise levels can inflict permanent, uncorrectable hearing damage . A firearm that fires a bullet which is transonic (more than 1,140 ft per second) generates the characteristic sonic "boom" which because of its high frequency component is even more damaging to hearing . Even .22 caliber match bullets at times exceed the speed of sound at the muzzle, and this phenomenon is accompanied by the high whiplike crack which is sometimes heard in gallery ranges . Hearing damage, therefore, can result even from the .22 rimfire cartridge .'
Noise Reduction on the Range The walls, ceiling, and floors of a gallery range may be treated with effective sound absorbent materials . The wall area next to the firing line and the ceiling directly above and for 2 or 3 ft in front 'Ref .-Acton & Forrest-Noise & Hearing, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, April 1968
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
to BE.includedas ALTERNATE 45° BacKSTOP FOR ALL projects DETAI L AT j/8 " SCALE ONLY Fig. 4
IN LIEn OF SEE NOTE 9) .
"Venetian blind" type bullet trap.
General Notes on Fig. 4
l. Walls shall be 8 in thick; concrete or solid masonry units, providing minimum STC of 50. 2. Target range construction above or below occupied space shall provide minimum STC of 50 . 3. Floor shall be concrete . 4. Construction above target range may be one of the following types, provided requirements for fire-resistive construction of the project are met: (a) concrete flat slab or concrete slab and beam (b) open-web steel joist (c) concrete ribbed slab (d) steel deck construction For type (a) provide baffles at lights, beams, and other obstructions only . For types (b), (c), and (d) baffles shall be arranged so that only the baffle surface is visible from the prone firing position . 5. Information for each target range: a. Number of firing booths required . b. Positions required for target locations: 21'-0" ; 45'-0" ; 50'-0" ; 75'-0" ; and 100'-0". (If the 100-ft position is not required, locate the backstop at the 75-ft position and shorten the length of range accordingly.)
c . Minimum width of firing booth, if greater than shown. d. Type of target carriers required (bullseye, silhouette, oscillating) . 6. Structural fiberboard Flame spread : 0 to 25 NRC: .65 Size : 32 X 72 in (or as required) Color: Factory-finished white Installation : As shown 7. Provide waiting room, ammunition storage space, and toilets. 8. Ventilation requirements : Mechanical exhaust at plenums # 1 (35 per cent) and # 2 (65 per cent) necessary to maintain minimum air flow of 40 ft/min across the net open area of the firing booths . Exhaust capacity to be 110 per cent of mechanical supply ventilation . 9. Standard venetian blind trap is composed of 4 louver plates with total height = 7'-0" ±, and depth _- 4'-0" + Manufacturers' dimensions may vary from this requirement on shop drawings for nonstandard installations. For this alternate reduce length of range, if feasible without altering overall design . Otherwise, the additional 7'-0" should be added to the space behind the firing booths .
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES
N d
m
g s
C
e
C
d g
( ge 8 a
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND PISTOL RANGES Coefficients of Absorption" Coefficient of absorption Frequency Material Concrete block, coarse, unpainted . . . . . . . . . . . Brick wall, painted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brick well, unpainted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carpet with 40-ounce felt underlay . . . . . . . . . . . Heavy fabric 18 ounces per sq yd, draped . . Light fabric 10 ounces per sq yd, draped Fiber glass 2 in . thick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wood paneling, 3/8-in. plywood . . . . . . . . . Mineral fiber perforated tile, 5/8 in . thick (mounted to manufacturer's specifications in a #7 mounting) Ultraliner compressed fiber glass duct insulation, 1 in . thick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125 Hz
500 Hz
2,000 Hz
4,000 Hz
. . . .
0.36 0.01 0 .03 0.08 0.14 0.03 0.39 0,28
0.31 0.02 0.03 0.57 0.55 0 .11 0.94 0.17
0.39 0.02 0.05 0.71 0 .70 0 .24 0 .85 0 .10
0.25 0.03 0.07 0.73 0.65 0.35 0 .84 0.11
. . .
0.52
0.62
0 .78
0.55
. . .
0.30
0.69
0 .93
0.88
. . . .
. . . .
SOURCES: "Handbook of Noise Control," McGraw-Hill Book Co . ; Celotex Corp. ; Gustin-Bacon Corporation ; Architectural Acoustical Materials Performance Data . `Definitions of terms used in table Hz =- frequency of the sound wave in cycles per second Coefficient of absorption - percentage of sound absorbed by the given material of the firing line should be treated with mineral fiber acoustical tile, which is a better material for this area since fiber glass will tend to be loosened by muzzle blast and drift down onto the shooters . It will also collect unburned powder end, eventually, may create a fire hazard . Any maintenance painting should be done with a spray, so that the holes in the tile can be kept open . These holes are the effective sound absorbing part of she tile . Carpeting the firing line and any assembly area to the rear will help considerably . Carpeting in front of the firing line can accumulate unburned powder and thereby creates a fire hazard . The protective baffles described in the section on range interior can serve a dual purpose as Bound baffles, in that they help to break up the natural resonances which are Bo often Bet up in large open spaces . If the aide of the baffles facing the firing line is faced with an acoustic insulation material, they will help to absorb some of the unwanted Bound. The breaking up of large, flat, smooth surfaces (in a range) which can reflect Bound easily is one of the big factors in producing :Daily shooting area . There is a long list of sound-absorbing materials which have been used on indoor ranges . The coefficient of absorption in the table above represents the percentage of Bound energy which is absorbed by the surface described . The table clearly shows the greeter efficiency of soft, heavy materials with open-pored surfaces in the absorption of noise over materials with flat smooth surfaces . It also shows how ineffective building materials such as brick, plywood, concrete block, etc., are in the absorption of Bound. The greater absorption efficiency at low frequencies (125 to 500 cycles per second) of the mineral fiber tile is readily apparent . The superiority of fiber glass in roll form at the middle and high frequencies is also clearly indicated . The discussion above pertains to noise within the range itself, and to techniques which can be used to absorb Bound within the range area . There is another field of consideration in the noise problem. This is the problem of Bound transmission to the area outside the range. This noise escapes the range and annoys residents who have no interest in or connection with the range operation . Such noise will be e constant irritant to these persons, and for harmonious relationships with the community,
an effort should be made to reduce this noise to a minimum. Since Bound requires air for easiest transmission, it follows logically that the first corrective step is to block off any air leaks out of the range. It is patently impossible to seal off the range completely, but all doors can be weatherstripped, and, if necessary, a double door system may be installed (without the two doors facing each other) to form a combination entrance and Bound trap . Intake and exhaust of air should be accomplished through muffling chambers . The chambers should be maze baffled in a manner which requires the air to flow around corners. The muffling action thus achieved is very similar to that of an automobile muffler . If the problem of Bound transmission is acute, special measures may have to be taken in the layout and construction of the range. In planning and construction of an indoor range which is to be in a multipurpose building, it is strongly recommended that a competent acoustical consultant be retained . Target Carrier Systems
An indoor range can be run much more efficiently and safely if some sort of target troneport system is installed. A carrier system may be constructed of bicycle wheels and clothesline if funds are not available for anything else . On the other end of the expense spectrum, a completely automatic electrically powered system may be purchased from any one of several reputable target equipment companies . Regardless of what target handling system is selected, targets should normally be placed with their centers approximately 5 ft off the firing-line floor level for the rifle standing and pistol position ; and about 18 in . from the same level for the prone, sitting, and kneeling positions. Low target positioning is usually accom. plished by the use of a detachable extension rod on the target carrier. If registered tourna. ments are to be held on the range, provision should be made for attaching backing targets, since they are required for all NRA Registered Smallbore Rifle competitions . Although indoor pistol tournaments may be held without turning targets, it is strongly recommended that such targets be used . Even though this type of target holder is more difficult to construct then the simple trolley target carrier, it is still entirely feasible to construct using easily available parts.
An indoor range may be used for police firearms training . Usually the B27 target, or a reduction of that target, can be used or adapted to the standard target holder . There are special considerations for safety in police combat shooting indoors . Write NRA for further information. Range Equipment
Ranges will normally require accessory range equipment which provides a more comfortable and pleasant place to shoot, as well as helping to increase the safety factor . Gun racks should be placed in convenient locations, both to the rear of the firing line and in the assembly area . These racks should be constructed Bo as to allow the secure placement of match target rifles with scopes in them without danger of damage . Hand-gun benches should be provided on the firing line for pistol ranges . If a range is to be used for both rifle and pistol, removable or folding pistol benches should be installed. Trash receptacles of at least two types should also be provided-one for the spent cartridge cases, and one for other trash. Coat racks are a necessity . They can be placed wherever convenient in the assembly area or in a special room . Storage cabinets for target and miscellaneous items should be provided . A bulletin board should-be put up on a wall in the assembly area Bo that tournament scores and other pertinent information may be posted . Shooting mats are very nearly a necessity for an indoor range. They can be purchased from one of several manufacturers, or may be cut very cheaply from used rugs, rubber matting or other suitable material . Seating should be provided in the assembly area as well as in the area behind the firing line . Other Space Requirements
Auxiliary rooms which should be provided for if at all possible ere: - A secure room for stowage of guns and ammunition . This room should contain space for cleaning guns and a small shop for minor repairs . - An assembly and spectator ores within the firing range room, but separated at least by a rail, should be provided . If possible, the assembly area should be cut off from the actual firing area by a waist-high partition with glass above Bo that firing may be observed and conversation may occur without disturbance to the shooters . " A combination classroom and statistical office room should be completely separated from the range area . This will provide capability for statistical work during tournaments. " Rest rooms should be provided, and undoubtedly will be required by low. " A snack bar or restaurant is a very desirable addition to a shooting facility . In some instance*, this facility augments the range income. " An office for the range manager should be provided if not provided in the statistical office. " A coat room or locker room is a desirable addition to any sporting facility, and shooting ranges are no exception. " Last, but not least, a utility room containing furnace, air conditioning equipment, electrical switch panels, floor cleaning equipment, and Bo forth, should be provided for all indoor ranges .
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND CARBINE RANGES, OUTDOOR
Fig . 1
Small-bore rifle and carbine ranges .
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND CARBINE RANGES, OUTDOOR
Fig. 1 (coot.)
DANGER AREA PLOT PLAN
Small-bore rifle and carbine ranges .
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND CARBINE RANGES, OUTDOOR
LEGEND
TELEPHONE LOCATION + FIRING POSITION I TARGET FRAME d TARGET NO .
Fig. 2
Pistol ranges .
Recreation and Entertainment RIFLE AND CARBINE RANGES, OUTDOOR
AMMUNITION
Fig. 2 )cont.)
Pistol tangos .
DANGER AREA PLOT PLAN
DIMENSIONS OF AREAS IN YARDS A
II
CALISER .22 LONG RIFLE
I
250
CENTER FIRE PISTOL
1
160
CALIBER .45
I
160
MN.RADIUS OF SECTOR' 1,750 I, Boo
I,B00
1.
LIMIT Of SIDE RICOCHET AREA A IS DETERMINED BY MEASURING OUTWARD FROM THE END OF FIRING LINE (OR FIRING POSITION) AT A 25° ANGLE BEYOND THE LIMIT-OF-FIRE LINE, FOR A DISTANCE OF 1700 YARDS, AND BY MEASURING OUTWARD 5' BEYOND THE LIMITOr fIRE LINE AT THE OUTER LIMIT OF DANGER AREA (MAXIMUM RANGE PLUS DISTANCE B) .
2,
MAXIMUM RANGE OF AMMUNITION PLUS B.
3.
SUITABLE BACKSTOP DETERMINED LOCALLY.
Recreation and Entertainment SHOOTING RANGES, OUTDOOR
By WALTER L. COOK
TRAPSHOOTING
Trapshooting is the oldest of artificial clay target shooting sports . It is derived from an old live bird shooting game which originated in England in the latter part of the eighteenth century . A few years later, in the early 1800s, some English shooters formed a club called the "High Hats ." The name was derived from the fact that the gentlemen in the club used their discarded high hats to "trap" live birds . A high hot with a long string attached to it would be placed out in front of the shooter, and a live pigeon would be placed under the hot. When the shooter was ready he would tip his hat and the "trap boy" would jerk the string that would pull the hat from over the pigeon ; thereby, releasing the pigeon as a live target for the shooter. In the latter part of the nineteenth century glass balls were introduced as artificial targets for trap shooters . The glass balls were filled with feathers so that when they shattered the floating feathers would make it appear as though a bird had been shot . This was the evolution of artificial targets, and it was not long thereafter that clay targets were introduced. Actual space required for trapshooting is a site 100 yd wide by 300 yd deep . The trap is located midway of the short side and throws targets at varying angles from the five shooting positions . The shooting positions are located 16 yd behind the trap and 3 yd apart. Each firing position is 16 in . wide . Additional firing positions are located at 1-yd intervals up to 27 yd from the trap . These additional firing positions are used for handicap shooting . In handicap shooting, the persons with greater shooting ability shoot from a greater distance . When a target is thrown from the trap it rises from ground level to a height of 8 to 12 ft . It reaches its maximum height at a point about 30 ft in front of the trap, thus making it about 78 ft (16 yd plus 30 ft) from the firing positions located on the 16-yd line . The target will carry about 48 to 52 yd from the trap . The trap can be adjusted to control the throwing distance, and usually it should be set to throw close to 48 yd since this means the target will be moving slower and better scores will result . This is particularly important where shooting is strictly recreational . A trap-field layout is illustrated in Fig. 1 . It may be observed that targets may be thrown at up to a 47` angle away from the straightaway . The usual and recommended practice is to keep targets within an angle of 22 ° to the left or right of the straightaway . This will make for better scores and happier shooters . Layout
The Game A trap squad is comprised of five members. Each member of the squad fires at 25 targets to make a regulation trap "round ." Each squad member shoots five shots from each of the five firing positions .
Management Aids, Bulletin No . 35, National Recreation and Park Association, Inc., Washington, D.C ., 1966
With all five members of the squad lined up on the 16-yd line, each shooter, progressing from position one on the left to position five on the right, fires at one target . This procedure is repeated four more times until each has fired five shots from each starting position . The shooters then rotate to the right one position, with the shooter on position five moving to position one . This procedure is followed until the round is completed and each member of the squad has fired five shots from each position . While on the shooting line, only the shooter whose turn it is to fire has a loaded gun. The man to the right of the shooter may drop a shell into the chamber while the shooter is firing, but all other guns should be empty and action should be open . The usual trap gun is 12-gauge but it may be smaller. Any conventional action type will do for singles trapshooting . The shooting distances involved cause most trapshooters to favor guns with 30- or 32-in. barrels, full choke, and raised solid or ventilated ribs . Since in the doubles game, two targets are thrown at the same time, a gun capable of firing two quick shots is required . The American Trap Association rules specify that shot size shall not be larger than #7'h . Shot shells are not to be loaded with more than 3 drams equivalent powder and not more than 1'A ounces of shot . The appearance of the trap field can be enhanced by having the surfaces of the shooting stations and walks made of such materials as gravel, asphalt, or concrete . The walkways for the five shooting stations, extending from the 16-yd line to the 27-yd line, should have markers or painted lines placed at 1-yd intervals, preferably with yardage numerals indicated . WAS
Skeet Shooting
The short-range clay target game or skeet was originated by William Herndon Foster in 1926, at Andover, Massachusetts . It was designed to approximate field shooting at birds such as quail, grouse, dove, etc . In its beginning it was known as "shooting around the clock." The original layout had one trap located at twelve o'clock which threw targets over six o'clock . Shooters progressed around the entire perimeter of the clock shooting at various angles . Later a second trap was located at six o'clock permitting shooters to fire at the some number of angles while going halfway around the clock . This reduced the shooting zone in half and thereby increased safety . The skeet layout today is very similar . The targets are thrown from a high house and e low house located at opposite ends of a semicircle . The Layout The layout for the single skeet field is shown in Fig. 2. The minimum site for the actual shooting area must be 600 yd wide by 300 yd deep . The semicircle containing the trap houses and the shooting stations is located in the middle of the long side of the site . The site should face northeast or north if it can.
The two trap houses are 120 ft 9 in . apart . The high house is located on the left of the field and the low house is located on the right . Targets shot from the high house start at a point about 10 ft above the ground . Targets shot from the low house start at a point about 3 ft above the ground . Both traps throw targets at fixed angles . The lines of flight cross each other at a point 18 ft beyond station eight and at a height of about 15 ft . The average flight distance of a skeet target is 55 yd . There are eight stations on a skeet field . Station one is located at the base of the high house, on the left side of the semicircle . The next six stations progress around the semicircle, with station seven located at the base of the low house. Stations one through six are placed 26 ft 8'/, in . apart. Station eight is located at the midpoint of a line perpendicular from the high house to the low house. When electrical traps are used, the electrical control setup is located 12 ft to the rear and left of station four . Eight-foot squad boxes are located six feet to the rear of stations one through seven . A short gun pattern panel is desirable near the range to "sight in" a gun. If possible four skeet fields, side by side and touching so as to use common high-low houses, are desirable for economy of construction, ease of management, and as a necessity for holding large matches. As in trapshooting, the skeet squad is normally composed of five men, and 25 shots make a round for one person . In the course of a round, a person will shoot at targets thrown one at a time from both the low house and the high house. The shooter will also fire at double targets, one target being fired from each of the trap houses simultaneously . In a round, there are sixteen singles shots, eight shots fired at four doubles, and one optional shot . The sixteen singles are shot two at each of the eight stations . The eight shots for the four doubles are fired two each at stations 1, 2, 6, and 7. The first time a target is missed, the optional shot is used as a repeat shot . If during the round of 24 shots there have been no misses, the optional shot may be taken as a single fired from any station, usually from station seven. To begin a round, a squad moves to the squad box behind and to the right of station one. The first member of the squad moves to station one to commence shooting . Other members of the squad remain in the squad box with guns unloaded and with actions open . After the first shooter assumes the ready position with his gun et his shoulder, he calls "pull." Within one second a target appears from the high house. If the shooter is accurate or lucky he will break the target at about 20 or 25 yd from the trap house. After his first shot at the target from the high house, the shooter assumes his ready position for the target to come from the low house and then repeats the same procedure as for shot one. After the second shot from station one, the first shooter returns to the squad box and waits until the other four shooters have completed the same sequence of shots The squad then moves as a unit to station two The Game
Recreation and Entertainment SHOOTING RANGES, OUTDOOR Trap Field to repeat the same procedure. After shooting singles at each of the eight stations, the squad returns to station one to commence shooting doubles. The shooters conduct themselves iu the same manner as described for the singles . When the shooter calls "pull," targets are released simultaneously from the high house and the low house. The shooter fires first at the target moving away from him and then at the target moving toward him.
All gauges and types of guns may be used in skeet shooting . Since doubles are fired in each round, it is necessary to have a gun that will fire two shots in rapid succession . The shortrange gunning makes short-barrelled, openbored guns most popular. There are four gauge classifications in skeet championship events : (1) an all-bore event in which any gauge gun may be used but in which the .12-gauge is usually favored, (2) .20-gauge
event ; (3) small bore, using .28-gauge or 410 with 3-inch shells, and (4) sub-small bore, 410 with 2'/,-in . shells . No shot size smaller than #9 may be used in a match sanctioned by the National Skeet Shooting Association . Trap HOYSOS The trap house houses the target throwing equipment and can be constructed of many materials .
TRAP FIELD LAYOUT
SHOTFALL DANGER ZONE Fig. 1 Trap field . From Outdoor Sports Facif Nes, Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Washington, D.C ., 1975. Specifications for Trap Field Recommended Area Allow 16 acres for a single field . Shotfall danger zones of adjacent fields partially overlap and require only 3 acres additional land . Size and Dimension Walks and structures occupy an overall area approximately 100 ft deep by 65 ft wide . Minimum cleared area is a section with a radius of 100 yd (1 .7 acres) . Shotfall danger zone is a section with a radius of 300 yd (14 .8 acres) .
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the centerline through shooting station #3 to run northeast-southwest with the shooter facing northeast . Surface and Drainage Shooting stations are to be Portland cement concrete (PCC . Walkways may or may not be paved. Shooting area and 100-yd-radius minimum cleared area are to be turf . The 300-yd radius shotfall danger zone may be turf or water or left in natural condition, and the entire field should be located in a relatively flat area with an open background .
Special Considerations If shooting is entirely over land, there should be safety provisions for fencing, posting of warning signs, and clearing away of concealing brush. If shooting is over water, warnings posted on buoys or other signs are required, and the trap house should be back far enough from the water's edge to permit recovery of unbroken targets . Contact the National Rifle Association for information on trap house construction and trap machines .
Recreation and Entertainment SHOOTING RANGES, OUTDOOR Skeet Field
Fig. 2 Skeet field . From Outdoor Sports Facilities, Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1975.
Specifications for Skeet Field Recommended Area Allow 29 acres for a single field . Shotfall danger zones of adjacent fields partially overlap and require only 2 acres additional land . Size and Dimension Walks and structures occupy an area approximately 130 ft wide by 80 ft deep. Minimum cleared area is a semicircle with a radius of 100 yd (3 .25 acres) . Shotfall danger zone is a semicircle with a radius of 300 yd (29 acres) . Orientation Preferred orientation is for the centerline from station # 4 through station # 8 to
run northeast-southwest with the shooter facing northeast . Surface and Drainage Shooting stations are to be Portland cement concrete (PCC). Walkways may or may not be paved. Shooting area and 100-yd-radius minimum cleared area are to be turf . The 300-yd-radius Shotfall danger zone may be turf or water or left in natural condition, and the entire field should be located in a relatively flat area with an open background . Special Considerations If shooting is entirely over land, there should be safety provisions for
SHOTFALL DANGER ZONE
fencing, posting of warning signs, and clearing away of concealing brush. If shooting is over water, warnings posted on buoys or other signs are required, and skeet houses should be back for enough from the water's edge to permit recovery of unbroken targets . Contact the National Rifle Association for information on skeet house construction and trap machines .
Recreation and Entertainment SHOOTING RANGES, OUTDOOR Combination Skeet and Trap Fields
COMBINATION SKEET £t TRAP FIELD LAYOUT
Fig. 3 Combination skeet and trap field. For layout dimensions and details see Fig. 2 (Skeet) and Fig. 1 (Trap) . If paved, walks should be 4-in concrete reinforced with 6 X 6 in, No . 6 gauge welded wire fabric or bituminous .
Specifications Recommended Area nation field .
Allow 30 acres for a combi-
Size and Dimension All walks and structures occur within an area approximately 130 ft wide by 115 ft deep . Minimum cleared area is contained within two superimposed segments with 100-yd radii (4 acres) . Shotfall danger zone is contained within two superimposed segments with 300-yd radii (36 acres) .
Orientation Preferred orientation is for the centerline from skeet station # 4 through trap station #3 to skeet station #8 to run northeast-southwest with the shooter facing northeast . Surface and Drainage Shooting stations are to be portland cement concrete (PCC). Walkways may or may not be paved. Shooting area and minimum cleared area are to be turf. Shotfall danger zone may be turf or water or left in natural condition, and the entire field should be located in a relatively flat area with an open background .
SHOTFALL DANGER ZONE
Special Consideration If shooting is entirely over land, there should be safety provisions for fencing, posting of warning signs, and clearing away of concealing brush. If shooting is over water, warnings posted on buoys or other signs are required, and the trap house should be back far enough from the waters edge to permit recovery of unbroken targets. Contact the National Rifle Association for information on skeet and trap house construction and trap machines .
Recreation and Entertainment MARINAS
SITE PLANNING Orientation This facility should be located reasonably close to the water to expedite the dispersal of rental equipment and the performance of routine maintenance . However, careful consideration should be given to insure that the building is not located in an area subject to flooding or storm damage . The maintenance shop should have ready access to the water by overhead crane, mobile equipment, or paved launching
ramp to facilitate transporting the boots from the water to the shop for repair. The lounge should be oriented with a view of the water, but late afternoon and evening sun glare should be avoided if possible . Launching Area It is desirable to separate this activity from normal vehicular circulation in order to avoid congestion . This is usually accomplished by locating the ramp on a separate turnaround or side road. The ramp should be related directly
Fig. 1 Diagram of marine buildings . From Outdoor Recreation Facilities, Department of the Army, Washington, D .C ., 1975.
to the parking area with turnaround loop between them . The access road should be sized to allow another vehicle to pass . A paved ramp capable of launching two boats simultaneously should be provided as a minimum facility . The ramp slope should be constant and range between 12 and 16 percent . This should also include a tie-up area to be used for loading and unloading the boat without interfering with the launching operations . A minimum water depth of 4 ft is required to launch o boat from a trailer. An optimum guide
Recreation and Entertainment MARINAS
for calculating the number of launching ramps on small bodies of water is indicated below .
the correct sizing of docks and provide adequate maneuvering space .
. Water skiing-One boat per five acres of water. Assume that a maximum of 10 percent of total boots in water will be involved in water skiing . However, water skiing and fishing are incompatible activities in the same area of the water body . . Fishing or pleasure boating-One boat per two acres of water . . Canoes or rowboats-One boat per acre of water. . Each ramp can handle 40 launchings per day .
In addition to Vehicular Circulation and Parking the normal parking requirements, a parking area for combination car and boat trailer parking should be provided . Each space should be a minimum of 10 ft wide and 40 ft long . The total number of combination spaces normally should not exceed 30 percent of the total parking .
Docking Facilities Floating docks are preferable to stationary docks where fluctuations in water levels exceed 1 1/2 feet. Roofed docking facilities are preferred for rental motor boats in order to reduce weather damage and the maintenance time spent in bailing the boats . A sandy area is desirable for beaching canoes, skiffs, and small sailboats . This allows the boats to be turned over when not in use . If rental dock space is to be provided, a careful projection of the numbers and sizes of boats to be docked is necessary to insure
Fig . 2
Marina site diagram.
BUILDING PLANNING Building Levels and Construction A one-level building is preferred to accommodate the required circulation and room arrangement in the marina support building . Where topography requires,
however, a modest split in level can be planned by separating the boat-repair space from the rest of the building . Heavy flooring and framing will be needed for this space to permit storage of motors and use of an overhead crane . Relationships The sales/checkout Functional room should be located between the main entry and the access point to the docks . From this initial contact point information, tickets, and rental equipment will be dispersed . The sales/checkout room should have direct access to the general storage area, so that rental equipment can be easily removed and returned. The storage room should be related directly to the repair shop for access to equipment and spare parts . Restrooms should be easily accessible from the dock area .
Recreation and Entertainment MARINAS
By CHARLES A. CHANEY
CLEARANCES
General Clearances for any and all purposes within the offshore area of the marina should be considered as relative rather than as fixed values . When adequate water area is available, all clearances may be made quite liberal and limited only by the desires of the local boat owners and the financial ability of the responsible parties to pay for more extensive structures . The more serious problem of establishing proper clearances is faced when planning a marina for maximum capacity in a definitely fixed water area such as a frontage in a large municipality . In the planning of a marina it is necessary to consider clearances that are by nature in three different classes and for three positions or operations of boats. These clearances are as follows: 1 . Clearances in slips beyond the beam and length of the boat 2. Width of entrance and exit channels at the marina 3. Width of water area for maneuvering to and from slips It is the purpose of this chapter to discuss these three items and present data from which the necessary clearances and widths of waterways may be determined together with the reasons for the recommendations so made . (See Figs . 1 and 2.) Boatmen in various parts of the country evaluate clearances in different manners, and often a group is willing to make a larger initial investment to secure greater ease in maneuvering boats within the marina . The direction and velocity of prevailing winds and tidal variations in some localities may require larger clearance allowances to provide the desired measure of safety . Permissible clearances within slips equipped with traveler irons can be much smaller than those in slips providing cleats or rings only for the quarter lines. This is especially true when fluctuations in water level are more than about 2 ft . Neither the establishment of the amount of clearance necessary for a typical marina, nor even proposing a set of rules whereby these may be determined, is considered as practical. It is, however, entirely reasonable and within the scope of this article to set up some clearances as suggested minima, which should not be decreased in the interest of safety and ease in maneuvering of the craft. The minimum clearances would appear to approximate those given in the following paragraphs . Slip Clearances The clear distances between the sides of the slip and the boats berthed therein must be sufficient to prevent the boats being tossed or
Marina Recommendations for Design, Construction, and Maintenance, 2d ad ., National
Association of Eng ins and Boat Manufacturers, Inc., Greenwich, Conn .
forced against the sturdy timber construction, thereby resulting in possible damage to both pier and boat . Clearances are required for a number of reasons such as safety of operation in moving the boat to and from the slip, compensation for the amount of slack in lines due to rise and fall of water from tides and during storms and freshets, and the prevention of damage to the superstructure of the boat when the water is rough and some rolling and tossing of the craft occurs . While it is essential that sufficient clearance be allowed in each slip, it also is advantageous to the engineers that these clearances be held to a reasonable minimum as a means of conserving space in the marina . (See Fig. 3.) This thought can be made more impressive by the use of a simple example. Assuming that a group of 18 boats in slips are in a row along one edge of a pier, a reduction of 1 ft in the clearance on each side of each of the 18 boats would result in a gross saving in space of 36 ft . This would provide slips for two additional small-sized cruisers . The size of the boat to be berthed will influence the side clearance in the slip . Large boats, due to their momentum, are more difficult to handle in restricted areas than the small ones . It is reasonable, then, to allow more clearance for the larger craft. The dimensions given in Fig. 4 for the minimum clear width of slips are based upon side clearances varying from 1 ft for the smallest boats to 1 1,6 ft for boats up to 30 ft, and to 2'h ft for boats up to 80 ft in length . Figure 4, entitled "Dimension Diagram for Slips and Catwalks," illustrates several different arrangements of main walks, catwalks and slips and contains key letters, the values for which are given in Fig. 4. The controlling dimensions of this table assume the use of traveler irons and are typical only for the particular design of structure illustrated. No doubt other types of marina structures will be developed . In this event it is suggested that standards similar to Fig. 4 be prepared as a means of conserving the planners' time and standardizing the structures . These clearances and slip widths are considered sufficient for the sizes of boats given in the table when moderate tides up to 6 ft prevail and when the marine is in a location not subject to frequent storms with resulting high turbulent water. The engineer, in determining clearances and slip widths, should give consideration to the frequency and amount of high water in the basin together with other local conditions having a bearing on the subject. It is conceivable that these considerations will indicate the necessity for increasing the minimum slip widths and clearances recommended herein, and, as proper clearances are of primary importance for safeguarding of the vessels, the engineer should not hesitate in making any adjustments in these values he deems consistent with the conditions prevailing at the site . Figure 4 contains suggested dimensions for all spaces that combine to make up full slip width allowances and the lengths of catwalks . Boat beams are in accordance with boat builders' catalogs and conform to Fig. 3 . Slip
widths are based upon use of 2-ft-wide catwalks equipped with traveler irons. When 4-ftwide catwalks are required, whether of the fixed or floating type, add 1 ft to the gross width of each slip . Throughout this article the figures used for beams and lengths of boats are intended to include all items such as bowsprits, fishing pulpits, tenders that project beyond the hull, etc. Slip lengths are 3 ft longer than gross boat lengths. Catwalks when not required to be full length of the slips, are usually two-thirds the length of small slips varying up to a 34-ft length for boats 50 ft or longer .
BUILDINGS
General Comment The preceding dealt with the arrangement and construction of those parts of the marina which are along the water's edge or are built over the water for the accommodation of boats and the convenience of the boatman in performing his chores . The fixtures on shore comprise his headquarters, office, place of contact with fellow boat owners and his medium for relaxation . The buildings constructed on the grounds of the marina constitute one of the main features of the harbor, and while they are primarily to serve a practical purpose, their importance demands that full consideration be given to the style of architecture, the design, and materials used in their construction . Due to the prominence of these structures on the site, well planned buildings of appropriate style, located in carefully arranged and landscaped settings, will add much to the charm of the marina . The development, in every way, should become a source of pride to the community . From the viewpoint of the management, the shore installations, including buildings, shrubbery, trees, grassy plots and even the chairs or benches provided, take on a different significance. The great majority of visitors who approach the marina from the water probably are affiliated with some distant club or organization . On the other hand, many of the visitors from the landward approach and people passing along the highway adjacent to the marina may be potential future boat owners even though they may not own boats nor have more than a layman's knowledge of boating. It is logical that the first step toward their ultimate entree would be the presentation of a well arranged building or group of buildings in a pleasingly landscaped setting with an expanse of tranquil water in the background . Most people enjoy the beauties of nature and the artistry of man's handiwork . A pleasant setting may stimulate their interest in boating and small additional investment for beautification will pay large dividends in attracting new patrons who seek recreation afloat. Conditions controlling the uses to which buildings are devoted, their size, design, type of architecture, and even the materials of construction, will not be constant throughout the
Recreation and Entertainment MARINAS
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Recreation and Entertainment MARINAS garding space allowances in some buildings that may serve as a guide.
marina
Social Activities and Administration Buildings
Buildings of these two types are strictly for the purposes of establishing the relationship between the marina and its patrons, conducting the business of the facility, administering to the needs and desires of the individuals and providing for the convenience and relaxation of the boatmen and visitors . Figure 5 shows one possible arrangement for a social activities building . This may be separated from other marina commercial activities such as sales and repairs . The building should be arranged and equipped for the conduct of such social functions as are compatible with the particular region . Refer to the table accompanying Fig. 5 for space allowances used elsewhere in social activities buildings . Administration buildings, both existing and planned, vary so greatly among marina sites that a suggestion as to room arrangement is considered inadvisable . They frequently consist of only an office, toilet rooms, furnace room, watchman's headquarters and a large lobby or lounge that may be used for group assemblies as required . Sales end Service Buildings
Fig. 3
Required slip widths for various boat lengths. (See Fig. 4 for further data and details .)
country, so ,a standard set of rules or recommendations cannot be suggested . An architect familiar with the local requirements should be employed to study the site and prepare plans for such buildings as are necessary in carrying on the activities of the marine . In planning, a comprehensive scheme should be worked out covering present requirements and allowing for a reasonable amount of future expansion. When a well developed scheme based upon serious study of the problem is adhered to, future expansion becomes more practicable, less expensive to accomplish, and the ultimate development will be convenient and attractive rather than a conglomeration of poorly styled and located buildings which might otherwise result . The following paragraphs contain suggestions relative to styles of architecture, uses for buildings, designs and materials of construction . The amount of floor space to be provided for the various activities in each of the buildings at the marina must be determined by local conditions and requirements . Several drawings
in this article show plans of buildings in the onshore areas of marinas. Floor Space Allocations The success of any marina, whether a private club, municipal or a commercial organization, is measured to a large extent by the opinion of the patrons as to the facilities furnished for the transaction of business and for their convenience. The buildings may be judged by the same yardstick ; that is, satisfaction that a reasonable . or justifiable amount of floor space has been provided for each of the activities involved . It is recognized that ideas differ greatly between any two communities and that operations may vary even between two marinas in the same vicinity . It would, accordingly, be unwise to adhere to a fixed rule on space allocation in buildings at marinas. However, the following paragraphs provide some comments that may be acceptable to the planner subject to modification to meet local requirements . Figure 5 also records data re-
Very little basic information, serving as a precedent, can be offered the engineer or architect for use in determining either the arrangement or the size of the sales and service building . These buildings must be proportioned to accommodate the amount and types of work expected to be performed. Basically, a marina is not a boat building or repair yard, although it is often necessary or desirable that a certain amount of repairing be carried on within the marina, particularly when no responsible repair yard is at hand . Boat repairing done within a municipal or club marina generally is of a minor or emergency nature . On the other hand, repairing of boats and engines is one of the usual functions of the commercial type . The repair facilities, as well as sales accommodations, are accordingly more generously proportioned for the commercial than for the other types of marinas. When repair work must be performed outdoors, rules should be enforced to maintain the area in a neat and orderly appearance . Most repair and conditioning work seems to occur in the spring and autumn, when large numbers of boats are being fitted out for the oncoming season or being laid up for the cold months . It is very difficult to judge in advance the amount of work of this nature which may be expected at any one time, since an abrupt change in weather can result in a sudden avalanche of business . Capacity should be provided for hauling at least one large and one small boat at the same time . It is suggested that the repair shop of the municipal marina be arranged for the servicing of boats up to 36 ft in length . Facilities of the commercial marina should possibly accommodate boats up to 50 ft long . If no other repair facilities exist in the community, it might be advisable to increase these lengths. The shop space, in addition to accommodating the boats under repair, should provide for the storage of parts and for necessary power tools and adequate room for the use of special handling or other mobile equipment. The front part of the service building can readily be partitioned off with a she- window and used for the display of boats and equipment to be sold . Floor area and headroom re-
Recreation and Entertainment MARINAS
DIMENSIONS
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