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THE HYDERABAD LITERARY SOCIETY Call No.
il^l'S/P 5 "^'*
Accession No.
!
\
Author Title
This book should be returned on or before the date
last
marked bdow.
HIGHER PERSIAN GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF THE
CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY SHOWING
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFGHAN AND MODERN PERSIAN WITH
NOTES ON RHETORIC
BY LIEUT.-COLONEL
D. C. PHTTJ^TOL^-M.A
PH.D., F.A.S.B.,
Late Secretary, Board of Examiners, Calcutta, Translator of
the,
*
Baz-Nama-yi Nasiri,* and
Editor of the Persian Translation of
and
l
Hajl Baba
etc.,
of Isfahan*
of the
CALCUTTA
:
FEINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, CALCUTTA, AND PUBLISHED
BY THE UNIVERSITY. 1919.
PREFACE. THIS work
intended mainly as a book of reference, and for this purpose is printed with a copious index, It has been written chiefly for those students who have learnt, or are now studying, Persian in India. It is
should be borne in mind ^hat considerable differences exist between the Persian of Afghanistan diction
but also
J
and
of Persia, not only in pronunciation
in construction.
trated in this work.
It
is
Many
of
these differences are
illus-
hoped that the notes on composition and
rhetoric will prove especially interesting to Indian students,
whom
and
many
of
have to study Persian through the medium of English, and it is have been treated from an English
for their benefit that these subjects
These notes, however, are not intended to supplant the study of Arabic or Persian rhetoric, but merely to supplement it. point of view.
The author, not being a
made no a/t^npt
poet, has
to deal with
>*.
Prosody.
4
In writing this grammar, the works of Plaits ,* Ranking, Rosen,
Chodzko, Haggard and Le Strange, Tisdale, Socin, Thacher, Wright, and others, including several works in Urdu and Persian, have been My acknowledgments are specially due to Agha freely made use of.
Muhammad Kazim ers,
and
who has
Mahmud
in seeing the
assisted throughout
to
also
Shirazi, Persian Instructor to the
his
Jilan!,
brother-in-law,
and other Persian
The addition
of a large
the
late
Board
of
Examin-
work through the
8hatns"'l-'Ulama*
Press,
Shaykh
friends, for constant advice.
amount
of Arabic (viz. portions of the
Qur*an, the Alif Laylali and other Arabic works) to the Persian Course
has necessitated a far larger amount of Arabic grammar than was anticipated, a task for which I felt myself by no means competent. This portion of the work has grown much beyond the limits originally set for
'Ulama*
it.
thanks are chiefly due to Shams" 7Yusuf Ja'farl, Khan Bahadur, Head Maulavi of
In compiling
Muhammad
it,
my
the Board of Examiners, to Shams'
and
to Maulavi
Hidayat Husayn
of
1
7-'
Ulwn&* Shaykh
Presidency College,
^\
means in modern Persian, for instance, ta mlz " order, medal," )& "stomach," imtiyaz ^ULcf 1
Mahmud and
" clean,
dimagh
JilanI,
others,
U> "
who
nose,"
PREFACE.
IV
helped
me
throughout
King, C.S.I., of Dublin,
its
compilation
who
;
and
also to Professor L.
assisted in revising the proofs
White-
and at whose
suggestion numerous additions were made.
Owing
War and the consequent loss of manuscript} and and to other unfortunate causes, this work has been unissuing from the Press.
to the
proofs at sea
duly long in
D. C.
CAIRO
March
:
1918.
PHILLOTT,
Lieut. -Colonel
TO
THE HON'BLE
MR. JUSTICE
ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE,
aS.L, D.L., D.Sa, F.A.S.B., F.R.S.E., VICE-CHAN CELLOR'I OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY, CHAIRMAN OF THE
TRUSTEES OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, t
DEDICATE THIS BOOK,
IN RECOGNITION
BOTH OF PERSONAL FRIENDSHIP
AND OF THE SERVICES HE HAS RENDERED TO ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP.
TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART
I.
CHAPTER
T.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. Page ..I
Sec.
1.
The Alphabet
,,
2.
Pronunciation of Consonants
,,
3.
The Short and Long and Dipthong Vowels
.,
4.
Ilnmza and the Short Vowels at the beginning of words
,,
5.
The letter a (at the beginning Jazm or 8ukun
.,
.,
M , t
,,
6.
Ta*h bar that distinguishes g from Jc is generally omitted. This puzzles a beginner. It will be noticed that the body of these four letters is identical with that of Arabic letters,
and that the only
They
distinction
are adaptations of
peculiarly Persian sounds as letters 6
v
~
new
is "
by tho
marks.
diacritical
^*
Persians do not always regard the letters but occasionally represent them by the Arabic
J
ant*
" is they resemble; thu* ^**f "horse frequently written v** !. The four letters purely Persian are enumerated in tho school rhyme: 9
^- ^j ->
6
J^ w
-
j
^j wy ,^
^
.
f& I
These eight letters are enumerated in a school rhyme:
The Urdu or Hindustani alphabet contains three more letters to correspond with three sounds, found in words of Hindi or Sanskrit origin; it thus consists of thirty-five letters.
THE ALPHABET.
common
both
to
languages.
somewhat according
The
3
form of many of these
letters
varies
to their position in a group of letters.
In addition to the Alphabet, there are three vowel signs, which, if written, are placed directly above or below the consonants to which they
which they follow in enunciation in writing, but are sometimes inserted in belong,
i.e.
beginners.
:
in practice they are
books
printed
omitted
specially for
1
There are also certain orthographical signs, a knowledge
of
which
is
necessary.
The following table should be studied, in conjunction with the remarks that follow and elucidate it. The greater number of the letters are by Persians 2 pronounced as in English:
Qur'ans are printed or lithographed with all the vowel-points and orthographical it is considered a sin by Muslims to mispronounce a syllable of the sacred text. if not of the editions printed or lithographed in India this, mo^t, all, Notwithstanding 1
signs, as
have. numerous orthographical errors. Inserting the vowels and signs adds considerably to the cost of production. The State edition of a Qur'an printed and published in Turkey, and said to be letter perfect, is sold in Baghdad at the rate of thirty rupees, 2 a copy a similar edition, but printed in the Roman character, would probably be sold for five Blullings. The Arabic character, beautiful to look at, is an enemy to printing and an enemy to the diffusion of knowledge. i.e.
:
The written character of a language is merely a collection of conventional signs, a mere mechanical device used to give it expression. The Arabs have already changed their alphabet once.
Many Muslims object sider mutdharrak. 2
Vide
(k)
to printed or lithographed Qur'ans,
The Persian Shrahs however do not seem
page
10.
which they do not con-
to share this objection,
THB ALPHABET. OS '
1 09
S
I S C3s
rS
g o a
3bO
8 v o a o a QQ o
d .S
o-
O
Q*
,
d
-oaid
jo tn
JU
H
:
I
g i
1 8 8. ar.
!-
2
THE ALPHABET.
1 s
I
3
.3
*
"
'S.
Z .g
P
'3)
a
I I M
"
I
.a
.3
.3
o
.g
.g
*
A CO
S
S
OO
4?
r
4 .*
^3
tf
J
7
-
\
_D-
^
%
x
-5
i
b
It*
P
Nl
e
i!2
W-
"*
N3
J=
o
1
I|IS
S
3-
\
x
-if
s
4
*2
\\ H.
*-
I
I
l
10
co
4
ft
4
00
^3
^
-^
"~*^
2
r/:
CD
O c p o
o
-i?
^ !
o
Hi I
*S
c
3 that
oj^
Sometimes also 3
and
,
letters that
have only an imperfect resemblance, such as
are included in this term.
* whose names are palindromes && ) (and these are all formed by three consonants) are called Maktubi ( If, however, the first and third letters of the anagram differ, as in fim
(h)
Those
letters as
mlm.nun aud
vav
1
t
qaf, etc.,
the letters are styled Malfuzl
(
u&j&o
Masruri ( A*J/ tiJf , in which
THE ALPHABET.
10
Dotted
letters are further
above, and tahtam
Dotted
^U^j
(
subdivided into jawqam (' ) and musallasa ( marked by one, by two, or by three dots. of transliteration in the present work is practically (j) The system the Hunterian system. Modifications are q (instead of k) for before a quiescent b or p for the final Arabic vowels, a small a, i, and u,
the epithets muwahhada
)
(
?
according as they are
!
:
written above the line, and a small cases where s-h t ween
A
them. Ex.
final
C5"
(
or
literated
"
self
and
by " and
^
;.
The ya
nun of the tanwn. In the rare a mark or comma is placed be.
for the
z-k are separate letters,
" blossoms." " asjiald^l more or most easy ", az,har )tej\ A silent j as in
" thou "
y
n
or the
it is
,
hamza
transliterated u. Cl
of the
of unity ". etc., or of the izafat, are
ya
transliterated as pronounced.
Hamza
in Arabic words
Remark
is
shown by a hamza
In some Arabic words the
,
as in fcfida.
prolongation is omitted, but expressed by fatha written perpendicularly over it: thus haza 4< this" is I.
alif of
f
}
always written \&A or at end of j and ^.
!^A
.
and d+**j
usually in Arabic eJ-*^
is
;
vidz a ^ so
In Persian, an alif that is not mamduda or 'prolonged', *' abbreviated ", by Indians incorrectly called maqsura or though this latter term is properly applicable only to a final! and & vide under letter ^.
Remark
II.
as in e>i^j^,
also
is
^^
:
(&)
It
by
t9
be seen in the table that there are two letters
will
transliterated
by
and three
i
&
h, four letters -
^*
-
^o ) by
sounds, but the modern Persians
(
s.
i
-
^
-
j
and &
In Arabic
make no
tion of the various letters in each group.
ail
}
by
z,
(
two
and
^ (
o
*
)
- J> ;
these represent different
distinction between the pronunciaA few pedants and poets affect
the Arabic pronunciation, generally that of Baghdad. (I) Certain letters, especially at the beginning of words, are frequently placed, not alongside each other, but above one another this is the case :
in combinations with
it
^
-
-
-
-
^
.
2 (m) In the case of a change in letters' as fil J* Ar., from ptl JAJ, P., will be found that a labial is changed into another labial, a dental into a
dental, etc., etc.
l
There are
five labials^
-
(
o y and
'
J^'
5
tabaddul-i-huruf.
-
*->
THE ALPHABET.
11
Something similar occurs in the permutations of weak consonants, a vowel (English) being usually changed into a vowel. Sometimes, however, a palatal becomes a lingual, as in (#*- and
^^
' '
China "; Jtf and
-4K/.
"squint-eyed."
Pronunciation
2.
letter
^
(m.c.)
(talaffuz
i!3)
of Consonants.
The Persians, unlike the Arabs, look on alif as an original ^ or> If it commences a word, it is to be re-
(a)
and not as born from
garded as having no sound of
itself
;
it
is
(written or understood) that accompanies it: If it occurs in the middle of a word, it
merely a prop for the vowel 4 (6). 1 vide under
is a prolongation of the short vowel fatha and is transliterated by a, irrespective of its modern pronunciation. In this position most Arabs, Indians, and Afghans pronounce it like a in father Ex. V UT Utah " a book " some Persians and some Afghans would pronounce this more broadly, like a in "ball." This broad pro'
'
;
:
f
nunciation
characteristic
is
of
the
tent-people
and
of
certain dialects
in Persia.
In the Ears dialect, a before n or m is nearly always pronounced like u ; 99 Ex. e>&> " a shop " is duJcun f
"that"
compounds are generally pronounced as though spelt nun e^ 5 etc. " is In many cases the aUf is pronounced broad thus bad lt wind pro-
&
;
nounced nearly like bawd, the alif being given the sound of a in the English word jail. 8oine Afghans too have this broad pronunciation, but the Indians In Persia, always pronounce the aUf like a in the English word father. if this last however, pronunciation be used, the word will be taken to mean **} ba*d ** after *, and even an educated Persian will be puzzled by it,
In Khimlsan, on the other hand, the j is turned into alif; Ex. andaran " " " blood/' e?jM for C>M the women's apartments ; and khan e>^ for &}** For the pronunciation of alif with a hamza (I) in the middle of a word, vide under a in this section.
Remark
I.
Alif in arithmetic represents the
and almanacs,* Taurus and Sunday.
1
In this case
it
is
number one ; and It also signifies
in astronomical tables
an unmarried man.
usually called hamza, to distinguish
it
from
alif as
a letter
of prolongation. *
There are two kinds of almanacs, taqvlm-i Farsl t$**r 5 *> which the days, etc.* fdj^* and in full, taqvim-i- ruqiiml (H^ which signs and the letters of the
are written in
Abfad
\ cM "the equinoctial line":
^
alif 9
ba
(e
the alphabet/' etc., etc.
Remark
Alif-i rabita
This
junction ", or
style this alif-i vast
(
%ao &*>
as,
ready-money bargain)."
also
is
alif
alif-i inhisar
JLaj ^-
^
*$\\
metre
of
alif-i nida*,
+jZx** ii^^
friend."
U'i^ l^S
Verses written on the
)
beginning of certain Persian
and also the alif
uftJ,
of excess
alif
of embellish-
)
(12).
*xJU
& ^ci^ or ta-yi muhmala ^tU^c ^^. It is a contraction for either of the months Rnbi'. It is sometimes interchanged
o
with (for suz 3r*) with^; as, gurljA &/ (for gunzjtjS } with 5; as, with - q.v. Zi j ) is a poetical contraction of i?/a$ (for ^?/a^) ;
;
(
;
the preposition
j ZA
changes with Si
^ $
J*
/am
called ^a-?//
u*;!*
q.v.
^(3,
It is
or 20-^1
c
a;ant
4^+^ ^3-
It inter-
pronounced as j in French jour or as s in
measure." called sin-i ghayr-i
manqula *kj&* j** ^*, and sin-i muhmala sometimes with J^ as, kustl ^L3 (for
It interchanges
&l*y* ^xvo.
;
f
j
kardd l
^
(Past Part.); khub-tarin " the best, most beautiful," etc., etc.
" better " wij
v^
The accent does not
Remark.
Ex.: darakhtan-i bagh
fli^ or
i(*
^^ 4w
darakhthd-ra t;l^;i
(6)
Exceptions are
(1)
For the sake
fall
on the
;
bihtdr
nor on the affix !;. garden"; darakhtdn-ra
izafat
''the trees in the
to the trees."
:
emphasis the accent
of
falls
strongly on the
first
syllable of all imperatives, negative or otherwise, (frequently with special " bi-lmn "do thou Ex. y&j* Mr-dar "take away"; ; stress). " " " " do **&* md-kurild don't do bi-ravand m&kun, bi-kunld ye ;
il
&*
^
"
them go (2) The accent
let
H^
&&
:
;
;
kunam "
bi
on the
falls
junctive), of the Present,
and
+& kunam, affirmative. " I am doing, JXxx> mi-kunam Ex.
:
let
^^
me do."
first
syllable of the Aorist (or Present Sub-
whether negative or do, shall I do," etc, :
of the Imperfect tenses,
^
bi
kunam
(t
I
I will do, etc."
may ;
" I was c^ft* ml-kardam
doing, etc." ^**> ndnn-kwiam; ?&&+* tidml-kardam. ^ ta na-gffi , the accent seems to fall on the 5 In the phrase the on than rather negative in i^*& % ta na-bim it seems to fall either on ;
^>
:
the negative or on the
first
syllable of the verb
(bi).
Afghans and Indians
$ go*e.
say
Should these tenses be preceded by a preposition that is part of the i.e. on the preposition. verb, the accent still falls on the first syllable,
Ex.
:
/*;iM'
(*JJT*+*>>
(3)
c
^ bar mi-daram " I
will
take
it
away
"
:
^!H^y bar nami-daram
In the Preterite (except when
it is
negative), the accent is
penultimate of all persons except the third person singular,
dmadan
;
ddr nami-ravam.
is
amada "prepared" has the accent on amada karddn is used instead.
obsolete
;
when
it is
on the
on the
the second syllable: the infinitive
ACCENT.
46
" " I asked": Ex.: f**j$ pursidam you *jj>^y' farmtidid " " we but etc. &*1* dddand "they gave": p*& gujtim said, " he " he asked " ordered," etc. a^i farmud H~^ pursid (4) In negative Prets. the accent falls on the negative unless preceded
last
syllable.
" ordered
:
;
:
,
by a preposition, as mentioned in (6) (2) in the latter case the accent falls on the preposition. Ex. aU*| uftdd " he fell," ^a^ ndyuftad " he did not fall," but ^UijjJ j* ddr na-yuftad. ;
:
The
(5)
hd-yash
"
affixed
his trees
Ichil-ishan
; *
their
pronouns do not take the accent.
"
c^t^ kitabhd-yitan
:
income":
o**|
((
Ex.
bas-i-tdn ast
ejlxy**
:
your books" "it
t^lt-i^ darakhti^likft** madd* :
is
sufficient
for
you/'
The accent never
(6)
falls
^
on the
of unity
]
[but
it
may
fall
on the
demonstrative ^J.
^
and formed from adjectives and Abstract nouns ending in that are formed from nouns, follow the
Remark.
nouns, as also adjectives ending in
and take the accent on the
rule
* or dusii same; thus ^i-^ may stand for dust-% a friend friendship", " i( ** B mean a bride" or cu*j^
?l
the mother of knowledge and syntax
is
t^j^ Sarf
is its
Etyo^aJt
father."
^jy.
j$ +U\
*
Aqsam-i kalima
(
)
There are according to Arab and Persian Grammarians three parts of seech which includes substantives, adjectives, numerals, (1) p~*\ ism,* :
ronouns, and participles
;
(2)
J*i
fifl,
the verb
;
inch includes the remaining parts of speech,
and
injunctions,
The
harf
is
and
articles, as j
j
o^
adverbs, prepositions,
"
, the superlative of
(/)
modern Persian
for its feminine
&*+!>
"
little in quantity," has in kamina, which in modern Persian
l
used as a substantive by women instead of the pronoun "I" or "me/ when writing to a superior. Ex. ****^ kamfna 'arz or) >*** 5
is
:
u^
(f**V
^^
**& mi-kunam) "I (your slave) make petition"; " inform me kamina bi-ln oti&f javab iltijat bi-farmayid kindly ^jlojAt
mi-kunad
(or
slave-girl the
your
writer)."
Kamina
***+
is
^U (i.e.
apparently the feminine of
the contracted superlative kamtn. (g) Arabic past participles, used as substantives,
make
their feminines
man "my friend ^yo v^*^ [vide (c)]. (male)," (^ &jfw> mahbuba-yi man "my friend (female)": fy**j* marhum "the deceased (male)"; ax^yo marhuma (female): (j^**x> and &?>** ma'shuq* and ma'shuqa "beloved": &*&*> mutallaqa* "a divorcee" (set Ex.
in the imperceptible
43
Vide also
free). (h)
(*).
Real feminines,
i.e.
^V
are called &**&*
mahbub-i
:
or
nouns expressing living things that are feminine, c5^ **>^*, as opposed to j** *J^x O r
^^^
i^U** %J^x> "grammatical or irregular (Jit. 'heard') feminines," such as shams (_r+ * the sun,' * arz o^f * the earth/ * which are feminine in Arabic. '
c
Semark. jannat**
u&s) Co>* are Arabic words that are feminine by form, as
&jtf [fern, of j^f ].
;
26.
There
is
Declension, Tasrlf or Qardan
only one declension. indefinite, the accusative case
When
(a)
when definite f; ra is The dative is formed by
nominative (6)
:
nominative, or by affixing
In
1 *
mean,
signify
classical or
vile.*
"camp
\j
^1*3*3
or
4_jbyj
usually the affixed to the nominative. is
prefixing the preposition
).*
same as the
&?
6
bi to
the
raJ>
modern Persian kamina
la the Panjab
(
it is
is
used as a positive adjective signifying
used in the plural or qualifying a collective noun to
followers/*
kamina an ki murad-i " he said the least {of their qualities)
guft
their
own
comfort,
used *M*^ as a masc. superlative. 2
or
In classical Persian
v^
3BVX
'
^e beloved
&\*
* 6
a
6.
In Arabic
(J^-k
that they put the desires of their friends before
Vide
:
an
izajat after
40
(a) (2).
kamina
'aahiq is generally used for the
is
wrong.
male lover, while
is generally considered to be feminine of necessity, and by the feminine termination vide also 43 (t) (6). is more usual for divorcee,
**IL*
dative with *J
is
not
:
" These, especially gar dan &\&f t also signify conjugating a verb.'* in its full form unless the word following Seldom written separately
The
Here S*adi
*
therefore distinguished 3
is
they are unselfish
i.e.
is
generally used in m.c. in preference to t>
it
begins with
DECLENSION.
52
The
Remark.
ra
the dative case
of
I;
is
sometimes considered the
in yak-l ra khar-i dar gil uftada bud )t
^
^^
yak-i.
formed by prefixing ^t ay or ya " oh" or one of the interjections calling attention. For the vocative in alif in poetical or 27 (e) and 118. rhetorical language vide (c)
The vocative
(d)
The Ablative, Instrumental, and Locative
is
,
cases are formed
by
prepositions.
no proper Genitive in Persian. This case is expressed by coupling two nouns together by a short t (or kasra *r^) called by grammarians the kasra^yi izafat ju*X*| \j~ ("the i of annexation" or " the i of joining"), or more commonly *l*tff izafa or izafat. The thing possessed There
(e)
is
1
is
J&
(< the son of the king j~$ pisar-i malik " the book of the son of the king." kitab-i pisar-i malik
placed
uL*
Ex.
first.
:
]
' '
^*J wti^
;
Remark Grammarians enumerate many kinds of izafat the similitudinary izafat, (1) The izafat-i tashbthi ( tH*~> c*iU and izafat-i isti'ara tyl***i oJl*# the metaphorical izafat,' vide (12) and (2) (iv). f the izafat of qualification,* (2) The izafat-i tawsifi ( ^a*-^ oJUf ) as w>^ ^yo. Here mar^is termed the (noun) qualified/ :
5
t^ i-*y
^
^(y cuil^i shows " his book." possession of the third person, as kifab-i u^\ *JX These might also all be included under "the possessive izafat" (No.
6).
The izafat-i tawziM
(9)
which
is
(
^^H^y
nearly identical with the
thdistan
(
c*UL~Jl
wUtf
)
"the
'
wi*Uel
)
"the
izafat of manifestation,"
izafat of specification (No. 7),' as, Jcitdb-i
book
Gulistan";
ruz-i
shamba AM^
^
"Saturday." Remark.
The
difference
between the two
is
that the members of the
second compound can be reversed, as SJiahr-i Mash,had *^x> Shdhr j^ ^** ; but in the first they cannot be reversed, (10)
j^
or
Mash, had
The iqafat bi-'l-jins ( u^sJt? o,^U| ) "the cognate izafat," as U* ^ ) t( the morning breeze." ( " the izafat of Izafat-i ibm J^\ cuiUt filiation," as 'Abbas-i *AK " Abbas son of AIL" The izafat-i tashbihi ( oJUt ) " the izafat of simile/' as nargis-i
bad-i saba
^
(11)
cr^ (12)
chasm* i
8
^^^
^>- >j&j
garf w yi>. The distinction between the two is that in the former there is an implied simile, in the latter there is not.
For
(13)
(/)
siletot
If the first
A,
as follows
pronounced yi and
is
is
^
j - ), or in a then no longer written * but (
-
f
:
After silent h
(1)
maqlutt &* cu'Uf "the
izafat-i
117.
substantive terminates in a semi- vowel
the izafat
1
and
fakk-i izafat cu^'U! ^>*
inverted izafat" vide
written
is
it
*
or
y &LL
as,
*,
" the khana-yi mard*
house of the man."
For the pronunciation of hamza when etc., vide
41
Remark.
^
stands for the
it
of unity,
8
(c).
After aspirated
* it is
~;
written
as, Jy
blst
*
" nineteen- twentieths of his wealth." nuzdah-i amval-ash After alif or vav it is in modern Persian written
^^
&+* sama-i
stands
*W
for
blood," and *U* for A*-* (pL of^*-*) vide final * of Arabic words is often disregarded in
^
**
:
an aspirated h as in mah,
f
**
another month," but yak mahl-l dlgar j*& 3^ -* *c
sometimes called
case
** and
the locative
*
a
&* *
&
9 ^.'
JJ*AX>
and the ablative
is
jf^ox J>*AAJ.
*
The dative in fjis considered the accusative. **. ) is declined in (b) The plural /am* ( precisely the same manner. In classical Persian and mar is in modern (c) poetry the particle sometimes added to some of the cases. It is generally redundant but
y
occasionally restricts the
meaning to the case With the nominative it is emphatic, as mar an "that very/'
in point.
o^
u)f^
mar jan* " the
life
itself"
(d) Vulgarly the accusative sign ro ?; is supplanted by one of the short vowels, thus marda, mardu or mardi for mard ra. This is said to be a survival of a Pahlavi termination.
In asbu ra biyar fa* bj***< the ^ is a vulgar diminutive. (e) A form of the vocative chiefly found in poetry is formed by >
affixing
a to the nominative, as ^Ub bulbula fi O nightingale "; ^**?^ dusta f,
i.e.
stated to be a
is
"that and that," or
in
"more than one."
Inanimate objects and sometimes irrational animals form the plural by adding t* lia. Ex.: *J& kitab "a book," pi, ty&? kitab*ha; Y*** ^P t( a horse," pi. ^J*f asp-ha (as well as asp-an &{$). (6)
f
Remark L There are exceptions to this rule. Sa'd! uses the plurals ^Ua^ and c)Uit^. This is perhaps done to confer dignity on these nouns, the plural in of being more noble than the plural in U. Still under this supposi'tion it is not easy to account for such plurals, as ^^^ - e^jjU e>W$> and and an in is The in used both e>f poetry for the prose plural frequently tM[). sake of rhyme. II. Rarely in classical Persian the plural in ha is used for living U as: ndmburdaha the (people) mentioned above ": creatures,
Remark
^
(Iqb.
^
* s
Namaryi J,, p. f U ed. Bib. Ind. of Beng. As. Soc.). Remark III. In a few words a distinction is made, as saran " heads," but sar-lm :
^!j***(m.c.)
U^
^chiefs,"
Rukh
jj*\
:
jjlj
abru
1
bazu " the
abruvan*
The
I.
Ex.
radically final, the
saliyan and c^ A ^ are occasional^ fa. These are exceptions and rare.
(J*ft*>
and mah
met The
regular plurals of these words are to be preferred. (d) If
J
into
5
the word ends in an obscure
murda
as *j>y
c
*> ).
jJU
and
eU^
" medicines."
Persian
The
(
regular plural masculine in classical Arabic has
^^^ two
cases
s
formed by affixing to the singular
is
ma for
+=*
^
e>j
un* for the nominative, and
^
: these are an expansion of the singular Arabic in classical Arabic, the regular nominative pi. of JUU
the remaining cases
terminations. is tijjUt*
Thus **
*amilun*
workers,"
In modern colloquial Arabic the second affix only is used with the " workers." omission of the final vowel, thus 4^1U 'amilln (for all cases) In Persian, Arabic plurals in classical
The modern
Arabic.
un
;
is
to transform * into ^' as brother Husayn says ." Hence akhavi has :
word, as:
akhavi-yi
in letters).
(polite,
come to be regarded as one brother" and akhavi-yi mukarram The broken plural ikhwan =M is used in the sense of
man
vulg.
"my
brethren (religious), as: ikhvan-i safa, i.e. ham-dinan. The plural of ukht o^f sister is akhavat o!>3wl is
an address
:
akhavat-i
mukarrama
in preaching.
Plurals
29.
Modern Persian.
In the modern language, spoken or written, the plural in U is by far the most used it is applied to nearly every substantive, animate or inanimate, :
Arabic or Persian. 8
In
official documents or in rhetorical writing, the plurals as well as the Arabic broken plurals and the Arabic used, regular feminine plurals of inanimate substantives: Mullas, and travelled or educated Persians, frequently use these plurals in speaking, when ordinary
in &) are
still
A people use the plural in *
.
In the vulgar form of the spoken plural the
Remark.
s
of
^* is
dropped* _
Wt*
Thus instead khudhd-man
The
(a)
of bachcJia-Jia
&l#b*tjA. is
l*xu
Khuddman
the vulgar say bachcha.
for
a double vulgarism.
plurals ^Ut!
4
"
horses," e>bj^
"arms,"
u>?^~^
6
glsuvan
**
curls
Various reasons are assigned for this epithet : one is that it arose from the pattern on Alexander's coins ; another that it signified that he ruled lor two
1
of helmet depicted
a saying of the Prophet ten qarn &j* make a century, but garn &j*. According to according to others the word means a space of ten years or any multiple thereof up to In m.c. it frequently signifies 30 years or 50 years. At this time the life is in !20.
x
danger
:
d)*d
e^*
Afvj e#t In bachcha qarn darad (soothsayer's idiom)
child is in danger.* * In *
modern Arabic
*
C5^
akhuya
'*
my
the
life
of this
brother."
Zanan u^J, kharan cJt^, aspan cjU-f, gavan
&1j**> 9 pisaran ttJ(.j*^f plurals in ha.
du&htaran eity^.i f
etc., are ail
&^
t
marduman e>^^/, shlran
common
in m.c. as well as their
In m.c. generally pronounced aaban*
u*$ or g\au ?~4 is also applied to a are called cAI) zulf and the fore locks *j*> chafar. ft
**
*
Ola
woman's long
hair.
The
side locks
MODERN PERSIAN.
PLURALS
65
or long back hair," cj!f*xu "slaves or servants," &\&)& " trees" and others are still used by the professional story-tellers. 1 " Muzhj* eyelash" is in m.c. muzha fyo and the common plural is
muzhaM
The old
\& tfy*.
plurals
muzhagan ^(f)^, mizhagdn
&ty> and mizhgdn &tfj* came to be regarded as singulars form muzhqdn-hd l-^lfyo or mizhgdn-kd t^(fy. (b)
The
rule for writing the plural in
IA
28
(c)
^
A few Arabic
ejfcVj*:
muzhgdn
hence the modern
of substantives
(e) and Remark) is often neglected be written for l^U> and for ^JJ;.^ may
(vide
;
ending in
silent
modern Persian, thus
in
U
h
AiUt
I
broken plurals are used in speaking even by the vulgar jj
;
^
" thus *Uf ashyd* things shay* and fbf ayydm "days" (plurals of are never used in the Persian plural: the word ^^A** kazarai yawm) fj* "sirs, gentlemen" (a word common in speeches) has no Persian plural. ' l
Fuqard* t\J* saldjln
(pi.
(pi.
of faqir
ahdli
" of ahl people"), JU
(pi.
zavvdr s (pL of zcfir ** pilgrim"), &*>l~* masdjid "), and a good many others are in common use even
^\
of sultan),
(pL of masjid
"poor"),
**?
by a change
**
nuvvdb
its plural
f
(pi-
^
mmc
ra&b vj)
pL arbdbdn c^^)t and arbdbhd
if
*
t^U>f
:
title), is
master" and has
the singular rabb w) means
the Deity only).
Some Arabic
regular feminine plurals are also used in speaking (as ^UJt* "tracts of country"; Us *un5ra (&&Jf*_^x
Hal "state, condition**;
(also
^~^ Hasanayn
and sometimes with the Persian imitation
tion
^^J
;
raqlm
^^y^la*.
those present in
lit.
ma budand
(Shah's
J^t
^)
**
:
in
;
;
its
correct Arabic
thus
wf**
Persian ojli^a- (rare)
aftval
letter
O^
" the two Hasans/'
and e.^S^f **
tablet
liavala is
ahvalat,
pL termina**
a transfer
used as well as
an Ar. double
pl M
Persian raqlma with the> of
(in
raqcfim, and Pers. raqlmajaL
In modern Persian the
oUd** 8 cUU has
6
t^?*^
:
also occasionally used in speaking (as well as in writing).
both sides of the road;
tiHi*^
used by
occasionally
8 is
generally retained in this word as well as in
).
agents,"
(3
thus several plurals used in Persian
and
4)
oU.aU* and U*kc
*JU*
(1)
workmen'
workmen,*'
(2)
'
(bastard
doubl.
PLURALS
MODERN
PERSIAN.
Hasan and Husayn, the two martyred sons of two kingdoms," etc. vide 28 (m).
i.e.
'All
67 :
daulatayn ^jj^a
*'
the
:
In imitation of the Arabic, the dual Persian words, 1 as
Bisyar
lab-i
" and many a ruby (j)
A
even occasionally added to
is
:
chu
lip
la'l
u
a
zulfayn-i
chu mushk ;
and musky tress."
(O.
For an imitation broken plural of a purely Persian word one curl on each side of the head behind the ear
i.e.,
K* 137 Whin).
few words are found with the Turkish plural
vide
lar,
28
^ (?).
or
jlf*
as,
CHAPTER
HI.
PRONOUNS. Ism -i Zamir
Personal Pronouns
30.
l
(
y^
***\ ).
is no distinction between the personal and possessive pronouns : two kinds, separate and affixed. are of they The separate personal pronouns are less used in Persian than the
There
personal pronouns in English, as, except when emphasis terminations sufficiently indicate the persons. (a)
The following
pronouns N. Dat.
*
man *
fc/
>
J
I
. *nara*
me, to
*
k ma, or
,
me
!
thee to thee
fy Item
j
UA shwnS,
I
y u ( aho
maha we
(also
mayan
j
( j|
uB
fg.)._
or
that
;
;
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
The preposition
&
occasionally used: ejU^V
when used
preposition bi
^
J and
with
also, especially in poetry, bi-du
&
is classical,
generally written
is
and
and
69
ZAMIR*
-ISM-I
^^
bi-duy.
rarely,
& and (#
In m.c.
&
;
is
very
The
1 ever, used in m.c.
if
but
for the dative case is called ba-yi maf'ul Jy***
^.
used for u j\ for the sake of euphony in the following sentence : Vay oAJ^jf U bi-vay guft (m.c, and classical). To avoid the repetition of the " he said to second pronoun u ji, the vulgar also say u bi-an guft cui? ^b y him." It may be said that vay is not used in m.c. p daru,
etc.,
o^!^
u
j
and ishan
6arwfeSn,
jjj
Ot
azu.
are
Chunu
is poetical.
^
cW klsh
practising, 3
(classically kesh)
addicted to. " Ex.
:
is
a subs, signifying
J^ ^>
gwlw* kith
" "
faith, religion '
oppressive.'
Also 4>*tf kanizak, properly the diminutive of kanlz
j&
.
': in compounds
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
70
writing);
the
"the mean"; j$
(m.c.)
+
M
ISM-I ZAMIR.
Uj> du'a-gft (in
"the least" are
aqatt (in writing)
With the exception of s&*.
first
person. third person singular of the verb p&' "I this humble individual make petition
haqir, these are all followed
by the
nfi-kunam (m.e.) haqw &* chi dakhl-% bi~ j**u ;la ;i *o. ^ ^ai ^y ra chi kar ddrand (m.c. only) "what have they to do with tu-yi* facfir ;
you, poor creature
mi-kunand fault"
:
"
?
e
^ u^
*if
5"
hobs karda and
mja here?"
Instead
of is
cfr^T
*/?Hrf
xii&Nw c^^U-i shumaha-yi bl chara ra chird only) "why are you poor creatures imprisoned
(m.c.
ishan-i
bl taqsir ra aziyyat
we have committed no
they are punishing us though
(m.c. only)
I)
bichdra
used in m.c.,
tylfvAJ &(&.))
(not
used),
and an mardum-i bichdra
anha-yi, bichara
*&&
f&j*
o>f
in
writing.
Remark
II.
Man u iu y ^ ^
,
pression of frequent occurrence, especially in poetry
Tu 31. (a)
(I)
The
The
affixed
Pronouns
pronouns are
:
u man daman-i
dasi-i niard biglr
affixed
(
^^ix^SU^
zama'ir-i mutt&sila).
:
PlwaL
Singular. First Pers.
Second
pers.
Third Pers.
^ am my me ;
e>! ijt\
at
thy ash his it;
The
Remark.
;
t
an ex-
m vilayat imm u
birawm az
Bar-kfnz
of us ", is
to
;
thee
;
me
cA*
10
&$
to tliee
hers, its; him, her,
to him, to her, to
it
~^
~ **
* n#in>
v i tan islmn
was in all probability formed the termination ^f an to the singular, thus ft by adding regularly, plural " am mine, me, etc." would result in the plural ^>> tuv fchudaiB for \*&* ly tura bi>&buda: tuv 1shud
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