Modern Lettering [PDF]

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MODERN LETTERING ARTISTIC AND PRACTICAL A THOROUGH AND PRACTICAL TEXT-BOOK FOR USE IN Schools and Colleges and for the Self-Instruction of Architects,



Artists,



Decorators and Sign Writers THE CONSTRUCTION OF PEN AND INK DESIGNS FOR COMMERCIAL USES: Advertisements, Letter Heads, Business Cards, Inscriptions, Memorials, Resolutions,



WILLIAM HEYNY



By Formerly Instructor



of Lettering at



Teachers' College, Columbia University, Mechanics' Institute,



Drawings by



With Forty-two Plates



the



Author



SECOND EDITION— REVISED AND ENLARGED



New York



THE WILLIAM



etc.



T.



'^"•''



COMSTOCK COMPANY,



23



Warren



Street



etc.



Copyright,



1909, 1913



By WILLIAM



HEYNY



JAN 20 19/4



)C1,A3G2235



PREFACE A



of books have been written on LETSeveral new works of this kind, contain-



number



TERING.



ing some very good features, were published recently. That most of these books, from a practical standpoint, are worse than useless, is a well-known and deplorable fact. In constructing the letters of the alphabets, the designer has too often departed far from the original outlines, thus misleading young students of lettering. Letters and numerals designed for the use of architects, on plans and specifications, are likewise inadequate for the purpose, being either stiff and ill-spaced, lacking in beauty, or too highly embellished. Too many scrolls and flourishes make it difficult to decipher a letter easily, which is a grave fault, as legibility ought to be the artist's first consideration. Only plain letters, that can be quickly made and easily read, should be used by architects. Engineers and builders with them have no trouble in making out their meaning, and are not nearly so liable to make mistakes. One branch of the art of lettering, in particular, has received but scant attention: the designing of attractive advertisements is virtually a class in itself. It constitutes a special field, and a most interesting and remunerative one. In the following pages the author has endeavored



to supply such information on the subject as has been gained by many years of experience in this line. Practical suggestions are given, simple methods employed. The difference between correct and faulty styles of letters, good and poor spacing, harmonious and bad grouping of words and phrases is shown by artistic examples. The result aimed at is



the construction of plain and neat designs, of novel, individual ideas in advertisements, lettering of quality, instead of the stiff, monotonous types and faulty spacing as generally employed, or exaggerated styles, that cannot be read. The printer is limited to the use of existing types; the designer of letters is bound only by the limits of his own imagination. If his creative or inventive powers be boundless, he should be wise enough not to let his fancy lead him to extremes. Aim for beauty rather than striking or crying effects. In no department of the graphic arts is good taste being sinned against so frequently and persistently as in the art of lettering. At almost every step we are offended by coarse violations of the art; and this is true not only of commercial lettering, but also of



and those of memorial represent masterpieces, and intended to impress future generations. architectural



tablets,



inscriptions



claimed



to



Doubtless one of the causes of this lamentable lack judgment is the fact that certain authors of books on mechanical drawing do not realize the impor-



Good letterers are exceedingly scarce, and there is growing demand for competent exponents of the art. Keen competition of tradespeople has brought



of



a



tance of good lettering, and treat the subject as a side issue only. The results are mathematically correct but, consequently, stiff, awkward letters, drawn with painstaking care, but devoid of harmony and beauty. are The other extreme is as bad, if not worse. " " " snappy letterfancy," drifting into a craze for ing called by representatives of this school " mod-



about in recent years a marvelous display of posters, and labels, and an extraordinary mass of advertising matter in the newspapers and magazines. It is necessary now to make your "ad" stand out prominently among a hundred others. Thus the art of designing novel and conspicuous advertisements It appeals is becoming more important every day. Correct, well to the creative talent of the artist. spaced lettering is wanted. In addition to this the principal words of the subject matter must be distinctly brought out, so that the reader can see at a glance what the advertisement may offer. The producer is eager to sell his goods, and the advertisement must tell the story. Advertising is as essential But the anas the merchant's display of goods. nouncement should not flare out brutally, aggressively. The advertiser, when he lifts his voice, must not shout offensively, but should temper his language



We



ern."



While sometimes executed with no



little skill,



no practical value, because the average person cannot read it without difthis style of lettering is of



ficulty.



More



artistic



ability



is



required



to



con-



struct a plain letter correctly than to create a most phantastic " modern " hieroglyphic, but it demands



study and practice to cultivate the taste necessary to produce the former. This book does not merely present a collection of alphabets and designs, but may be considered a guide The construction of into the realms of letterdom. letters is taught by a system of easy lessons, and rules are laid down for the proportions and spacing of the different characters, in their relations to each other. At every stage of the development practical



examples are given.



From



step to step the text



is



ac-



companied by illustrations, explaining important good points and also mistakes to be avoided.



signs



by



artistic effects.



The young who takes up



student of art or architecture also, the study of lettering seriously, will find in this method everything necessary to acquire proficiency, if he be but willing to do his part, by working out the problems and following the suggestions here offered.



CONTENTS PAGE



PAGE



Introduction



7



Water



Color,



White



19



Sheet Gelatine



PART



19



I



PART



The Drawing Materials The Drawing Board The T-Square The Triangle The Set of Drawing Instruments (a) The Compasses (b) The Ruling Pen (c) The Bow Spacers (d) The Dividers



Practice



II



Work



9



.



.



Position in Drawing, as to Light



.



.



Work



10



Practice



10



The Guide Lines (with



illustration)



.



75 75



19



Ornamental Roman, Lower Case



75



22



Plain,



Round, Lower Case



75



22



Plain,



Square,



23



Plain,



Spurred,



13



Ellipses



30



Block,



Lower Case



13



Mechanical Construction of Letters and



IS



Writing Pens



iS



Thumb Tacks



IS



Modern Roman



50



31



General Rules for the Construction of 50



16



Antique



17



French



54



Drawing Paper



16



Roman Roman Ornamental Roman



51



Rule



Cross-Section paper



17



Block



54



18



Square Block



18



Ornamental Block



Transfer



,



.



Paper



Tracing Paper or Cloth Irregular



Curves



18



Plain or Condensed,



Round



...



54 54 55



Brushes



18



Plain,



Square



55



Rubber



15



Plain,



Spurred



55



Ink Eraser



19



Roman



Italics



55



5



75



.



75 75



Ornamental Block, Lower Case



75



Roman



75



Italics,



Lower Case Lower Case Lower Case



Modern Gothic, German Gothic, Modern Script Freedom of Treatment



54



.....



.



Lower Case Lower Case



Copying the Letters



Pencil Pointer



.



74



Antique Roman, Lower Case



14



Ink



Roman, Lower Case



Method of Procedure



Letters



67



19



Lead Pencils



India



Uncials



66



Case Letters



12



3 construction plates)



62



.... ....



Gothic



11



Numerals {with



page



....



Gothic



French Roman, Lower Case



9



....



Flat



Modern German Modern The Lower Modern



PART The



81 81



84



84



III



Alphabets, Practical and Artistic Their History, Description and Proper Use



The Roman Alphabets The Classic Roman Capitals {with



85 plate)



85



PAGE



Modern Roman (with



3 plates)



French Roman (with 2 plates)



...



.89



.



.



...



Roman (with plate) Ornamental Roman (with plate) Roman Italics (with plate) Antique



.



.



....



Plain or Condensed,



....



Spurred (with plate)



Block (with plate)



Ornamental



The



Lower



92 92 93



Round and Square



(with plates) Plain,



89



Block



(with



Case



Letters



The Numerals The Architects'



....



(illustrated)



Grouping of Words and Sentences (with



loi



The " Ad " (with The Border



plate)



112



Single Stroke Alphabets,



plate)



.



(with



.



Letter 112



Old English



120 121



(with plate)



.



.



.



PART IV



125



Memorials,



Resolutions,



etc.



(with plate)



128



Conclusion



The



Proper and Artistic Employment of Lettering



Arrangement Spacing,



97



of



Letters,



134



Alphabetical



Index



135,



136



Composition,



Harmony



Balance,



124



Heads and Business Cards, Title Book Cover Designs, Newspa-



per Headings



97



(with



plate)



plate)



Pages,



Designing



five



The Gothic Alphabets or



117



Adapting Ideas



and



upper



alphabets,



3



lower case (with plate)



PAGE



100



96



97



Gothic,



.



plate)



comprising 93



.



.



96



plates)



Modern



German Gothic (with plate) Modern Uncials or Church Text (with



(with 116



plates)



LIST OF PLATES Example



of



Grouping



.



.



.



25



XI Antique Roman XII Ornamental Roman XIII Century Roman XIV Roman Italics



XV



Plain,



Round



69



.



27



XVI



Plain,



Square



71



XVII



Plain,



Spurred



.



29



^GE I



II



....



The Guide Lines Mechanical Letters



Construction



and Numerals



III Mechanical



(i)



Construction



and Numerals



V Modern Roman VI Modern Roman VII Modern Roman VIII Classic Roman IX French Roman X French Roman



(3)



21



of .



of



and Numerals (2) IV Mechanical Construction of Letters



Letters



PAGE



Frontispiece



XVIII Block



(i)



33



XIX



(2)



35



XX



(3)



37



Ornamental Architects'



Block Single



...



....



53 57 61



65



73



.... Stroke



77



PAGE



XXIV



Modern Uncials XXV Lower Case Letters (i) XXVI Lower Case Letters (2) XXVII Lower Case Letters (3) XXVIII Lower Case Letters (4) XXIX Lower Case Letters (5) XXX Example of Composition



XXXI



XXXII Examples 83



XXXIII Model



41



XXI Modern



Script



87



XXXIV



(i)



45



XXII German



Gothic



91



XXXV



(2)



47



phabets



XXIII Modern Gothic (Old English)



6



95



105



107 109 III .



of Spacing



119 123



.



Advertisement



127



Reconstructed Border Design



Example morial



of



"5



Letters



Modernized Letters



79



Al-



Freak



Mutilation,



99 103



Engrossed



131



Me ^33



INTRODUCTION " Lettering, the art of designing the letters of the alphabet, for various commercial, mechanical and artistic purposes, largely used in architectural work, sign painting, advertisement designing, engraving, printing and book-plate and book-cover making. It may be said that practically all the lettering now used in architectural offices in this country is derived,



however remotely



from the old Roman



it



may seem



capitals, as



some cases, developed and dein



fined during the period of the Italian Renaissance. Composition in lettering is almost too intangible to define by any rule. All the suggestions that may be given are of necessity laid out on merely mathematical formulae, and as such, are incapable of equaling the result that may be obtained by spacing and producing the effect solely from artistic experience and intuition. The final result should always be judged by its effect upon the eye, which must be trained, until it is susceptible to the slightest deviation from the perfect whole. It is more difficult to define what



good composition



is



in lettering than in painting or



any other of the more generally accepted arts, and it The eye resolves itself back to the same problem. of good and pleastrained constant study must be by it appreciates ining forms and proportions, until stinctively almost intangible mistakes in spacing and



arrangement. This point of "composition" is so important that a legend of most beautiful individual letter forms, badly placed, will not produce as pleasing an effect as an arrangement of more awkward letters, when their composition is good." Americana. " Lettering, the art of designing the letters of the alphabet."



The shaping and



spacing of well proportioned,



harmonious letters is an art. The pleasing effect of good lettering on the eye trained to beauty is not second to that of a fine painting, or the lines of



class-



The



student of the art of lettering should aim at the highest standards only, to cultivate a taste for the beautiful. " The letters used in our time are derived from the old Roman capitals." Therefore, in beginning the study of the forms of ical architecture.



we should go back to this source. "As developed and defined during the



letters,



period of the Italian Renaissance," the letters of the Roman alphabet have since been somewhat modified. But in many instances letterers have departed so far from the originals, as to lose sight of the most beautiful features.



The unchanged



original



characters



are seldom



used for any but architectural work. To the student of lettering, however, they afford an eternal standard of highest quality, and the earnest seeker of good forms should ever return to the beauties of their



occupies different room in space, so the distances between the letters must of necessity be different. The study of the suggestions as to spacing, here given, the copying of examples as they occur and much practice work is excellent experience and leads to



classic outlines.



The Modern Roman, French Roman and Antique letters have been universally accepted. They



perfection.



Roman



The eye must be trained by constant study of good and pleasing forms and proportions, until it ''



are by far the most legible and most handsome styles of letters that can be employed on all occasions, where space admits of their use, without crowding. The neat appearance of a composition of several lines in Roman letters of different size, graded according to their importance^ is evident even to the less cultivated eye. " Composition in lettering is almost too intangible to define by any rule. All the suggestions that may be given are of necessity laid out on merely mathematical formulae and as such are incapable of equaling the result that may be obtained by spacing and producing the effect solely from artistic experience



and



appreciates instinctively almost intangible mistakes in spacing



eye should be trained to



see.



must be laid down for the beginner,



Of



The same



is



course, rules



in



true of



stated,



As



is



SPACING mind



is educated and the mental understanding gradually developed, the manual skill will doubtless follow. The letters should be copied and recopied, until the proportions and outlines are understood and the ability to reproduce them is acquired. But the arrangement of a group of words, the composition and the spacing cannot be thus mastered. The student's eye can only be trained by degrees. As he advances in his chosen line of work, he will get at the meaning of the mysterious word "spacing" almost unconsciously. Once the lessons in spacing have been comprehended, the eye will unerringly detect any mistakes. After having learned the lessons in this book, experience alone is requisite to more fully develop the



order to teach correct proportions. Later on these proportions will be arrived at instinctively, without employing any definite rule.



concisely



AND ARRANGEMENT.



intuition."



The



and arrangement."



The problem,



good spacing.



This point of supreme importance is brought out by comparison. Balance your spaces. As each letter



the



ability to arrange letters pleasingly.



8



PART I—THE DRAWING MATERIALS The Instruments and The instruments and materials necessary for this course are as follows: Drawing board, T-square, Triangle, Set of drawing instruments, Lead pencils, Erasing and cleaning rubber, Thumb tacks, Writing pens and holder, Pencil pointer, India ink, Ink eraser. White water color, Set of brushes. Set of irregular curves, Flat rule. Sketching and drawing paper, Cross-section paper, Tracing paper or cloth, Transfer paper. The Drawing Board should be of clear pine, with Do cross-piece a at each end, to prevent warping. not use one smaller than 1 8 by 24 inches, 20 by 26 would be



better.



The



cost



is



Make Run your



about one dollar.



sure the edges are perfect and sharp.



them and reject any board that feels rough or shows the least dent or projection. An accurate drawing cannot result unless the edge of the drawing board be perfectly true and even. The T-square is guided along the edges of the board, and In selecting a should work freely and smoothly. suitable drawing board, try a T-square on it to insure perfectly square corners. At least the bottom and left edges should be exactly square. Lay the Tsquare on the top of the working surface of the fingers along



How



to



Use Them



board, with the T-square head pressed against the edge and move along, up and down, until the blade of the T-square is even with the corresponding edge of the board. This may also be considered a test for the accuracy of the T-square. In use, the left and bottom edges of the drawing board are the " working," or "sliding" edges. The board is laid flat upon the table, or it may be raised slightly at the top. As you face your drawing board, the lines running from left to right are called horizontal, those from the top to bottom edge of the board, vertical lines. When, after long use, the drawing board becomes full of holes and uneven, it may the restored to usefulness by first cleaning and smoothening with sandpaper, and then glueing on a sheet of thin cardboard. The T-square is laid across the drawing board, with its head resting against the edge. The blade must be long enough to reach over the whole of the board. Use a T-square with a fixed head and black rubber blade. It can be bought for about $1.50. The edge of the T-square must be absolutely straight and smooth, or else a correct drawing cannot be made. When drawing long vertical lines, rest the



head of the T-square against the lower edge of the drawing board, keeping it firmly pressed in position with the left hand. For horizontal lines it is held



hand hold the head of the T-square in posipressed against the left edge of the drawing board. With your right hand place the triangle above and resting against the upper edge of the Tsquare blade, so that the right angle of the triangle is the left tion,



against the left edge of the board, as above described. this edge the head of the T-square is slid up or down, as the case may be, and all horizontal lines drawn from left to right, guided by the upper edge of the blade. For the short vertical lines, as they occur in lettering, the triangle is used. Never use the right hand to move the T-square. Do not guide a knife along the edge of the T-square or triangle when cutting. When not in use the T-square should hang safely against the wall. hole is provided for this purpose at the end of the blade. Never stand it up or lean it against the wall or furniture, lest the blade become permanently bent, or warp out of shape. By resting it on the floor it is also liable to be stepped upon and injured or broken. The Triangle or Set Square is used for lettering principally to draw the short vertical lines. It is laid on the drawing paper, above the T-square blade, resting on and pushed along its upper edge, as needed. Amber or Xylonite (transparent) triangles should be used in preference to the black rubber ones. You may observe your pencil lines and marks



Along



A



through them while working, and it is easier to keep them clean. Note, also, that you get them with bevels on the inner edges. These can be readily lifted with the finger nail, thus saving annoyance or accident. A 30° by 60° triangle, 6 inches long, can be bought for 40 cents. Do not use any so-called " lettering" triangles. In drawing vertical lines, the triangle is manipulated as follows: with the fingers of



Now move the fingers of your left hand along the T-square blade, pressing slightly to the right, while sliding towards the triangle. As you reach it, hold it with first and middle fingers, firmly pressing it down to the edge of the T-square blade, at the same time keeping hold of the T-square blade with thumb, fourth and fifth fingers, while drawing This seemingly difficult and line with right hand. awkward manipulation will become easier with constant practice. Run your eye along the edge of the Keep T-square or triangle when drawing lines. your pen or pencil inclined at the same angle frorr. beginning to end of line. This is very important See that your arm and elbow are free to move anf to the left.



that there are no obstructions or tools, which migh hinder your movements, lying about your drawin board, before starting to draw the line. Lines ar nearly always drawn to the left of the triangle, th^ being the lighted side. While working thus wit the triangle try to encourage a habit of occasional] running your left hand to the head of the T-squar pressing it against the edge of the drawing board, assure correct position. Use your hands only, ar never resort to thumb tacks or weights to hold square or triangle in place. The Drawing Instruments. In purchasing a set of drawing instruments the beginner should bear



m



mind 10



that



good materials are necessary



to



make



a



good drawing. Most people labor under the mistaken idea that a cheap outfit will do to start with, and think it time enough to get better tools, when set of they shall have learned how to use them. fine instruments is a good investment and can be used for all time. Learn to use them at the start, then you can acquire the ability to work with accuracy, which is of prime importance. If you cannot afford a full set of first class tools, it is a better plan to buy a few only at the start, say the compasses and ruling pen, and add bow spacers, dividers; See that your instruments are always etc., later on. clean and bright, and occasionally polish them up with chamois. The Compasses are used for spacing, measuring and drawing circles and arcs. With the lengthening bar added, the largest curves can be made. Except cor borders, this extension bar is rarely used for letering. Circles up to 12 inches in diameter can be drawn without it. In purchasing compasses, see lat you get one with movable or pivot knee joints nd adjustable legs, also with interchangeable needleoint, pen- and pencil-points. One leg has a steel eedle clamped to it. For drawing circles with pen r pencil the shouldered point of this needle should e used. When spacing or measuring, the other end the needle is more appropriate. On the other leg the compasses the steel point can be removed by osening the clamping screw, and the pencil- or n-point inserted. In doing this, note that the t'j-"aight or inner side of pen is opposite the other The pencil'j,, and the curved side faces outward. point also has an outer and inner surface, and the



A



\



"



I



II



thumb screw should always be on the outside. Be careful to push in pen- or pencil-point as far as it will go, and secure it with the clamping screw before using. It is important to always have the needlepoint even with the pen- or pencil-point, so, after inserting pen- or pencil-attachment, close the instrument, and, loosening the clamping screw, set the needle-point to the length of the pen- or pencil-point, and clamp well. After each sharpening of pencillead always see that it is brought to correspond to the length of the shoulder of the needle-point. To draw a circle or curve, insert needle-point in exact center mark, to shoulder of needle, and push it Remove straight down into the drawing board. compasses and open them, setting the legs to the required radius, and bending the knee-joints. Insert needle-point in hole again and try the distance. The needle-point must be held in an upright position, while doing this, so the hole in the paper may not be unnecessarily enlarged. Never incline your comInpasses while holding the needle-point inserted. stead, bend at the knee-joint, until the radius wanted Also bend the pivot-joint of pen- or is reached. pencil-point correspondingly. When drawing circles or arcs with the pen, especial notice must be taken to have the pen-point vertical with the kneejoint, as otherwise both nibs of the pen will not touch the paper simultaneously, and a perfect line cannot result. After filling the pen, as directed under " Ruling Pen," take the compasses by the little handle on top of instrument, and turn, beginning the line at the lowest point, and drawing upward and to the right (never reverse) until the circle is com-



plete.



Try this on a small piece of paper, before beginning on your drawing, to make sure that your pen works well. If a break in the line should occur,



other method writing pens.



redraw line, as before, from left to right. The compasses are held slightly inclined forward, insuring a better flow of ink and making an even, clean line. For lead pencil work always have your lead nicely



otherwise a blot is almost certain to result. Little ink should be fed into the ruling pen at a time. In working with pen and ink, your first aim should be to make sharp, clear lines, and to connect them smoothly and evenly with arcs as well as making sharp corners. Some letterers work in the curves and circles first when employed on a drawing, and the straight lines last. They claim it is easier to run the straight lines to meet the curves flush. But, as many draughtsmen work the opposite way. Run the pen along the T-square blade, from left to right only. For vertical lines draw the pen strokes up-



to dip the pen into the ink, as with Gare must be taken, however, to always wipe the outside of the pen before using, as



sharpened before beginning the drawing. The compass-lead should be flattened on one side to a chisel edge, and placed in the pencil holder with this flat, sharp edge toward the outside of the leg. For small circles use the bow-pen or bow-pencil. After reading over these instructions, it would be well to take up your compasses, handle the instrument carefully and study its mechanism, while going over this lesson again. The Ruling- or Drawing-Pen, also called Right Line Pen, is made of one piece of steel, with a handle of ebony or ivory. It has two tongues, called nibs, connected by a thumb screw. By turning the screw the nibs are brought together or separated, for a fine or a heavy line. As set by this screw, a line drawn by the ruling pen is always uniform in width and in this respect differs from a line drawn by the writing pen, where the thickness varies according to the presRuling pens are also made with sure employed. spring- and jointed nibs, with three and more blades. The ruling pen is never used without a guide, such as the T-square, triangle or rule. It is held firmly, Handle it as you yet lightly, between the fingers. would your pencil. Proceed to fill the pen with ink. One way to do this is to use a quill, which comes attached to the cork of some brands of fluid ink. An-



is



ward, when working on triangle.



On



the right



left



edge of the T-square or



hand



side



you will find



it



more convenient to run the lines downward. But when working on the right hand side, change the position of the drawing board, to get a good light. Hold the pen upright, so that both nibs rest on the paper evenly, and with screw head pointing outward. Do not incline your pen to the left when drawing vertical, nor toward the top when running horizontal lines. The point is liable to get too close to the T-square or triangle edge and the ink would spread along it. The rounded shape of the penpoint prevents this, when the pen is held in the proper way. Incline your pen slightly forward when drawing lines, thus assisting in the flow of ink. Rest the little finger on the triangle or T-square blade. Draw the pen along the guide with an even, gentle pressure. Before beginning work on your



12



drawing, try the pen on a bit of paper.



A



lot of proficiency with the acquire practice is necessary to long lines, short Practice ruling lines, ruling pen.



make them uniform in thickness, clean, Practice and at even distances from each other. running lines side by side, to the left, to the right, lines, try to



horizontal as well as vertical, until



and even.



When



all lines



are clear



done with your pen, always clean



it with a piece of chamois, or part of old glove, or even a piece of clean, white cotton fabric, and rub Insert a corner of your cleaning to a fine polish. cloth or leather between the nibs of the pen and Recarefully draw it through towards the point. peat with clean edge of cloth, also wiping exterior parts of the pen. Finally polish inside and out. It is of greatest importance that this operation be gone through every day when using the pen and before putting it away. Do not detach the screw. Always have your cleaning cloth handy. The best way is to attach it with a thumb tack to the right edge of drawing board. The pen needs cleaning frequently, while working. In summer especially the ink dries rapidly and thickens in the pen. The nibs should not be opened when cleaning while at work, The cloth can be inserted and drawn through before regood filling with ink, without touching the screw. ruling pen can be obtained for 75 cents. The Bow Spacers are an instrument for measuring small distances. With the two needle-points the most accurate work can be performed. Next to the compasses and ruling pen, the bow spacers are the



A



most useful



tool



It has a fine



employed



in the



drawing of



letters.



spring which tends to keep the legs of 13



the instrument separated to the distance set by the adjusting screw, and for this reason is more reliable than the compasses. Open the instrument by turning the adjusting screw on the side of the leg, until the desired width is indicated by the points, then mark on your drawing by pushing the sharp points into the paper. See that the punctures are clearly marked. For spacing equal distances walk bow spacers along the line, lifting the right and left leg of the instrument alternately and pricking the paper with the needle-points. It is good practice to press the legs of the bow spacers together with the fingers, when opening or closing the instrument, thereby saving the fine thread of the adjusting screw. For larger spacing use the dividers.



By inserting the Bow-Pen- or Bow-Pencil-attachments you are enabled to draw the smallest arcs and circles. Take care, however, to insert the appliances correctly into the shank, to push them in as far as they go, and to clamp them well with the clamping screw, before employing them. See that the straight or inner side of the pen-point is facing toward the other leg or that the screw of the pencil-point is on the outside of the instrument. Also adjust the needle-point, until its shoulder is even with the penor pencil-point. Distinguish between spacer-point and the shouldered point of the needle. As to handling the bow-pen and -pencil for drawing circles, see the directions for " The Compasses." When very small circles or arcs are to be made, the needle-point must be pushed back until both nibs of the pen rest upon the paper evenly. For large circles use the



compasses. Clean you bow pen carefully while usplain-point in the pencil-leg, but the dividers are ing and afterwards. See the directions for the use more reliable on account of the hair spring and adof the ruling pen. Separate bow spacers, bow penjusting screw. For small spacing use the bow cils and bow pens can be bought, and the busy artist spacers. will save valuable time by using them, and avoiding Lead Pencils. It is essential to have all your tools the changing of the needle-point-, pencil-point- or in perfect working order. Your pencils are of no pen-point-attachments. less importance than any other instrument. Always The Dividers are an instrument like the compasses have several of them on hand, nicely sharpened. in appearance, having fixed needle-points only, but To sharpen the pencil a very sharp penknife is with a hair spring and adjusting screw attachment, required. Hold the pencil in the left hand, with its similar to that of the bow spacers. It is used for expoint toward you, and, resting it against the thumb act work in spacing and measurements, where the of your right hand, carefully slice off the wood bow spacers are found too small to reach. Get one smoothly and evenly, bringing it to a long taper, and without the clamp at the top, for this is unnecessary exposing the lead for about half an inch at the end. and bothersome. By handling this instrument care- It will take some practice to perform this feat withfully and adjusting it to the required distance by the out breaking the lead, but soon you will be able to small thumb screw at its side, you should be able to do it without accident. Now rub the lead lightly trace the exact dimensions of letters without a slip. on a sandpaper sharpener, holding the pencil nearly Like the bow spacers it has two needle-points, de- horizontal, rolling it from side to side and around, signed to prick spacing marks into the drawing pa- until the lead takes on a nicely tapering, sharp point. per. The legs are opened a little more than the Smooth off the roughness of lead, finally, on a piece required width, then with the screw, set the points of drawing paper, and you have a fine pencil-point to the correct size wanted. When it is desired to to work with. Resharpen the point every little copy a letter to twice its size, take dimensions of while. Do not cut the lettered end of pencils, as the original, and with the points of dividers mark your marks are necessary to note the grade. The comdrawing paper, then, keeping one leg in position, pass leads should be sharpened to a flat edge. See raise the other leg and swing it around to a point the directions given under " The Compasses." opposite, piercing the paper and marking the double When starting to study the proportions and shape distance. The adjusting screw should never be of letters, the beginner should make the drawing on removed, and the instrument should be closed before a large scale. Enlarge the letter two or four times putting it back into the case. You may substitute the size of the original. Take plain paper first, and your compasses for use as dividers by employing the copy the outline of the letters freehand. Your pricking point of needle, and inserting the steel- or pencil work should be as accurate as possible. No 14



amount of skill in pen work can ever make good the defects of faulty pencil work. Draw all lines from the top down and from left to right, when sketching Practice sketching the letters freehand letters. in long, light and even strokes first, then use the instruments. When using a rule, T-square or triangle, always start the line from the bottom upwards, except when working to the right of the guide. Hold your pencil at exactly the same angle from beginning to end of line. All practice work is done in pencil first. Use a hard pencil, 6 H., in laying out contours of letters. Work with long, even strokes, making a very light line only. This can easily be removed with the rubber, if necessary. After you have finally succeeded in getting a correct outline, it will be time enough to go over the outline with a softer pencil, say 3 H. The lines should be thin and sharp. Try to finish the drawing without use of the rubber, making the letter stand out clear and distinct. When a drawing is to be finished in ink, do not use a soft pencil. Also do not press on the pencil while drawing lines, as this would leave a groove on the paper, which might seriously interfere with the inking-in process. Draw your pencil lines clear through centers, let them sweep over top and below bottom lines. Do not start or stop at the corners, where they terminate. You will find it easier to make sharp corners with your pen, if the pencil lines run through. Before starting to work in ink, all pencil lines not wanted, should be removed, so that the remaining lines show clear and sharp. After all ink lines have been completed, the pencil marks are removed by the wedge-shaped pencil eraser. Be care-



15



ful to skirt the ink lines as



much



as possible.



Rub-



apt to dull the appearance of the black ink lines. The drawing is finally cleaned with sponge rubber. This cleaning up is to be done very carefully. Too much rubbing will injure fine, sharp ink lines. Go over the soiled spots of the drawing paper gently, and rub no more than necessary. After cleaning and carefully dusting off, the drawing is ready for the final pointing up and filling in with



bing



is



ink.



Rubber. To remove pencil lines a wedge-shaped white pencil eraser is used. This rubber does not roughen or injure the drawing paper, while it effectually cleans away all lead pencil marks. Black sponge rubber is generally employed for cleaning drawing paper. A generous piece of it can be bought for 30 cents. A Pencil Pointer is made by glueing strips of sandpaper to a small slat of wood. You may cut it from a cigar box. Let it be two inches wide by nine long, allowing the length of an ordinary cigar box soft



—



Now



—



cut strips of No. I sandpaper, to cover one side of the wood, with the exception of the handle, and glue them on. Pencil pointers are sold for from 20 to 30 cents. Writing Pens. For freehand lettering, pointing up and filling in, Gillott's pens, No. 303, are generally used by letterers, but No. 404 will be found exgross box costs 65 cellent for all-around work. cents. Writing pens are employed for all but straight lines on small lettering and ornaments. Thumb Tacks. Select those with flat heads, so the T-square may slide over them easily while you three inches for the handle.



A



are at work.



When



and lower edges. Use the T-square to inGet the right or finished side of paper uppermost. To find the right side hold paper up to the light and look for the watermark. The side from which the lettering or manufacturer's trade mark is readable, represents the right, or working side. If no watermarks can be found, lay the paper upon the drawing board, and with your fingers



with



inserting in the paper, slant



them slightly, thus assisting in the stretching of the drawing paper. Press them down with the thumb as far as they will go. Use a lifter when removing them. "Government" or "Silver Steel" thumb tacks are



made on



a



new



left



sure accuracy.



principle, the points will



They cost cents per loo upwards, with lifter. For stretching paper see the directions under " Drawing not push through the heads, nor pull out.



from 35



gently rub over the surface, first of one, then the other side. Select the smoothest side to work on. paper upon the drawing board, put a stretch the To tack into the center of the top edge of the paper, pressing it well down with thumb, then gently, but firmly rub down with the fingers of the left hand to the middle of bottom edge, and place another tack run your hand over the paper, starting there. from the center, towards the right edge, putting down a tack at about the middle point, and then, sliding hand to left over the paper, fasten the edge there likewise. Starting again from center of the sheet, rub your hand towards each corner in succession, and, holding the paper firmly, insert tacks also. Make sure of pressing the tacks down hard with your



Paper." India or Chinese Ink only is used for all drawings. Writing inks of any kind are barred. The best India ink comes in sticks or cakes, and should be ground in water fresh whenever used. But inasmuch as this means the loss of much time, to be done properly, the fluid inks are generally employed. Buy a small bottle at a time. Keep bottle well corked, to exclude dust and dirt, and, also, to prevent disaster. The cost is about 25 cents. bottle-holder is sold at 30



Now



A



cents.



Drawing Paper.



The beginner requires sketchpaper of the plainest kind only, for his pencil work. Get the smooth sort. It can be bought by the yard. Later in the course, when the lettering is to be finished in ink, the drawing paper should be of good quality. There are numerous brands of paper in the market, and they are almost all of excellent quality. Smooth paper only should be used for lettering. The drawing paper may be cut somewhat smaller than the drawing board. The cross piece on each end of the board, being of tougher wood, the thumb tacks cannot easily be employed on them. The paper is tacked upon the drawing board, square ing-



thumb. If more tacks are necessary, put them in between the. others, always pressing the paper down first, from the center outward.



When the student of lettering has passed the experimental stage and enters into the competition for honors and material remuneration, he will become more painstaking in the execution of his art as well as in the selection of materials. The first thing, then, is to substitute fine paper, and heavier, say three- or fourply, or bristol board, for the cheaper grades used for



16



The paper may



then be mounted on the This method insures more comfortable work, as there are no thumb tacks used, and the T-square and triangle may be moved over the working surface of the paper more easily and without obstruction. When the finished drawing is to be removed from the board, it is simply cut along the outer edge and lifted out. The remaining pasted edges may then be soaked with warm water, and after a while the strips can be pulled off, and small particles still adhering, cleaned away with the penknife. Care should be taken not to use too much water, nor to get any moisture upon the drawing practising.



outward, while rubbing with the palms of the hands. Stand your drawing board on edge, until the paper is dry, when it will be found stretched tightly. The first thing to do, on starting the drawing, is to square off the paper, put in the center line, and



drawing board.



board, as this



would tend



three lines around the working space. The or outer line represents the cutting line, and along this pencil line the penknife is used, to cut and remove the finished drawing from the board. (Do not use the T-square or triangle as a guide when cutting with knife.) The second, or middle line is for the border. The third, or inner line is drawn to keep the reading matter exactly within its limits. Flat Rule, graduated to eighths and sixteenths of inches, is handy for ruling lines and rough measurements for sketching and pencil work. For purposes of taking dimensions of letters as well as for spacing, &c., compasses, dividers or bow spacers are strip of cross-section paper, divided ten used. squares to the inch, is a valuable adjunct to the lettered Keep a strip, two inches wide, by six or eight inches long, pushed under the right edge of your drawing paper. With a pencil mark the spaces, dimensions, width of letters, thickness of lines, &c., on the strip, and compare proportions as you proceed. While not as accurate as the measurements marked by the bow spacers and other instruments, this paper scale will be found very handy and useful. Cross-section Paper is drawing paper, ruled in small squares. It is a very convenient article for the student when copying letters on an enlarged scale. The ruling is also done on transparent or tracing paper. first,



A



grain of the out of shape.



to raise the



wood, and might even warp



To mount the paper, Make sure your board is



draw



it



first



find



the



right side.



remove all paper or glue, and sandpaper any roughWith the paper right side up, cut off about an smooth,



if not,



particles of ness.



A



inch of the corners diagonally. Turn up the edges of paper and lay the sheet over on the other side. Soak paper well and evenly with clean water and sponge, except the edges. lay the paper over on the drawing board with right side up. Let the edges of paper be parallel with the edges of drawing board. Paste the top edge and turn it down, pressing it upon the board from center of the sheet outward, to both ends. (Photo paste is good to use.) When fastened down sufficiently, paste opposite edge of paper. Turn down and rub from center outward, as before, but with a downward motion, designed to stretch the paFinally repeat pasting process, first on one, per. then on the other of remaining edges, stretching well



Now



17



Transfer Paper.



The



black carbon paper, sold at not suitable for transferring designs, as the carbon generally contains oil and the marks are difficult to remove. Instead you can easily construct a piece of transfer paper by blackening a sheet of thin, white paper on one side with a lead pencil, and this may be used for a long while. Take a sheet of note paper, unruled, thin, white; unglazed bond paper would serve best. When pointing your lead pencils, you may save the lead powder and use it to rub into the sheet with a small rag. Be careful to keep the other side clean. The paper should be blackened evenly and well up to the edges. When done, any excess of the powder is carefully shaken off, and the sheet further cleaned and the lead surart material stores,



is



face smoothed and tempered



by rubbing



it



with a



piece of soft paper with a circular motion, until the sheet shows an even and unbroken dark gray color.



Tracing Paper or -Cloth. When you have drawn on sketching paper and desire to carry it over to the drawing paper to be finished in ink, a piece of tracing paper or tracing cloth Is spread over the design and fastened at the edges with thumb a design



With a sharp pointed pencil the lines are then traced very carefully on the tracing paper. When finished, both the sketch and tracing are removed from the board. The drawing paper or card board is now mounted on the drawing board, as directed under " Drawing Paper," and the tracing securely fastened over it, taking good care, however, to first square it by the use of the T-square, before putting the thumb tacks in place. Between the tacks.



drawing paper and the tracing a sheet of transfer paper is inserted with the white or clean side up. This may be shifted when necessary, by removing a tack or two and fastening down securely again



when



placed.



The



lines of the design are



drawn with painstaking



care.



A very hard



now



re-



and well keep the



pointed pencil is used. It is necessary to paper smooth, and in shifting, to avoid even a fractional movement of the design or tracing. Irregular Curves are sometimes necessary or helpful in the construction of borders for inscriptions or advertisements, also in drawing ellipses and the



curved arrangement of a line of lettering. They Use are never employed in the shaping of letters. transparent curves in preference to black rubber or wooden ones. Select two that show the longest and most graceful lines. When using part of an irregular curve to draw a border, and, having drawn with pencil the line wanted, mark at beginning and end of the line, on the paper as well as on the implement, so that the particular part of curve can be found again when inking in. It may also be necessary to reverse the curve to continue the design, or to carry over the contours on the opposite side of the border, but it is a better plan to use tracing paper for this purpose. As used for ellipses see the directions under "Ellipses," page 30, and also "The Border," page 121. Brushes. Black or red sable brushes are employed in the course of lettering for the final filling out with ink of the spaces betwen the outlines of large letters. To correct mistakes of overdrawn ink lines and spots by painting out with white color, a very fine brush



Brushes, mounted in metal ferrules, with used. handles are preferable. Nos. five or six may be selected for the ink work, No. one for the white is



color.



in



themselves



represent merely



a



means



to



that



end.



A



Water Color, White. cake or pan of white color used to paint out errors on finished pen work intended for mechanical reproduction. Take a very small brush, dip into water and rub on cake or pan. The moist color will yield quicker. When rubbed thick and creamy, apply to the spot to be obliterated, taking care to confine the operation to the inked portion only, and not to daub the paper. The white line at the edge should be cut sharply. second application of white color may be necessary after the first coating has dried thoroughly. Sheet Gelatine is used by some letterers for transferring designs, measuring, &c., and also as a support for the compass- or bow pen-points, when drawing circles or arcs, to avoid tearing large holes in the drawing paper. Its use is not recommended, as the practice is liable to soil the paper. When the compasses are employed properly, the drawing paper should not become torn, and the use of tracing paper fills all the other requirements. is



Clean out the brushes in water, as soon as done with them. Take special care not to let the ink harden in your brush. Lay them into a case or box, flat, so as to keep the hair straight and smooth. Ink Eraser. To remove an ink spot or fraction of inked line a sharp steel eraser is used. To make a perfect erasure, so that it cannot be noticed, is a very delicate operation, because the smooth paper will be roughened. The spot may finally be flattened and polished by rubbing with the bone handle of the eraser. Ink rubber should not be used. The correction of faulty ink lines and spots on drawings intended for photographic reproduction is a simple operation. If an error is made, finish your drawing first, and after all pencil marks and mussed spots have been cleaned off, correct the faulty line by painting over with white color, as directed under " Water Color, White," in the article below. Advertisement designs are made for reproduction only, and



PART



A



II— PRACTICE



Always do your work in the Position as to light. Get nearest the window, light obtainable. North light is the best, light from the east the next See that the light falls on your drawing board best. from the left upper corner. You will notice, when best



19



WORK



drawing lines with the T-square and triangle, that by having the correct position, no shadows fall on the working side of your paper, and your eyes will be saved. The drawing board may be laid flat upon the table, or slightly inclined at the top.



Plate



I



The Guide Lines



When



lines are to be drawn on the right, or shade swing your drawing board around, so the bottom edge will be at the top, but do not change your



side,



position, nor that of the T-square. top lines of letters are drawn in the



The



horizontal



same manner.



Practice work. Your daily practice work should be done in the following order. Select the proper place to work, with reference to light, as above. Dust and carefully wipe drawing board, T-square, Sharpen and point triangle, &c., with dry cloth. pencils and compass lead. See that your hands are clean. Stretch drawing paper upon the board. (See Square off the paper under "Drawing Paper.")



and put



in the



guide



lines.



(Plate I). You may start in to copy the first three letters of the Roman alphabet from Plate 2, " Mechanical construction." The letters are, say, i inch high, so you should make your copy 2 inches. Divide your sheet of drawing paper into two inch squares. Be very accurate to have all squares exactly alike. Draw even, thin, sharp lines. Beginning from the top line, the first space of squares is to be filled with letters, the next one below left blank, the following one is for letters again and so on. Now, with bow spacers measure width of hair lines of letters, and mark from top and bottom line of first space on drawing paper the double distance, then draw lines from the marks, parallel with the others. Do the same with the other letter spaces. You are now ready to begin the sketching in of the This is done freehand, in letters into the squares. long, light, sweeping strokes of the pencil. By measuring the width of letter and comparing it with its 22



Guide Lines.



height you will arrive at the proportions relative to its



position in the square.



The Roman



A



is



much



wider than it is high. It should be started from the center and top line of the first square, and the serifs, or spurs, extended outside of the square. See first example on plate i. The letter B is then sketched into the third square, leaving the second square to intervene. Place the lines for the heavy, or down stroke, just within the square. C, like and G, &c., is a round letter, and can be placed almost wholly within the square. All letters are sketched in freehand and no rule or instrument whatever is used for guide or measurement. The proportions must be studied out and copied with care. Fill in the remaining squares on your drawing paper with the letters A, B and C as above, always trying to improve on the letter previously made. After finishing a letter, examine it from one side first, then from the other, and also looking at it from the top, or upside down. You will thus find deficiencies in the roundness of the curves and the shape generally. These shortcomings should be corrected, however, from the original position as you sit before your drawing board. Each example must be carefully studied and practised unceasingly, until the student has brought out every line and curve as correctly as possible. When you think that you have copied the letters as well as you can, clean them off with sponge rubber, until only faint lines remain. Over these you may now proceed with your instruments, guided by the rules on the " Mechanical construction " plate.



O



Lay T-square



across drawing board, with its head against the left edge. Place triangle in position against top edge of T-square blade, so as to reach with sharp slightly above top lines of drawing. pencil draw all vertical lines along left edge of triangle, starting at the extreme left and working towards the right, until all lines are drawn. The exact width of hair- and body-lines is determined by measurement with the bow spacers, dividers, or a Next slide T-square piece of cross-section paper. down the board, until the triangle again reaches just above the height of lines to be drawn. Proceed as before, beginning at the left, and so on, until all vertical lines have been drawn. Removing the Tsquare, all diagonal lines are drawn next, by the use of the triangle. Attention must be given at all times to get uniform widths of hair lines and body lines. discard the triangle and draw horizontal lines along the T-square edge, beginning at the top and working along from left to right, to the end of blade. Then lower the T-square and, as the lines come into view repeat the operation all the way down the sheet. Do not have any instruments on the drawing board and in your way. When all straight lines have been gone over, remove T-square and take up your compasses. With the pencil point draw all circles and arcs, as told under "The Compasses." Begin from the top line and work downward, doing the large circles first. Let your arcs run flush with the straight lines. The bottom and top lines of the letters are finished by the T-square last of all. To do the top lines conveniently, the drawing board is turned around, until the bottom edge is at the top. With



Now



Now



23



the T-square head pressed against the same edge as before, (now on the right) draw the top lines of let(now at the bottom). ters (See also "The Tsquare," "The Triangle," "The Lead pencils" and



"The



Compasses.") After you have succeeded in making good copies of the first three letters of the alphabet, preserve the best sheet, destroying those containing the inferior studies. On a fresh sheet continue with the next three letters, D, E and F, and so on, down to Z, and the numerals. The sheets of drawing paper containing the best copies of letters are finally scrutinized, and if no improvement can be made on any of them, they may be



(See under " The Ruling pen," &c.) better way, which insures cleaner work, is to trace the drawings upon a fresh sheet. (Consult the article " Tracing-Paper or -Cloth.") When all your letters are done, compare them with the originals in the book and make a new drawing for any found deficient. Take good care of your drawing instruments, wipe them after each handling. Always remember that the light should fall upon your work from the upper left corner of drawing board. Take your time to work out lettering. Go slow. Good work cannot be done in a hurry. Lettering requires patience.



worked out



in ink.



A



"The Compasses,"



When



working on



a drawing, keep your paper as lot of mussing can be avoided all portions of the drawing below



clean as possible.



A



by covering up the working line.



Use tracing paper, or even clean



Plate



II



Modern Roman Mechanical Construction



1



J]



s.



Plate



III



Modern Roman Mechanical Construction 2



»



*



Plate



IV



Modern Roman Mechanical Construction 3



wrapping paper, and thumb



tacks. After the top been inked in, shift your covering to below the next line and so on. After proficiency in the use of the instruments has been attained, lettering is always finished by their use. At this stage the freehand work is allowable only in the sketching of letters. Freehand work should again be encouraged on all but straight lines, when the student has mastered the art so far as to be able to draw all the letters to



line of lettering has



above, and then to use the compasses as in constructing the inner line of the letter O. (See " Mechanical construction of letters and numerals," page 31.) As given in books on geometry, one of different methods of drawing an ellipse is as follows



perfection. Ellipses.



The construction of an ellipse, while a and laborious proposition for the student of mechanical drawing, can be narrowed down to a simple manipulation for the purposes of the practidifficult



cal letterer. In this respect elliptical lines are rarely used for anything but borders or frames of advertisements, and inscriptions on plans, memorials, &c. An oval or elliptical border is a most handsome thing, although it eats up a lot of costly space when used for an advertisement. One method of drawing an ellipse, and the easiest of all, is to employ a section of the outer edge of an irregular curve. You can make ovals in any shape, full pointed or flat. Use the curve for a quarter section only. Divide the space on the drawing paper



and a vertical center line. Draw by guide of the irregular curve, but First determine the major and minor axes. Then do one-half or one-quarter section only, and use tracing paper to construct the rest. draw straight lines R and (See " Irregular Q, making any convenient angle at H. With center Curves," page i8; also "Tracing Paper," page i8.) and radii Another method, and one that can be employed equal to the semi-minor and semi-major axes respectively, describe arcs L also on larger work, is to put in the center lines, as and O. Join L O 30



by



a horizontal



elliptical line



H



H



M



H



N



M



K



N



P parallel to L O. Lay off and and N3 paralJoin Oi and draw Take IJ3 for the longest radius (^T), lel to Oi. H2 for the shortest radius (^E), and one-half the sum of the semi-axes for the third radius (=S) and use these radii to describe the ellipse as follows Let be the major and minor axes. Lay off AB and and draw



Li^^



of



M2



LN.



:



CD



and A5=S. Then lay off CG=T and C6=S. With G as center and G6 as radius draw the arc 6, g. With center 4 and radius 4 5, draw arc 5 g, intersecting 6, g at g. Draw the line Gg and produce it making G8~T. Draw g 4 and extend it to 7 making g



A4=E



7=S.



With



center



G



and radius



GC



(~T) draw the arc



C8, with center g and radius g 8 (~S) draw the arc 8 7. With center 4 and radius 4 7 (^E) draw arc 7 A. The remaining quadrants can be drawn in the same way.



MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS AND NUMERALS To lay down strict rules for the construction of the ideal lines of Roman letters seems a cruel undertaking, but as there should be a system by which the beginner may be taught, the author has endeavored to supply one according to his experience. These rules will gradually be superseded by simpler methods as the student acquires proficiency. Even to



the accomplished artist draws his guide lines be eliminated after he has no further use for them.



The drawing paper as described



is first laid out in guide lines, under "Practice Work," page 19.



31



A



The



A



letter is sketched into the first square freehand and in light, clean lines. When you have succeeded in copying the letter from plate 2, " Mechanical construction of letters," as well as you can, remove the pencil marks with sponge rubber, until only faint lines remain. With the triangle as a guide and a sharp pointed pencil draw the outer lines from the lower corners of square upward to the center of top line of square. The widths of hair-



and body-lines are measured by the bow spacers or dividers and then marked on the drawing paper.



The



inner straight lines are



now drawn



accordingly



and parallel with the outer lines. The length of the serifs or spurs on the bottom must then be determined and marked on the drawing. The arcs are run in (The centers with the compasses and pencil-point. for compass-point are indicated on the " Mechanical Note the construction" plates by small stars.) smaller and larger curves, as used for the slanting lines. The top and bottom lines are finally drawn along T-square edge. Observe that the pointed top Remember of A extends above upper guide line. that all the letters are first sketched in lightly, free(See " Practice Work," page 19.)



hand.



constructing Bin stroke or body



B



the



line



is



first



line of the



drawn by



down



the triangle



edge, along the left side of the square. The width of body line is taken and marked on drawing, and the second line of the down stroke made parallel to the first. After the lengths of the two serifs have been marked and drawn the triangle is discarded and the middle hair line located slightly above center, marked and drawn. Next the outer semi-circles to



Plate



V



Modern Roman



1



J



AB EFG KL



Plate



VI



Modern Roman



2



MNOP RST UVWX



Plate



VII



Modern Roman



3



12345



YZ



O?



• f •



the right are made. Then the inner curves, after the widths of the body lines have been carefully measured. Note that the thickness is slightly fuller towards the middle part than that of the straight body lines. Observe also that the lower round body line is a little heavier than the upper one, and that the bottom portion of the letter is more expanded than the top. All letters look better when "weighted" towards the lower portion. The arcs for the serifs, and the top and bottom hair lines are



drawn last. Find the exact point



of center for your compasses with the straight lines. The construction lines are drawn heavier than the guide lines, and a softer pencil is used. a point in the exact center of square the outer curve of C is drawn with the compasses. This line must slightly overreach the top and bottom guide lines. The straight line of serif at the right is next run down by the use of triangle edge. The centers for compass-point must now be found to extend the top and bottom outer curves toward the right. It is of the greatest importance to have the lines run flush with the semi-circle, so that they appear as one line and no break is noticeable where the two arcs join. The end of lower hair line is carried a little farther out than the upper, in order to better balance the shape of the letter. The inner curve to the left comes next, after the width of body line has been marked, then the inner lines on top and bottom, connecting it, are drawn. Note that the end of lower hair line is thickened. The so that the curves are run perfectly tangent



CFrom



38



width of all hair lines must be uniform. The small arc on top of serif, the two short straight lines on serif and the one on end of lower hair line complete the letter.



DAs



in B, the two vertical lines for the down stroke of are first drawn. The outer semi-circle to the right comes next, then the inner curve. Always obtain your measurements first. The small arches connecting inner curve and horizontal



D



hair lines must be placed very accurately, so as to run flush with both, without showing a joint. The serifs are then drawn, as before. vertical lines for the body line of E are drawn first, the same as for the letters B and D. The vertical lines of the brackets and center



EThe



made next, after their dimensions have been ascertained. Note that the lower bracket extends slightly beyond the line of the upper one, also that it is a little heavier. Measurements are now taken of the widths of brackets, and the diagonal lines serif are



drawn. The middle hair line is placed slightly above center of square. The serifs on top, bottom and on middle hair line are made, then the short end strokes and finally the top and bottom lines. the exception of lower bracket, the construction of letter F is identical with that of E. letter is constructed like C and the lower body line is added by the use of the triangle. The serifs are drawn last. See that lower body line balances well with top serif. Place letter in the center of the square. The two body lines are drawn first, after their



FWith



GThe



H



G



H



width has been marked. The middle hair line is next put in. Note that it is located just above the The serifs are now drawn and the letter center. finished by the top and bottom lines. The serifs must all be of uniform length. Letter I is but a repetition of a part of former I letters and its construction requires no special Place the I in the center of the square. line of J is placed against the right The arch at the bottom side of the square. is then drawn toward the left and the ball added. Joining the lines of the ball so that they appear as one continuous curve requires accurate placing of compass point. The curve must reach just below the guide line. The serif and top line are drawn last. After drawing the difficult letter is K. lines of the vertical body line, the exact location of the diagonal hair line is of importance. When this has been put in, the next difficulty is the correct placing of the short diagonal body line. This must be sufficiently slanted so as to extend far enough beyond the upper hair line to balance the position of the letter well. The serifs are now drawn. Special attention must be given to the bringing out of the proper values of the smaller and larger curves necesdescription.



J



The body



KA



The top and botsary to meet the slant of the lines. tom horizontals finish the letter. construction of letter L is done under a partial repetition of the rules for making the E. are run exactly vertical lines of within the square. Draw the hair line to the left first, then the body line at the right. Next find the center between the two and mark on the bot-



LThe



MThe



M



39



tom guide line. From this point draw the diagonal (An easy way to get the correct hair line upward. run in the top left serif arch first and then line of diagonal body line run up to lower let the meet it.) The serifs are all put in simultaneously, and then the diagonals drawn. The short end strokes and the top and bottom lines are finally done. Note that the point of center body line extends below guide line. Similar to the is made. The two hair lines are drawn first, then the serifs, and the diagonal body line next. The short ends and top and bottom lines last. Remember that the point of body line must reach below guide line. outer line of O is a simple circle, just overlapping the top and bottom guide lines. A horizontal and vertical guide line, drawn across slant



is



to



N



M



N



OThe



the center point, will assist in finding the correct position of the compass centers, for drawing the inner long curves and also to connect them by the shorter curves of top and bottom inner lines. Note that the body lines are a little heavier in the middle portion than the straight body lines. See also that the hair lines, at their narrowest part, are of equal width with the straight hair lines. The small curves must run flush with the larger ones. letter P is constructed on part of the principles of B except that the middle hair line is placed slightly below the center of square and that the outer semicircle extends outward as far as the lower curve of B. draw an as per directions above. The dash or tail at the bottom must be made gracefully and somewhat lighter than the body lines.



PThe



OFor Q



O



Plate Classic



VIII



t



Roman



4



ABCDEM GHIKLNF OPQRS



V



Observe the compass centers



to get the



dash into the



right position. letter hard to make is R, and the obstacle to be overcome is the curious shape and position of its curled tail. The other parts of the letter are constructed as in B, The hooklike end of the tail or dash should stand out beyond the line of the upper semicircle, and also run fairly over and below the guide line. The curvature of the dash must be v^^ell studied, for upon its correct shape depends the expression of this letter. The large curves are alw^ays drawn first, the smaller ones last. Give ample width to the dash. most difficult to draw of all letters is the S. Of advantage to the student, however, is the fact that it will about fill the space within a square. The top and bottom hair lines are drawn first. Remember that the outer curves must extend One vertical just above and below the guide lines.



R



Another



SThe



center guide line, and two horizontal guide li_nes, equal to the width of the straight body lines, are drawn. The center between these guide lines should be a little above the center of the square. The outer semicircles are drawn to connect the upper hair line with the lower center guide line at the left, and the lower hair line with the upper center guide line at the right. Next the inner curves are made to connect the inner line of the top hair line with the upper center guide line, and the inner line of the bottom hair line with the lower center guide line. The width of the body line should be greater at the right and left curves than at the center part. The vertical lines of the serifs are now put in, the lower



42



one on a line with the upper semicircle and the upper straight line receding from the line of the lower outer curve on the right. This is done to balance The the upper and lower portions of the letter. short curves on both ends of the serifs are then drawn. All small curves must run flush into the



The



short horizontal lines for the centangent to the curves. Finally the short end lines are drawn. The letter S requires a great deal of study and practice to bring out the beauty of its shape. simple letter is T. As long as you get the



larger ones. ter



body



line are



now made,



TA



measurements correct you cannot fail to make your copy an exact duplicate of the original. Place The body line is drawn it right within the square. Then the two brackets, which must be of unifirst. form length and thickness. Be careful not to get them too heavy. The serifs and top and bottom lines are done last. proportions of U should be carefully



UThe studied.



The body



line



is



drawn



first,



then



the vertical part of the hair line. Next the curves connecting the hair- and body-lines are run in. You must try with your compasses until you find the exact center point and have the curves meet the straight lines perfectly flush. The serifs and top lines complete the letter. is like reversed, without the cross hair line, but much narrower than that letter. Draw the outer diagonals from the center of the lower line of the square, the inner lines parallel to the former. The serifs are measured and drawn as in and the larger and smaller curves, as applied for



VThe



A



V



A



the slant, well studied. The short finishing line on the bottom end and the top lines are done last. The point must extend below the guide line. widest letter of the alphabet, W, reLight quires special study as to proportion. the position of freehand sketching will determine the lower guide line. the two starting points from The first body line and the last hair line are drawn Then the middle hair- and body-lines at the start. are run parallel with the first. The two open spaces between the upper portions of the letter must be exactly alike in size and shape. The serifs are then drawn with caution. Make use of the experience and V. The short end lines gained with letters and the straight top lines finish the letter. Do not forget that the two points should reach below the



WThe



K



bottom guide



XA



line.



rather peculiar letter is X. The result to be aimed at, in the construction of this letter, is an even balance to right and left and also a smaller upper than lower portion. The waist line must consequently be raised above the center of square. Start the outer diagonal lines from the top corners of the square and let the hair line extend beyond the lower left corner. The second line of the body line must run outside of the square at the lower right corner likewise. The second outline of If hair line is then put in and the effect studied. drawn with are serifs the they are balanced correctly, the same attention to the right placing of the smaller and W. Then the short and larger curves as in end strokes of the serifs and the top and bottom hori-



V



zontals are drawn.



43



YThe upper portion of the V,



letter



Y, resembling



made on somewhat



similar principles. The vertical body line is drawn in the center of the square. The outer diagonal lines are then put in, bringing the waist line on the right to about the center and the inner diagonal body line to connect at the same point. Thus the waist line on the left side will come considerably below the center. The outer diagonal lines are run outside the upper corners of the square. The serif curves are now drawn, observing the correct placing of the larger and smaller curves, as for previous diagonals. The short end strokes and the top and bottom lines are then it is



made.



ZThe



last letter of the alphabet, Z, fits into a



square at the top, the bottom portion extending outside of both corners. The diagonal body line is put in first, then the short vertical lines of the brackets. The diagonals of the brackets are next drawn. The lower bracket may be a trifle heavier than the upper one. The short ends are then finished and the top and bottom hair lines drawn.



THE NUMERALS



IWith



the exception of part of the top serif the I is identical with the letter I and is constructed accordingly. The 2 about occupies a square. Much study is To required to balance the figure properly. bring out its grace of outline untiring practice is The top hair line is done first. Run the necessary. upper curve slightly above guide line. Next the hair figure



2



Flate



French



IX



Roman



1



ABCDE FGHIJ KLMNO



II



Plate



French



X



Roman



2



PQRST UVWXY



is drawn from the left lower corner of the square up, toward the center. The inner line of the upper body line is then run in, connecting the inner line of the top hair line with the lower hair line. The second line of the lower hair line is now run from below and upward, observing that the width of the hair line must at its narrowest point correspond to the width of the straight hair lines. The curved outer line to the right is drawn by two successive center points. The lower body line or tail is done next. The peculiar swing must be carefully copied. The long curves are drawn first, the lower one reaching a trifle below the guide line, the smaller ones last. Note that the body lines are a little fuller than the straight body lines. The ball at the top comes next and great accuracy is necessary to run in the small curves as one continuous



line



line.



The



figure



is



finished



by the short strokes



at



the bottom.



The proper shaping



of figure 3 demands even more study and practice than that of 2. This numeral also is just about as wide as a square. Note how much smaller is the upper portion than the



3



lower. The top and bottom hair lines, just reaching above and below the guide lines, are drawn first, then the round body lines, somewhat like those of the letter B, the lower one a little heavier than The balls are then added to top and the upper. ends, and again the lower one must be a bottom Examine the work critically to see fuller. trifle whether the figure is properly balanced. If not, try again. The short straight line to finish the center



end



is



done



last.



48



4



The 4



of comparatively easy construction, but is perplexing. Place the figure in the square so that the vertical line of the serif on the right end of the hair line rests on the right side of the square. The body line is drawn first. Then the its



is



width



horizontal hair line. The correct location of this cross line is important. Next comes the diagonal hair line, which must run out to the left sufficiently far to balance the serif end on the right. This serif is smaller than usual. The point on top must extend above the guide line. The serifs are now drawn and the short ends finished. To construct the 5 is easier than it seems. The point to be observed here is the proper balancing of the lower portion of the figure with the upper. Start by running in the bottom hair line, and do the center hair line next. The round body line is then connected with both. Then comes the vertical hair line, followed by the upper curved body line or tail. This is nearly like the tail of figure 2. The ball end of the bottom hair line is then drawn. It should extend far enough beyond the line of the upper vertical hair line to balance the figure well. Finish by putting in the short end strokes. Do not forget that the round body lines need fullness. For the 6 draw a circular guide line first, extending just above and below the guide lines. Next run a vertical guide line through center. The inner curve for the upper part of the body line is then made. From a point of the center guide line draw the inner curve of the top hair line. From the same guide line draw the inner curves of the bottom and center hair lines, then connect these small



5



6



curves by larger ones. The outer curve of the center hair line is next made and connected by a small curve with the outer circle. Add the ball to the top hair line. Finally draw in that part of the circular guide line which constitutes the outer construction line of the figure.



The upper body line of 7 is almost identical with the tails of 2 and 5, except that it is more After this has been drawn within the extended. boundaries of a square, parallel diagonal guide lines, corresponding to the width of hair lines, are run from the right end of upper body line to a point within a short distance of the lower left corner of the square. The left curve of the lower body line is now drawn from the second lower guide line upward, meeting the first diagonal guide line flush. Next the right curve of the lower body line is made from the lower guide line upward, joining the second diagonal guide line just above the center of the



7



square. The small curves connecting the upper ends of the diagonal guide lines with the upper body line are put in, and then those parts of the diagonals, which lie between the curves, redrawn. The vertical serif at the left upper corner, the bottom line, and the short ends, finish the figure. Attention is called to the extra width of the lower body line and also to its peculiar position, which must appear well poised to balance the upper portion of the figure. The extremes of the curves and points must project above the guide line. In the 8 we have the most difficult of the numerals. Its construction is similar to that of the vertical center line and two parallel letter S.



8



A



49



horizontal guide lines are for S.



The upper and lower



drawn



in the square as outer curves are drawn



extending just above and below the guide lines. outer curve on body line is next made to connect the upper line with the lower center guide line. The lower outer line is likewise connected on the right by a curve with the upper center line. This curve may touch the right side of the square, while the upper curve must recede from the left side of the square, to insure a smaller top than bottom portion of the figure. The inner curves of the top and bottom hair lines are next drawn. Then the inner curves of the body line, running from the center guide lines, and connecting with the inner line of the hair lines. The same radius is used for the opposite curve on inner line of the hair lines. The lower outer curve of the hair line is now extended by shifting the point of compass center to the left. From the extended bottom curve a smaller curve is drawn at the lower left, connecting with the curved body line, near its junction with the lower center guide line. small curve is likewise drawn connecting the top outer curve with a point at the intersection of the upper center guide line and the curved body line on the right. The result should show a substantial thickening of the lower hair line at the extreme left, and also of the upper one to the right, although the latter should be of lesser width. The construction of 9 is a repetition of that of 6, as it represents that figure upside down, distinct exceptions. First: the but with two upper portion of 9 is shorter than the lower one of 6 and the inner line can be done in one plain circle. first,



The



left



A



9



Second: the lower end of 9 is more extended than the top of 6, because of the rule as applied in constructing 3, 5 and 8, i. e., to always make the lower portions fuller than the upper. Therefore the ball end is extended and the ball itself enlarged. o is identical with the letter and drawn according to the same principles. construction of the abbreviation mark for " and," &, is explained here, since we have now learned about the figure 8. The is practically an 8 with its lower portion shifted slightly to the left and a small c attached to its lower right. Run in the lines as for figure 8, taking care to keep the lower portion well to the left. The bottom hook is then drawn and finally the ball end. See that this character is well balanced. The ball end should appear as the continuation of the lower hair line, and the bottom hook as that of the body line. P The interrogation mark is made, with a slight • deviation, according to the rules laid down for constructing the upper part of figure 2. The ball or period must be of a thickness equal to the width of the body lines. The latter principle also applies to the construction of the comma (,) and exclama-



O



OThe



&The



&



tion



mark



(



!).



In no case is it permissible to copy a letter or figure from the book, by the use of tracing paper. Nothing is gained by such practice. Your eye must be trained as well as your hand. Freehand sketching is the best means to that end. The construction of the letters and numerals on mechanical principles is done to show how near you can come to the true lines, and also to gain experience.



GENERAL RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF LETTERS The letters of the alphabet should appear as much as possible each to occupy the same amount They should be made to appear so, to of space. produce harmony. There are certain limitations to this, however. The letter or the W, for instance, would not look well when squeezed into a space equal to that occupied by an I or a J, nor vice



M



versa.



It



is



the



volume



of the letter, in



its



relation



white space between the letters, that counts. As a matter of fact hardly two letters of the whole alphabet can be made to fill exactly the same amount of space and look right. Study the characters on plates 2, 3 and 4, "Mechanical constructo the



Ink work should not be attempted on letters and tion of letters and numerals" and note how they numerals until proficiency in the copying of their appear in their finished state, plates 5, 6 and 7, Ink work "Modern Roman." To make the proportions of outlines, by pencil, has been acquired. in the mechanical construction of letters and numblack letters and white spaces as nearly alike as possible is the idea underlying the principles for the erals is done on the following order: the small construction of letters designed for legibility. To circles and curves are done first, the larger ones next, then the vertical and diagonal lines are run strive to even up space without addition to, or changing the individual lines of the characters, is in, and the horizontals last. 50



help to make these letters easy to read when they are assembled in words and phrases. and M, the letters and ocNext to W, appears no larger cupy the largest space. Still than B, which letter is, in fact, much smaller. The I and J fill the smallest spaces. The proportions of the Roman letters are based on the square or the circle. All round or circular



The width



O, S, C, &c., should be made to extend a little above and below the line, otherwise they striking example of this would look too small. If the hooked end illusion is found in the letter R. of its curved tail is made on a line with the lower This is a mistake serif, it will appear too short.



Like the lines of a well constructed building, the should be lighter in its upper, and heavier in its lower portion, wherever it can be so constructed. are placed Thus the middle hair lines of B, E and slightly above the center, and the lower brackets of E, L, and Z made somewhat fuller than the upper ones. B, C, E, G, K, R, S, X and Z are all wider at the bottom than on top, for the same reason. The above rules together with the principles of mechanical construction on page 31 are given to



to



A



X



K



A



letters, like



A



often seen. For the ters,



same reason the sharp points of the



A, V, N,



low the



let-



&c., should be extended above or be-



line.



necessary to have all hair- and all body- or heavy lines of the letters of equal width. Accuracy of construction is the chief requirement for drawings of letters, and exactness can best be acquired when enforced at the beginning. When copying letters and numerals from the book take your dimensions deliberately and with care. The drawing tools and materials should be prop-



The utmost



care



is



erly employed, see Part I ials,"



page



Hair



—"The



Drawing Mater-



9.



lines are the light up-strokes,



down-strokes are heavy



lines,



as



body



lines or



in writing.



X



y



Y



They



V



X



committed by eminent artists, proving that these masters do not give due consideration to so important a matter as



met



with.



are



sometimes



lettering. letter



H



teach



not



Roman as well.



only the construction of the Modern but all other styles of Roman letters applying By these principles, with a few



letters,



Roman, French Roman, Ornamental Roman, Block and Plain let-



exceptions as to details, the Antique



The rules will also aid ters can be correctly made. materially in the construction of the Roman Italic alphabet, or slanted Roman. All these styles are described under separate headings, and this article deals only with the method of construction of the letters.



The



O, G, B, &c., should always be a little heavier in the middle portion than the straight body lines, lest they appear too thin.



round body



of the curved hair lines, at their narrow-



equal to that of the straight hair lines. T^^^jr-T^ Such awkward mistakes as an inverted JE\. or or are frequently



est part, is



lines of letters like



51



Antique Roman. In this alphabet (plate 11), the vary from those of the Modern Roman letters in that the curves are extended by straight lines, mak-



serifs



1



Plate



Antique



XI Roman



I



ABCDEFG HIJKLMN O P QR STU VWXYZ &



flat and thinner. The hair lines are also and the brackets and serifs of C, E, F, G, L, S, T and Z are slightly curved and slanted. The body lines of A, K, M, N, R, V and show the



ing them



plain letter is generally the hardest to make. In all other essentials the Ornamental Roman letters are made exactly like the Modern Roman. The appearance of the letters can be varied by adding balls to the ends of the serifs.



lighter,



W



peculiar pointed extension at the ends, characterisThere are several other minor devitic of this style. ations, which require no special description as to The student who has acquired the construction. faculty of correctly copying the Modern Roman letters, will have no trouble in reproducing the An tique Roman letters from Plate 11. See "Antique



See "Ornamental Roman," page 92.



The Block



Roman," page 92. French Roman. In



constructing the French and 10), the complications are considerably lessened after you have acquired the mastery of the letters of the two former alpha-



Roman



letters



(plates 9



The manipulation is very similar to that of shaping the Antique Roman. In fact, the pointed serifs and ends of the French Roman letters require a good deal less work. Being extremely graceful,



bets.



X



See " French Roman," page 8.9. Ornamental Roman. To construct the curved serifs of the Ornamental Roman letters (plate 12), is a simple matter and requires less accuracy of exe-. cution than the straight end strokes of the Modern



Roman,



in that slight deviations are not at



Even when



once ap-



fairly well done, the effect



Mod-



A



these letters demand delicate handling. To reproduce them correctly is a matter of great accuracy, as the slightest deviation from the clean, sharp line or perfect curve would, of course, prove fatal.



parent.



letters (plate 18) are practically



ern Roman with all the lines of equal thickness, and therefore much easier to make than the latter style. The principal thing to observe, in its construction, is to get all parts -of the letter of even width. Square guide lines are drawn for the construction of Block, as for Modern Roman letters, but the upper and lower inter-guide lines are placed as far from the outer ones as the width of the body lines. When drawing the Block letter run all inner lines parallel with the outer ones, as in the drawing of the body lines for Modern Roman. On account of the heavy serifs, the cross bar of is placed somewhat higher than in Modern Roman. The serifs of K, and are perplexing, because of the great slant of the diagonals. This difficulty may be avoided or lessened by decreasing the widths of the lines of all letters. The block serifs should be nicely squared and care taken not to have them too long. The principles of construction laid down for the Modern Roman letters, may be applied in a slightly modified manner. See "Block" letters, page 96. Square Block. style of Block letter, constructed entirely of straight lines, except the round corners, is made similar to the Square Plain letters,



is



highly ornamental. This goes to prove that a few ornaments can hide a number of defects, and that a



54



A



plate 16.



Y



Ornamental Block, (plate 19) Is a Block serifs, as in Ornamental Roman.



with curved principles



of



The drawing



letter



For



construction see "Block," above. of the serifs needs no special direc-



tions.



See "Ornamental Block" page 97. The Plain or Condensed, Round. These



letters,



(plate 15) are designed to meet the requirements of



convenience and economy. They can be made, according to squareness or circularity, on the principles of the Modern Roman. That means that letters like B, D, H, &c., may be made approximately as wide as a square, and round letters like C, O, S, &c., to just fill a circle. A, K, and M, V, W, should then be made wider, of course, as in the Modern Roman, but the letters E, F, L and are exceptions, and should be narrower. See " Architects Single Stroke Alphabets,"



X



Y



U



plate 20, Alphabet i. As the Plain letters are intended for a smaller space, however, they are generally narrowed down to four-fifths of their height, and can be made still glance at plates 15 and 16 will show narrower. that the widths of letters B, C, D, H, J, N, P, R, S, narand Z are normal, as above, E, F, L and



A



U



T



rower, and A, G, K, M, O, Q, V, than four-fifths of their height. as for



Block



W, X and Y wider Draw guide lines



letters.



Do



not make the Plain letters too heavy. variation of the Plain letter is Plain, Square. made square, with straight lines and round corners. All round letters are done in straight (Plate 16). lines also, making their construction very simple.



A



55



Another variation has no curves at all, the corners being slanted off with straight lines. This style



much



used in wagon lettering. See also article Plain" letters, page 93. Plain, Spurred. (Plate 17). Although but a Plain letter with pointed serifs or spurs added, this style can be made to appear decidedly different from the former. The letters are constructed on the principles of the Plain or Condensed letters, as above, with the exception of A, M, N, and W, whose body lines are brought together to a sharp point, as in the is



on



"



V



French Roman.



Another deviation are the slanted C, E, F, G, J, L, S, and Z, necessitating contraction of the curved parallel lines at the ends, in order to make the connection for the



T



serifs of letters



point.



The all



spurs should be made sharp and short, and be of equal proportion.



Roman



Italics,



tion of the



After the construchas been masItalics offer no difficulties to the (plate 14).



Modern Roman



letters



tered the Roman student. Instead of dividing' the drawing paper into squares composed of horizontal and vertical guide lines, as for Modern Roman, the guide lines are run in diagonally, giving them the slant required by the Roman Italics. They should be placed at an angle of about thirty degrees, so as to form diagonal parallelograms of a width of three quarters their height. The curves of the letters of this alphabet may be drawn freehand, using the writing pen, and only



I



XII Ornamental Roman Plate



ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU VWXYZ &



the straight lines made with the ruling pen, guided by the T-square and triangle edge. Mechanical construction of the curves can be resorted to in extreme cases, if the letters are very large, but this style of lettering never looks well except when done with a light and graceful swing, and by using the instruments for their construction they are liable to become stiff and awkward in appearance. For these reasons it is not advisable for the student to attempt the reproduction of the Roman Italics until a certain manual skill and confidence has been acquired, which cannot fail to result after all the previous alphabets are mastered. The Romaa Italics should be studied and pracThe method of constructised in lead pencil first. tion is as follows: After sketching in the letters with pencil, the straight down strokes or body lines are drawn along the T-square and triangle edge. Then, with a pencil or the writing pen the curves are drawn, observing that all hair lines and all body lines are of even widths. are drawn The lines for the body line of as above, then the hair line from the top down, with a gentle, easy swing, ending with the small ball. This flourish may be extended according to fancy. The cross bar and bottom line of the serif are drawn with the T-square guide and the curves of the serif finished freehand. diagonal body line of B is made with the triangle and the upper hair line started from the top, with a swing to the left and a slight thickening near the end. Begin again at the same point



A



A



BThe



58



of the top hair line, turning to the right and continuing with the curved outer body line to the center and thence again outward and down to the lower guide line. Then the inner curves are made. The lower harizontal hair line is drawn along T-square edge and the curves of the serifs done as above. is begun at the top, and the outer curve made with one clean sweep of the pen or pencil. The lower end is slightly accentuated by a back stroke. Beginning again at the upper hair line and going towards the right, the curve is finished with the serif. The inner curve is finally drawn from the top down. The manipulation for is similar to E and F are drawn with that of B. triangle and the T-square except that the serifs can be done freehand. is made like C first and then the lower bracket or body line is drawn with the triangle and T-square, and the serifs drawn as before. Remember the rule concerning the thickness of round body lines, as given in " Mechanical construction of letters and numerals," page 31. and I are done with the help of the triA angle and T-square, as above. The diagonals for J are made with the triangle and the lower curve put in, from left to right, and finished with the ball. Then the top serif is done. first body line for is drawn as b&fore and then the hair line, beginning at the top. The ball end is next finished and the lower body line done along the triangle edge. Then make the serifs.



CC



D E F G



D



G



HT H



J



KThe



K



LThe



L



drawn by



the use of the triangle and T-square, except the bracket and serifs, which may be done freehand. and are done The hair lines of •L^ freehand and the ball is finished similar to the first line of A. The ends may also be extended. The other parts of the letters are drawn with the triangle and T-square guide, and then the curves of the serifs made. and is done by starting at the top sweeping toward the left and down and around to the right, then starting at the top again and moving toward the right and down, uniting with the first stroke. The inner curves are then run in, from the top downward. and S, also When working with ink, the C, O, all numerals except the i and 4, can be made entirely with the writing pen. P and are made similar to B and O. I^, and then the is a repetition of lower body line or tail is drawn by starting 'the outer curve at the center and running it down below the line. The inner curve is then made from the center down, in one stroke, to the end. fine, graceful swing of this curve must be produced, and the extent of the flourish is optional. requires thoughtful study and prolonged practice, as in Modern Roman. Start it with the upper curve, from left to right. Then draw the lower curve, from left to right and upward. Start again at the point of beginning of the upper curve, running downward and then to the right and down again in one sweep to the lower curve, thus describis



M



MX/T



OThe



N



O



Q



P/^ \f



Q



R



R



A



SS



59



ing the lower line of the body



from the



top, for the



upper



Begin once more body line, and The curves of the body



unite with the lower curve. must not appear too fiat. by putting in the serifs. body line of is line



TThe and



line.



line of the



The



letter



is



finished



T



made and the brackets with previous letters. The brackets must be as nearly alike as possible, and the one on the right must not appear too heavy. is made with an upward swing of its hair line, similar to the first hair line of A, but running in an opposite direction. Make the body line first, from the top down, and then the hair line, also beginning at the top and uniting with body line serifs



done



as



UU



below.



-



VW/" V



V



and



W



are done similar to other described above. The correct slant of these two letters is of importance. and are also difficult as to getting



XY" JL



other



letters



X



the



as



Y



slant



to



appear in line with the



letters.



The



hair lines of all these letters are capped with



a ball, as before.



ZThe



diagonal body line of Z having an extra great care is necessary to balance the letter well, as against the slant of the other letters. slant,



For the numerals a free interpretation of the construction of the Modern Roman numerals, by methods as above, will be found sufficient direction. Sign painters and decorators can make use of this method of lettering by substituting the brush stroke for the pen stroke.



XIII Century Roman Plate



Modern Type (American Type Founders Co.)



ABCDEFGHIJK



LMNOPQRSTU VWXYZ$&abcde fghij klmnopqrstu



vwxyz!?, 123456



See also article on "Roman Italics," page 93,- and "Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets," page 112. For lower case Italics see " The Lower Case Letters,"



page



H, K,



W



Y



L, P, R, and is unnecessary, but adds the ornamental expression of the letters. The second of the double first body strokes in B, F, H, I, and S might also be dispensed with, and K, L, remaining the component parts would still constitute a letter. But inasmuch as the Modern Gothic letters, as also the Uncial capitals, are designed and used chiefly for ornamental lettering, all parts serving as an adornment are indispensable. First of all we will apply the principle of squareare ness and circularity. C, E, G, O, Q, S and round letters, the others may be classified as about filling a square. Divide the drawing paper into equal squares, as for Modern Roman, and add a horizontal center line, but no further guide lines are required. The outlines of the letters are drawn in pencil and practised until all letter forms have been mastered. All hair lines are very fine and sharp, and the body lines all of uniform thickness. are sketched into a The structural lines of square, care being taken not to spread the letter too much, and allowing space for the lower flourished hair line. The diagonals are drawn similar to those of the Modern. Roman letter, then the lower curved The center tail is added, and the two upper dashes. cross line is finally put in. The outlines of B are sketched by first copying the second vertical body line, then connecting it with the upper curved and lower vertical body lines, followed by the lower tail or dash, similar to that of A, but elongated, thus forming the frame of B. The first vertical or sub-body line with its short dash and F, to



R



74.



Modern Gothic, (Old English) plate 23, shows Modern Gothic types, and also the correct let-



the



drawn for comparison. Although built upon a foundation, entirely foreign, and representing another school, the lines of the ter shapes,



Roman



characters can unmistakably be traced in the letters. For this reason the previous study of the Roman alphabets has a beneficial influence upon the student, seeking to master these apparently complicated characters. Many and varied are the exterior decorative flourished ends and scrolls, devised for Modern Gothic, and the styles used are often badly mixed. The Gothic alphabet shown in instruction books presents many letter forms of different characteristic treatment. All letters are composed of straight or curved parts. These parts or features recur in most letters of a family, and they should always be made uniform in appearance. To present these features correctly and without variation, is to make the letters plain to read and easy of construction. In studying the individual letter forms of Modern Gothic, it will be noticed that many parts are merely added as ornamental. A, for instance, would still be plain A, without the second hooked flourish or dash attached to the upper part of the hair line, and even without the first. Likewise the top dash of B,



Modern Gothic



62



T



A



the upper scroll are then drawn. Note that the two vertical body lines run parallel to each other. The ornamental central hair lines are drawn last. The upper dash or scroll recurs in many other letAlso ters, and should invariably be shaped alike. the vertical twin body line, wherever it occurs, is always the same. The lower flourish or tail, present in most letters, should be of the same radius in every instance, though varying in length. The first body line of C is semi-circular. This first



line in



repeated in



is



O



G,



and



Q



E



also.



and T, and



in a modified way, vertical body line, akin entirely straight. The size



The



to the second one of B, is of the short upper dash must be restricted, to balance the lower extremity of the semi-circular body line. This small dash is again shown in many of the follower semi-circular hair line is lowing letters. added below the line to balance the flourish of the



A



other



top dash



is



continued in D, and combined



second vertical body line. C with a short center dash added, which must be placed slightly above the center line.



with



its



E



is



F



also



a



presents a



repetition of the



features of



former letters. The exterior ornamental hair line may be run below the line. The short central cross line is placed opposite the dash of the first vertical body line, giving it the appearance of a continuance



made



similar to C, but its upper dash is conhair line, and the first curved diagonal by a nected down to a hair line in its lower narrows body line with another semi-circular portion, and connects is



line. I shows the features of former letters, but its lower dash is placed farther toward the left. The letter form for J being absent in the Gothic alphabet, the I is generally used in its stead. K is like H, but a new feature is introduced in



place of the third vertical body line. This short, curved body line is started from a diagonal hair line, placed slightly above the point of that of H, and is connected near its lower end with another, but nearly rigid body line, similar to the lower part of the diagonal body line of A. The letter R shows a similar feature.



shows parts of former



scroll, to



give expression,



is



letters,



but the lower



somewhat elongated and



shifted toward the right. M, for reasons of harmony, has only a single first body line. The second and third vertical body lines are new features. The former is nearly straight, and the latter, started with a slight curve at the end of the familiar upper dash, is carried down, with another short turn, to the lower line. Nearly all these features are present in W. presents parts of M. Features of are employed for O, and the third body line is started with a heavy, curved stroke, from the top down, uniting with the first. The new feature shown in P is the extended first



N



G



of the same.



G



H



L



letters.



The



body line. The end of this line is connected with the diagonal hair line above the center line. is a repetition of parts of former letters, except the third vertical body line, which is started at about the center and carried, in a curve, below the lower



63



body



stroke,



which



is



brought down



to the



extreme



Plate



Roman



XIV Italics



^SCDEFGIfl STf/VWXYZ & f?



9 •



•



The second vertical bodylower dash, as in D. Q is O with an additional lower dash. This is connected with the middle vertical body line and the ornamental lower curved hair line is omitted. line of the lower scroll. line is connected with the



R is a repetition of parts of the principles of B, but the fourth straight body line is run downward, similar to the one of K, and not connected at the lower end. S requires special study. The twin curved center body lines, resembling the curvature of the body line of the Roman S, must run parallel with each other. good plan is to draw the two lines as one heavy one, and then separate them by drawing lines through



A



the center. Note particularly, that the upper portion of the letter is smaller than the lower. The position of the diagonal hair line and its connection with the lower scroll must be carefully studied and persistently practised.



T



is C with its upper dash extended toward the and curved downward. U shows no new features other than the position of the parts, and the squaring of the second vertical body line, resembling the middle body line of M. V and both present features from D and M. X shows singular treatment. The diagonal body



left



W



should be gracefully curved, to prevent a too and stiff appearance. The position of the diagonal hair line, and the points of connection with the upper and lower dashes, must be carefully obline



rigid



stroke,



however,



is



The first vertical body brought down to the line, with 66



"Modern



Gothic," page 97. The letters may be (Plate German 22.) considered somewhat wider than a square, but the guide lines for their construction should be laid out in squares. The inter-guide lines are placed as far from the outer ones as the width of body lines. The letters are sketched within the squares, the and leaning against vertical body line of A, I, J, the right side of the square. The second or double curved body lines of B and R, and the right exand Z may also be tremes of body lines of S, placed against the inner right line of square. The first vertical body line of H, K, L, P, V, and are drawn against the left side of the square. The central vertical body line of C, D, E, F, G, M, O, should occupy a position in the center and Q, of a square. The first scrolled body line of is similar to that and M, although more condensed of B, R, N, U, in the last named letters, and, more elongated, the same feature is present in D. The lower or basic body recurs, in various lengths, in nearly all the line of other letters. The vertical body line of is represented again in U. The central vertical line of C



See also



Gothic.



N



U



X



W



W



T



W



A



served. represents parts of V.



Y



short turn to the right, similar to that of the The line of M, but without corners. second vertical body line is curved toward the left, near the lower line, and continued in a hair line, connecting with the first body line, and carried toward the left and downward, thickening into a heavy, curved stroke, turning again to the right, and downward again, finally narrowing into a hair line. Z is a combination of parts of B and D. a



middle body



A



A



Y



Q



shown also in D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, O, P, and T. C, E and T are similar in construction, and G, O and Q nearly so, as with the Modern Gothic. The scrolled bar on the upper left of F, or the plain one of P may be added to the letters H, K and L also. The feature of the top bar, connected with the right curved body line of G, recurs in Z. The positions of the upper and lower curved body lines of K and R are similar, as are the parts that constiand Y. and N, and those of V, tute the letters should, as nearly as poshair lines diagonal All hair line ornaments The scrolled run parallel. sible, must be carefully sketched out. See also " German Gothic," page loo. is



W



M



Modern Uncials (plate 24). The construction of the Modern Uncials is a very complicated matter. Of the rules governing the proportions of the Roman only the principle of squareness or circularcan be applied. There are, however, certain pronounced features, which recur in most of the letters. The place of the letters,



ity



rigid body lines of the Roman letters is taken by gracefully curved lines, tapering to a slender stem in the middle portion. The semi-circular body lines show the characteristic Gothic pointed vertical



arch.



Draw



guide lines



Those of the



as for



Modern Roman



G,



are all of the



same proportions.



Of



like di-



and body



lines is the same construction of the peculiar ornamental appendages of characters like A, C, E, H, etc., should be studied from the plate. Their proportions are arrived at by comparison. and K, may be conThe brackets, crowning A, structed alike. The one of extends from right to left, those of the others from left to right. The brackets of L and F are of similar curvature, but those of Z present rigid lines. The treatment of the hair lines and serifs of C and E is almost identical. The position of the second, or semi-circular body line of must be carefully determined. It may be compared with the second body line of the bracket of G. The middle hair line of is started like that of H, but makes a short turn to allow for the second straight body line. is made under a repetition of previous principles. This letter form, turned upside down, represents W. and resemble lower case letters. The second bo'dy line of N, as that of and Y, are of peculiar treatment. The dash or tail of R, like the first stroke of A, shows special embellishment, but it may be made plain, and the downward flourish of can be restricted to the lower line by constructing it similar to the last body line of N, reversed. S is in pronounced Roman lines, but the shows the Gothic character. Compare the second body line or bracket with those of and H. The upper straight bar is of odd appearance but simple construction. and are of kindred shape, and



tive thickness of hair lines as in the



Modern Roman.



The



H A



H



K



M



N



U



V



A



letters.



letter forms, presenting the lines of



Roman



capitals most unmistakably, as B, D, F, L, O, P, Q, R, S and Z, may be constructed on principles similar to the Modern Roman letters, but the absence of vertical lines makes their application difficult. The tapered uprights, shown in most let-



the



ters,



mensions are also all semi-circular body lines, as in C, D, E, G, M, O, Q, T, U and W. The compara-



I,



67



T



G



V



Y



X



Plate Plain,



11



XV Round



ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU



VWXYZa



Plate



XVI



Plain, Square



ABCDEFD HIJKLMN DPQRSTU



VWXY



Plate



XVII



Plain, Spurred



ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU VWXYZ a



and Z differ but slightly from their Roman cousins. The ball serifs are similar in all letters. See also "The Modern Uncials," page loi. The Lower Case Letters. (See also article on "The Lower Case Letters," page 97.) All lower



are



drawn



first,



then the curves, and the horizontal



lines last.



The



Modern Roman Lower Case. (Plate 25.) Like those of the capitals, the dimensions of the small Modern Roman letters are based upon the square or The thickness of body- and hair-lines is circle. made a trifle less than that of the capitals. Serifs and other details are proportioned likewise, and it is necessary to study the construction of the capital letters of a certain alphabet first, before attempting to draw the lower case letters, because the rules for constructing the former may be generally applied to the construction of the latter. In laying out lower case lettering, special space allowance must be made between lines, to give room for the letters, g, j, p, q and y, extending below the



a is finished with the top ball and the lower extending outside of square. Fill all squares of the first row with copies of the letter a, leaving an intervening space between the sub-guide line and the top guide line of the next row, into the squares of which the letter b is reproduced, and so on to z. Always look for information as to construction rules under the heading " Mechanical construction of letters and numerals," page 31. The b is started with the vertical lines, and the curves are added. The serifs are put in last, extending outside the square. The c is drawn wholly within a square and finished with the top ball. Note that the end of the lower hair line is slightly thickened. The d is manipulated like b. The e may be constructed like c, but it is wider than the former. With f care must be taken not to make the curved



line.



top as wide as the other



serif,



case letters are constructed according to the rules laid down for that of the corresponding capitals.



The guide



Roman



lower case letters are drawn as for the capitals, but additional middleand sub-guide lines are required for the lower case letters and the squares are proportionately smaller. (See "Guide Lines," plate i.) Letter a is sketched within a square, under rules lines for all



similar to those given for the capitals. (See "Mechanical construction of letters and numerals," page All letters are drawn freehand, and finished 31.) with the aid of the instruments. The vertical lines



74



The g



letters.



a very difficult letter. The top oval is drawn first, then a larger oval below, and the doublecurved lower body line constructed similar to the body line of S. (See under "Mechanical construction of letters and numerals," page 31.) The construction of the other Modern Roman lower case letters requires no special directions The other than those given for previous letters. and n, however, should be studied proportions of Do not leave the spaces between the three well. is



m



body



lines of



lines of n.



m as wide as that between the two body proportions of v and w should like-



The



wise be observed,



French



Roman Lower



Case Letters.



(Plate 26.)



Plain, Round, Lower Case. (Plate 27.) The construction of these small letters is subject to the same restrictions as given for that of, the capitals. Care must be taken not to make the letters too heavy.



when



They appear more



graceful



the end-stroke of letters h, k, m, n, &c., is drawn out with a graceful swing, extending below the line, when it occurs at the end of a word. Experience, however, is necessary to accomplish this successfully. When used in composition for inscriptions the let-



lines for all Plain



and Block lower case



This



style of lettering looks especially well,



must not appear cramped. Sharp serifs and graceful lines are the prominent features of this ters



style.



The French Roman lower case letters are constructed on similar principles to the Modern Roman letters. Hair- and body-lines must always be uniform widths. It will be noticed that this is the only Roman alphabet whose lower case letters have serifs instead of balls, as in a, c, f, j, &c. Antique Roman Lower Case Letters. (Plate 26.) The length of the upper stems of b, d, f, &c., should



drawn similar



when



thin.



to those used for the



The guide letters are



Roman



lower



case letters, but the upper and lower inter-guide lines, as well as those of the upper and lower subguide lines are placed as far from the outer ones as the width of the body lines. Plain, Square, Lower Case. ( Plate 27.) Similar rules obtain for their construction, the proportions being the same. Like their capitals, these small letters can be made entirely by the use of the instru-



of



ments. Plain, Spurred,



be greater than that of similar letters of the other alphabets, because the slanted serifs cause them to appear shorter than they are. In other respects these letters may be constructed under rules similar to those given for the Modern Roman lower case letters. See also "Antique Roman" capitals, page 51.



tendency to make the spurs too long and fiat should be guarded against. In all other essentials the Spurred small letters are made like the Plain, Round, lower case. See also the capitals under " Plain, Spurred," of this part. Block and Ornamental Block, Lower Case. ( Plate The construction of both require no special 28.) description, since it would be but a repetition of the methods employed in the reproduction of the capitals and other lower case letters above described.



small



Lower



Case.



(Plate 27.)



The



(Plate 29.) Ornamental Roman Lower Case. The principles laid down for the construction of the Modern Roman lower case letters can be applied to that of these letters also. The curved serifs are



supplemented by



added, as with the capitals. (See "Ornamental Roman," page 54.) No other directions are required.



should be executed in an even running hand and they look best when small and set closely. When so



75



Roman Italics, Lower Case. (Plate 25.) The construction of single stroke lower case italics is a matter of confidence derived from experience and ability in



penmanship.



The



letters



Plate



XVIII



Block



ABCDEFG HIJKLMN OPQRSTU



VWXYZ



a



Plate



XIX



Ornamental Block



I



ABCDEFG HIJKILMN



OPQRSTU



VWXYZ



a



made,



this style of lettering is plainer easily than the plainest writing.



When



and reads more



is desired, the lower case be executed by drawing double body lines, similar to those of the capitals, as given under *' Roman Italics," page 55. The method described hereafter is for smaller letters. For larger lettering the lower case letters should be sketched in, aided by diagonal guide lines, as described for the construction of the capitals, except that a middle- and sub-guide line is added. The small Roman Italics are well adapted for the use of architects, and may be employed in conjunction with the special Architects' Single Stroke alphabets described in another part. The single stroke lower case Italics are not practised with the pencil, as they represent a style of pen stroke letters. All lettering is sketched in with the



Italics



pencil



large lettering



may



first,



to insure correct spacing.



The



result to



be aimed at, and which can only be acquired by experience, is an even slant and thickness of all letters.



The



by the down stroke from the top and down, and continued upward again, as in writing. Begin at the starting point on top again and run a hair line toward the right and then begin down, meeting the first hair line, as in again at the top, for the straight, heavy body line, running it down and continuing it up again with the short end hair line, which may be slightly emphasized by a light back stroke at the end. a



is



toward the



started left



;



All hair lines may thus be thickened at the ends, both at the top and bottom. Start the end of the hair line of b at the top, run-



80



ning it downward. Then, again starting at the same point, run in the straight body line, continuing it around to the right and up. Beginning again at the right of the lower part of the body line, move up-



ward and curve



to the right and down again, meeting the former hair line. Start c with the top hair line, running towards the left and continuing downward and up again, and with a slight back stroke at the end, then put in the top ball with a short down stroke.



The d is constructed like a and b, and e as c, followed by a slightly thickened center hair line, from the top downward and to the left. Starting from the top, run f down with a graceful sweep and end with a ball or period, then finish with the top ball and the short cross hair line. Make g like a, continuing the straight body stroke down and around towards the left, and upward again, finishing with the ball. Start h like b, and finish as with d, also



with previous



Make



first



i



and



j



as



letters.



stroke of k as for h, then, starting a



diagonal hair line at the top and running downward towards the left, unite with the body line. Start a short body line from the center of the hair line, running it down and finishing as for h. Finally put in the ball at the upper right.



Construct 1, m and n as in former letters. Begin as for the first stroke of a. Then, beginning again at starting point, run toward the right and downward, uniting with the lower hair line. Draw p, q and r as previous letters. Start s with the top hair line, as for c, then curve



Do



body lines too heavy. Narrow more refined appearance. The short upper dashes of c, f and s, and the long lower ones of g and p as well as the lower scroll of y, must all be made to correspond with those of the



toward the right and downward. Starting again with the lower ball, run down and toward the right, uniting with the curved body line, and finishing with the top ball.



Make



t



and u



as in



former



letters.



first



stroke of v



The



w



is



make



as in u, the



show two forms used within a word the end, while the small or round



only,



finishing with the short center dash.



set closely.



is



the



letters



s



is



and never at can be employed in either place. The peculiar construction of the hair lines of a must be carefully studied and practised. The scrolls on the ends of the stems of b, h, j, k, 1, p, q and t are for ornamental expression. They may be omitted



same as before. Start X as for i, but run the body line down nearly vertical. Then start hair line with the top ball, runing it down through the body line, toward the left, and finishing with the lower ball; make y as in former letters, and z starting with the top curved body line from left to right, follow with the diagonal hair line running downward, then the lower tail, and first stroke.



the



Modern Gothic capitals. The lower case Gothic of the letter s. The long



upper hair line with a generous running upward and to the right, thickening, thence downward and uniting with the



The



not



lines give these letters a



s



and the



letters finished



by



Modern Gothic lower



a slanted line. case letters look well



when



German Gothic Lower



Modern Gothic Lower may be used together with



This Case. (Plate 29.) either the Modern Gothic capitals or Uncial Initials. The proportions of these letters may be compared with those of the Plain, The small Modern Spurred, lower case letters. Gothic letters are composed almost entirely of straight lines.



Draw



guide lines



as for the



Plain lower case



let-



with.



ters.



Great accuracy



Case. (Plate 29.) These designed especially to be used with the German Gothic capitals (plate 22) will also give a harmonious effect when combined with the Modern Uncials or Church Text. (Plate 24.) Being composed almost wholly of straight lines, their construction is very simple, and, after the principles of the Modern Gothic lower case letters have been studied, these letters can be produced forthletters,



is



Guide



essential for the correct render-



lines are



drawn



as for the



small



Modern



ing of these letters. The body lines must all be of even thickness, and the hair lines sharp and fine. All pointed corners should be made very sharp, and the slanting lines, where they recur in similar letters, be



Gothic letters. Great accuracy of proportion and execution is required to correctly reproduce these letters. All diagonal lines run perfectly parallel throughout the



parallel to each other.



alphabet. 81



The



hair lines are heavier than those of



Plate



XX



Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets



BCDEFG



^^



\



abcdetgnjjK



mnopqrsiuvwxyz



VWXYZa



/2345



obcdefgh/jk/mnopgrstuv^xyz "V



K^ A



VV



VV



A A kK^ A



KV



K^ A



V



AA



A



RSTUVWXYZa abcdeffihiiklmnopqrstuvwxyz



the Modern Gothic lower case letters. the long s is never used at the end of a In arranging letters of this style, be placed close to each other. See plate 35.



Observe that word. they should example on



paces, the effect may then be studied. Confidence will thus be assured, eventually, by persistent practise.



lar



The main



Script. (Plate 21.) Script, when used for purposes of lettering, is handled in a different manner than in writing. Good penmanship does not at all insure the ability to construct good Script lettering, and again: a student with a poor handwriting may soon acquire a marvelous proficiency for lettering Script.



Begin by practising large Script letters on brown paper. Lay out one letter at a time, with long, firm strokes and whole-arm movement. Use only your eyes and hand as guides. Improve on the lines drawn, and correct the less graceful ones. Always try for perfect ovals.



Being generally constructed on an enlarged scale, the lines should invariably be started at the top and run downward with a determined sweep. All upstrokes are likewise made from the top down. Careful sketching in lead pencil makes the final execuThe tion of this difficult work one of pleasure. pencil lines must be examined critically, and all



made as smooth as possible, before inking in. Large Script lettering may be executed in ink with a fine, long-haired brush. The sign painter should practice Script lettering on a board, with a stick of chalk or charcoal. The letters are drawn out large, with a free-arm motion, and in rapid, clean, long swings. Standing off a few ovals, especially,



to give



letters are practised in a simi-



difficulty in lettering a line of Script



an even slant to



all the letters. Experience, gathered from conscientious practice, will eventually is



Modern



The lower case manner.



overcome



this also.



Clean, fine and even lines are essential to bring out the beauty of Script lettering. When Script is to be introduced among lines of other types of letters, much space is required to give it a good appearance. Leave a generous margin



above and below your line of Script.



Freedom



Lettering should never Correctly constructed, it may still lack a certain dash and finish. This point of perfection is reached only after the technique has been acquired. Then an artistic abandonof treatment.



appear harsh and



ment



stiff.



of the stringent rules of mathematical drawgradual breaking away from the strict methods of the school, occurs of itself. It is at this stage of the development of his ability, that the artist is most liable to run to extremes. Here the student should be cautioned to keep before his mind's eye the classic originals of the letters, and, while developing a freedom of treatment, to preserve that quality in the shape of his letters, which will ever appeal to the refined taste of competent judges. Letters have varying expressions, somewhat as human faces have. You must try to make them preing, a



sent a pleasing countenance. Crooked letters are defective in expression; they sometimes appear ludicrous.



Occasionally letters also appear to dance, standon one leg and raising the other.



ing, seemingly,



III— THE



PART Practical



and



This happens when they were not correctly drawn. When properly constructed, they stand still, and look as you intended that they should. Letters have speech. See that they speak a dignified language; do not permit them to shout.



Artistic



— Their



ALPHABETS



History, Description and Proper Use



The Roman Alphabets No



little



confusion



is



created by various books on



lettering offering so many different names for letters of practically identical alphabets, merely slightly modified or changed. These are labeled for enlightenment: "IX century," or "From a tomb in church." Moreover, nearly every " authorthe ity "



has his



own



style of lettering



nowadays, and



new names are applied to old styles. Take the Plain (Plate 15.) This or Condensed letter for instance. style is called in some books of alphabets " Egyptian " by other instructors " Gothic." The same letthe ter parades under several other aliases. name " Egyptian " would suggest the ancient hieroglyphs, but there is nothing in the construction of this letter which in any way relates to the symbolic characters of that sacred figure script. " Gothic " is a style of letter, showing the characteristic, sharpcornered forms of the Pointed and many-gabled Gothic architecture. (Plate 23.) Our " Plain " letter is nothing but a condensed ;



Now



85



of the Roman alphabet. All the letters used in the civilized world to-day have emanated from the



form



Roman



capitals,



even the Gothic characters being



however remotely some of them may resemble their original shapes, to the same source.



traceable,



This fact the student of lettering should not lose sight of. The many queer and corrupted styles of an intervening period, when wars devastated the countries of Europe, and arts and sciences were lost or neglected, have no value as examples for learners, bent on cultivating an acquaintance with good letter forms.



On



are most



the contrary, these faulty letter shapes



harmful



to study from, and should not be placed in books of instruction. Out of the chaos of some hundred conflicting styles



—



of Roman alphabets so-called, the Classic Roman capitals stand out prominently and beautifully (plate 8), among the many positively ugly styles of a later, degenerate period. The Classic Roman Capitals have been preserved



Plate



Modern



XXI Script



I



.ad-ycyyt^^/^



Li/Jiii/ii/



CONCLUSION The conviction of having an inexhaustible wealth of ideas, the certainty that forms and compositions are slumbering in his mind, is the artist's pride. This feeling is not one of self-esteem merely, it is a kind of art consciousness. The architect studies out and draws his plans for a handsome villa, or a great public building, and, with his mind's eye sees the structure rise before him the landscape gardener enhances the beauties of nature by the application of his art, and a knowledge gathered from experience.



—



The letterer, if he be an artist, having ability of composition and arrangement, and a knowledge of decorative effects, brings to the fullest force of expression the many beautiful letter forms and graceful lines, and gathers them into a harmonious whole. Under the inspiration of the moment and with the enthusiasm that is inseparable from him who loves



work for beauty's sake, the true arin this line likewise creates a thing of beauty, which is an expression of his inner life.



his fascinating tist



But, unlike the architect or gardener, the artist of lettering needs no expensive apparatus to execute his ideas; he has all the necessary implements for his work right at his fingers' ends. If others do not appreciate the merits of your



work, be not discouraged. There may be days when your ideals seem to be vanishing, owing to lack of understanding and appreciation on the part of those in a position to dictate.



The sketch conceived in a happy moment and executed with enthusiasm will ever be your best work. Cherish your ideals and the love for your work in your inmost heart. The laws of beauty must eventually prevail, and sooner or later the high quality of your work will meet with due recognition.



134



Freehand Designs Initials,



ot



Monograms and Cyphers



of various styles and ornamentation



Also Borders and Book Cover Designs



INDEX PAGE



PAGE



Adapting Ideas Advertisement,



124



The



The Roman Alphabets, The Gothic



120



Alphabets,



Antique



Roman



Letters



....



Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets,



51,



The



Arrangement of Letters



Compasses Compass-lead



....



85



Composition (of Lettering)



97



Conclusion



92



Construction of Letters, General Rules



112 116



for the



spaces)



(of



Blackletter



(Old



English)



Block Letters Block Letters, Ornamental



.... ...



Contents, Table of



100



Cross-Section Paper



54, 96



Crowding



54,



Curves, Irregular



Board, The Drawing



97



.......



9



Designing Advertisements



Book Cover Designs



125



Designing Memorials, etc



Bow



Spacers



Board



Brushes Business Cards, Designs for



....



Centering



Display



18



Dividers,



117, 121



Roman Capitals, The Roman, Modernized Cleaning the Drawing



Classic



Designing Borders



16



120



Center Line Classic



13



125



...



85



....



Commemorative Documents, Designs



for



84



(of Lettering)



.... ....



Treatment



Gelatine, Sheet



31



Gothic,



19



Letters



121



50



Modern Gothic, German Grouping of Words and Sentences Guide Lines, The



62,



.



97



66, 100 .



117



22



18



Harmony 120



How



to



Use



the Instruments



121, 124



Ideas,



Adapting



India



Ink



Board, The



How



to



Instruments, Set of



Paper



........



General Rules for the Construction of



116, 117



The



Instruments,



89



54,



....



116



9



128



Documents, Commemorative, Designs for



Drawing Drawing Drawing Drawing



of



Letters



50



Use



the



...



.......



14



Introduction



128



Instruments,



124 16



How



9 9



Irregular Curves



10



Italics,



to



Roman



7



...



Use the Instruments, Drawing, The Set of



.



p 10



.



18 55,



93



16



Lead, Compass



88 IS,



Cloth, Tracing



89



Freedom



116



17



121



Bristol



Freak Letters, Modern



5



The



Border,



11



Construction of Letters and Numerals,



116



PAGE



....



French



134



Mechanical Balance



Roman



11



11



22



Ellipses



30



Lead Pencils



18



Eraser, Ink



19



Letter Heads, Designing



125



15



Letters,



Arrangement of



116



128



Erasing and Cleaning Rubber



...



14



PAGE Letters, General Rules for the Construction



of



50



Letters and Numerals, Mechanical Construction of



List of



Lower



31



Plates



Case



6 Letters,



...



The



Margin



74,



97



121, 129



Mechanical Construction of Letters and



etc.,



Designing



... ...



Modern Gothic Letters Modern Roman Letters Modern Script Modern Uncials, or Church Text .



Modernized Classic Letters



31



....



128 62,



31, 50,



....



Paper



Sketching



16



Set of Drawing Instruments,



18



Set of Irregvilar Curves



18



18



Sheet Gelatine



19



Tracing



Paper,



Paper, Transfer



......



12



Sketching Paper



Space Margin



Pencil Pointer



15



Spacers,



Lead Plain or Condensed Letters



14



Spacing



...



Construction



of



Letters and



31



Work



19



.



... ...



62, 54,



97 96



54, 92



18



...•-...



The



Letters, Antique Letters,



Classic



Letters,



French



Letters,



Spurred Letters, Plain



Letters,



.



... Ornamental ...



;



.



55,



.



Stretching the Paper



etc..



Designing



96 16



....



128 15



128



Pages Tracing Paper



85



Transfer Paper



18



51,



92



Treatment, Freedom of



84



85



Triangle,



The



10



54,



89



T-Square, The



g



31, 50,



Type, Modern



116



54,



89 92



55,



93



.... .... ....



Modern



16



121, 129



13



Title



Designing



etc.,



Alphabets,



10



.



ng



Thumb Tacks



Roman Roman Roman Roman Roman Roman Roman



.



Bow



Testimonials,



Resolutions,



The



........ .



19



Italics



Rubber, Erasing and Cleaning .



93 5



88



112



Old English (Gothic) Letters Ornamental Block Letters Ornamental Roman Letters



55,



Plates, List of



84



Set of Brushes



15



Position as to Light



128



Modern



Pen, Ruling



89



117



Script,



Pens, Writing



Practice



16



Mutilation



Mechanical



16, 17



97



116



Mounting Paper



Numerals,



Drawing



6^, loi



Modern Type



Newspaper Headings Numerals, The



Paper,



17



84 .



PAGE



Cross-Section



Pencils,



Numerals Memorials,



PAGE Paper,



...



Uncials, 15



Modern



128 18



67, 101



Rules, General, for the Construction of Letters



50



Ruling Pen, The



12



136



Water



Color, White Words, Grouping of



19



117



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