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OXPORD "An indispensable resource." Science Books & Films Best Science Book Selection
A GUIDE TO THE
ELEMENTS SECOND EDITION
OXFORD
A
Guide
to the
ELEMENTS SECOND EDITION
1
OXFORD
A
Guide
to the
ELEMENTS SECOND EDITION
ALBERT STWERTKA
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK
•
OXFORD
—
Oxford Universit) Press
Oxford Auckland
New York Bangkok
Dares Salaam
Lumpur
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Cit\
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in
Berlin
©
Copyright
1996, 2002 by Albert Stwertka
Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198
Oxford
is
may be
10016
trademark of Oxford University
a registered
All rights reserved.
in
New York, New York
Madison Avenue,
No
Press.
part of this publication
reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system,
or transmitted,
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Consultant: Robin Eichen Conn, Cargill, Inc. Design: Valerie Sauers Picture research:
Amla Sanghvi,
Jennifer Traslavina
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stwertka, Albert
A
guide to the elements p.
/
Albert Stwertka.
— 2nd
ed.
cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. 1.
Chemical elements
fuvenifc literature.
QD466.S78 546'
[1.
—
Juvenile literature.
Chemical elements.]
2. I.
Periodic law Title.
2002
.8—dc21
98-20372
CIP
AC ISBN 0-19-515026-0
98765432 Printed in
(lib. ed.);
1
Hong Kong
on acid-free paper
ISBN 0-19-515027-9
(pb. ed.)
1
The Periodic Table
6
Hvdrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium
Boron arbon
(
16
.
.
22 25 29
...
31
...34
Cerium Praseodymium
148
Neodvmium
151
Promethium Samarium Europium
153
Gadolinium Terbium
157
dysprosium
160
149
155
156
Nitrogen
41
)\\SiCll
47
Fluorine
SO
Neon Sodium Magnesium
SI
Holmium
161
S4
"
Erbium Thulium
163
Aluminum
59 61
Ytterbium Lutetium
164
Silicon
Phosphorus
64
Hafnium
166
Sulfur
Chlorine
66 69
Tantalum Tungsten
170
Argon
71
Rhenium
172
Potassium
73
Osmium
173
alcium Si .indium
75 79
Iridium
174
Platinum
175
Titanium
81
Gold Mercury
178 184
89
Thallium lead Bismuth
obalt
92
Polonium
191
Nickel
94
Astatine
193
96 99
Radon
194
Francium
196
1
(
Vanadium
Chromium Iron (
ODoer
i
Zinc
1
159
162
165 168
181
186
189
1
idllium
101
Radium
197
(
iermanium
103
Actinium
199
\rsenic
104
Thorium
200
Selenium
106
Protactinium
Bromine Krvpton Rubidium
108
Uranium Neptunium
202 203 206 207 209 210
110 112
Plutonium
Strontium Yttrium Zirconium
113
Americium Curium
Niobium Molybdenum
119
Technetium
122
Ruthenium
124
Rhodium
US 117 121
Berkelium Californium Einsteinium
21
212 214 215 216 217
123
Eermium Mendelevium Nobelium
Palladium
126
Lawrencium
Silver
127
Rutherfordium
218 219
130
Dubnium
221
Indium
132
Seaborgium
Tin
133
222 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 232
135
Bohrium Hassium
Iellurium
136
Meitnerium
Iodine
137
L'nunnilium
140
Unununium
142
144
Ununbiium Ununquadium
146
Epilogue
Glossary
.234
Chronolog
.237
Further Reading
.241
Web
Sites
Index
.243
M El
E3
-
L
1
~
-
0)
> >
-
£
-
T
\nd large electric
currents are passed through the molten
forms
at
the cathode
and
is
removed
compound. Lithium metal
for further processing.
The use of lithium metal has assumed some commercial importance
aluminum in aircraft
in recent years.
to
form
for
example, combined with
and spaceships. Lithium metal
ti\e terminal,
or anode,
in the
pacemakers, and calculators. standard drv is
is,
It
a low-density, structurally
cell,
1.5 vol:-
is
strong alloy for use
also used as the posi-
small batteries used in cameras,
In addition to
being lighter than the
these batteries produce a higher voltage
1
3 volts
21
Lithium
lithium hydroxide
(
I.R
>I
lithium obtained from the carbonate.
means
when
that
dissolved
(OH)
tion of hydroxide
in water,
ions.
An
has a net electric charge because
compound
an important
is
I
ion
a
is
It
Strong base, which
produces
it
a
high concentra-
an atom or molecule that
is
contains fewer or
it
more
trons than protons, [f electrons are stripped away from
charged n>n
positivel)
charged ion
tively
electric
is
is
formed
of
elec-
atom,
Oxygen
bodies.
oxygen to
live,
of course, because
essential
it is
of the biological processes that take place in our is
transported from our lungs to the
our
cells in
bodies by means of a large protein molecule called hemoglobin.
in
our bodies.
This molecule units called
is
enormous, being made up of some 574 chemical
amino
acids.
Located
in
our red blood
hemoglobin chemically binds oxygen to
our
When
tissues.
is
gives
its
characteristic color.
it
up
is
When
the
changes and becomes bluish.
released, the color
Normal
the
cells,
and then
charged with oxygen, the hemoglobin
bright red .\nd gives our blood
oxygen
to itself
red blood cells are shaped like
people, however, a few of the
amino
little
acids that
hemoglobin molecule are
faulty.
the shape of the molecule
and the red blood
some
discs. In
make up
the
This causes a dramatic change
becomes sickle-shaped rather than
disc-like.
cell.
The
now
cell
The change
in
in
shape
causes serious problems in the transfer of oxygen, and produces a
condition (
known
hvgen
as sickle cell
anemia.
also exists as a triatomic
chemical formula of which
is
(X
molecule called ozone, the
Unlike ordinary oxygen, ozone
has a faintly blue color and a characteristic, brackish odor.
be created by passing
electrical discharges
railroad stations s
very reactive
such as rubber and fabrics.
and during
and It
is
and during periods when there air,
it
is
is
can
through oxygen and
therefore very noticeable near high-voltage electrical
subway and
It
motors
is
in
electrical storms.
quite destructive to materials
also quite is ,\n
harmful to lung
excess
usually suggested that older people
tissue,
amount of ozone and children not
in the
49
Oxygen
engage
in
any strenuous physical
activity that
deep inhalation of o/one. State and
local authorities carefully
monitor the amount of o/one presenl
amounts suggested
the allowable
Quality Standard.
parts of air,
amount
~.\n
The chid source dioxide
is
m
the
any location
compare
it
to
US. National Ambient Air
is
daily
one-hour
120 parts per million
often exceeded in congested
is
cities.
the lower atmosphere, sometimes
in
the photochemical destruction of nitrogen
on nitrogen.
the section
"bad o/one," "good o/one"
In contrast to
atmosphere.
arth's
1
the
In
the air and
exhaust ot automobiles. This process has ahead)
in the
been described
layers of the
at
that
o/one
ot
"kid o/one,"
called
in
The suggested maximum
concentration of o/one
would increase the
his
I
o/one
m
exists
the upper
shields the surface of
aith from the ultraviolet radiation emitted b\ the sun, which
1
Oxygen combines with hydrogen
would Otherwise be strong enough
to destro) In ing tissue.
form water, or
Because oxygen combines with almost ever) element, the
compounds
forms are too numerous
it
common
oxygen compounds
examples
ot these solid oxides, in
in
the
1
to describe.
I
the most
he most
arth's crust are oxides.
F.nrth.
Some
comparison with gaseous oxides
such as carbon dioxides mk\ nitrogen oxides,
silicon dioxide,
.ire
calcium oxide, aluminum oxide, and magnesium oxide. Hematite, or ferric oxide,
is
common
a
ore from which iron
Oxygen combines with hydrogen which
is
unusual solid.
I
on the
one
of
in that its
common
wh)
cubes
ice
is
extracted.
form water, or
H
O,
molecules on Earth. Water
density as a liquid
his explains
is
greater than
tloat in water,
its
is
density as
and why
ice
,i
forms
surface o\ a freezing lake. If water did not have this physical
property, lakes life
the most
to
would
would be possible
freeze in
combine with hydrogen
HO, whose
from the bottom up
in winter,
and no
such bodies of water. Oxygen can also to
form
a liquid called
hydrogen peroxide,
properties are quite different from those ot water.
Hydrogen peroxide
is
used chiefly as an industrial and cosmetic
bleach, .\m\ as a disinfectant. I
arge quantities of pure oxygen tor industrial and aerospace use
are usuaD) recovered
from cooled
other major constituents ot
air,
liquid air by
first
nitrogen and argon.
then be transported and used in
its
boiling off the
The oxygen can
cooled liquid state or stored as a
under pressure. Small quantities
of oxygen, however, are often
supplied by heating sodium or potassium chlorate, usually in the
presence o\\\ catalyst to speed up the reaction. These
decompose-
to
produce oxygen.
canisters containing seat.
It
tor
On
an airplane, for example, small
sodium chlorate and
some reason oxygen
small explosion, mixing the
is
compounds
iron are placed above every
needed, a trigger-like device
sets off a
two chemicals and producing oxygen.
HO,
common
which
is
one
molecules on
to
of
A
50
Fluorine
IA
>
.
-
1
IVA
VA
B
C
N
Al
Si
P
IDA
VIA
He
-
.
/
Fl u
f JNe
1
VIIIB
No Mg 1
IVB
IIIB
VB
VIB
V
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb Mo
Cs
Bo
La
Hf
Ta
*
Ro
Ac Rf
VIIB
Cr
*
s
Co
Ni
,
Mr. Fe
Ru Rh
Tc
IB
IIB
S
Cu Zn Go Ge As Se
Pd Ag Cd
In
Sn
Sb Te
Au Hg
TI
Pb
Bi
CI
Ar
Br
Kr
Xe
1 1
W
Re Os
Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
Nd Pm Sm
*
Ce
Pr
t
Th
Pa
Pt
Ir
U
Eu
Gd
Cf
Es
Rn
Uuq
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm Md No
Lr
Dy Ho
Tb
Np Pu Am Cm Bk
Po A»
Er
1
Fluorine heads the periodic table formers."
column of elements
known
The other members
chlorine, bromine, iodine, at
the
is
"salt
or this family are
and
bottom of the group,
in the
or
as the halogens,
astatine. Astatine,
highly radioactive.
halogen atoms react chemically by accepting electrons from
All
other atoms and readily combine with metals to form
known
as salts.
compounds
The smaller the halogen atom, the closer to the
nucleus the incoming electron will be and the greater the force that attracts
it
and makes the reaction occur. Fluorine
smallest, lightest,
and most
reactive
member
is
the
of the halogen
group. Fluorine
atoms.
is
a pale
however,
It is,
yellow gas
whose molecules contain two
too reactive to be found in nature in
far
diatomic form. Fairly large quantities of fluorine occur minerals tluorite or calcium fluoride
and
cryolite,
Fluorine
called fluorspar)
which contains fluorine, aluminum, and sodium.
also
is
sometimes
its
in the
found
small quantities in seawater, teeth, bones,
in
and blood.
The French chemist Henri Moissan won in
19()(->
Its
name
flow."
for
The
as a flux.
Atomic Number 9
is
first
producing fluorine
taken from the Latin
origin of the
A
flux
is
name
added
—
Group VI The Halogens I
word
lower their melting point
Moissan
in
part of
188
which means "to
probably due to the use of tluorite
It
was long known
fluorine had never been isolated.
on the
flucn\
many compounds and minerals to and make them more available for
compoi nds existed, but because of
effort
the Nobel Prize
pure elemental form.
to
further chemical treatment.
Chemical Symbol F
is
in its
many
It
its
extreme
that fluorine reactivity,
pure
took 75 wars of continuous
chemists before
it
was
finally isolated
by
51
Fluorine
Fluorine
usually prepared by passing an electric current
is
through molten fluoride
working
at
the Air Force laboratory
mam
California, astounded
pure fluorine from
means. Because a
1986, however, Karl O. Christie,
salts. In
procedure,
amounts
in
using only chemical
energy required tor such
ot
had long been believed
it
awards Air Force Base
1
compound
a fluorine
the large
t
at
chemists b) successfully isolating
that such a
chemical sepa-
was impossible.
ration
Today fluorine
is
commercial!) prepared from fluorspar
the rate of thousands of tons a year.
shipped as
is
It
,i
at
liquid in
special containers, cooled by liquid air
luorine gas
1
is
used to produce
rather exotic gaseous
a
compound of uranium called uranium hexafluoride (UF6 ). It is in the form ol this compound that uranium is usual!) shipped to
huge gas diffusion
isotope isotope.
is
It
plants,
where the important uranium-235
more common uranium
then separated from the
U-235 isotope
the
is
plays such a
major
that
is
easily fissionable .\nc\
role in nuclear reactors
dnd nuclear
weapons.
Another important research
ence
ot
is
in
producing
neutrons.
I
role tor fluorine in nuclear a gas for detecting the pies
his sensitive gas
is
a
compound
of fluorine and boron called boron trifluondc (Bl As we have seen
ment ly
on boron,
in the section
readily absorbs neutrons
and then emits high-
charged alpha partides that are
easil\ detected.
However, there are technical obstacles pure, solid boron for such detectors,
to the use ot
Mid
are called, are
is
tar eas-
form of sodium
search has
shown
.
in the
United States
detectors, as they
help prevent cavities. In the pres-
fluorine, in
ence of sodium fluoride, a process
fluoride, to their public water supplies. Re-
in teeth.
called remineralization
can retard the oc-
Teeth are protected by a hard enamel
composed of a mineral
called hydroxyapatite. This mineral
is
in the
mouth produce from food
that has a high sugar content,
occurs.
The
resulting loss of
enamel promotes the onset of tooth decay. One of the body's defenses against the loss of tooth enamel
is
to
make new enamel
constantly, a process called reminerali/ation. In the presence of
sodium
fluoride, the remineralization process
form of enamel,
called fluorapatite, that
is
makes
more
a
modified
resistant to attack
makes a
modified form of tooth enamel that is
not very soluble, but in the presence of the weak acids that bacteria
some breakdown of hydrow apatite
Toothpastes containing fluorine, in the form of sodium fluoride, can
for this purpose.
now add
that small quantities of fluorine
currence of cavities is
BF3 BF3
among the most important tools
Many communities
that
it
construct a neutron detector that uses the
ier to
gaseous, boron-containing molecules of
the
. .
this ele-
resistant to attack
by
acids.
Fluorine
52
Fluorocarbons in
than hulrowapatite
In acid
is.
routinely M\d sodium fluoride
aerosol cans have
been banned
in the
(
onsidering the extreme reactivity oi fluorine gas,
w hat surprising that
now
Manufacturers of toothpaste to their products. it
is
some-
a plastic called Teflon, consisting of long,
chainlike molecules of carbon linked chemically to fluorine,
United States
should be as inert as
because these gases
smooth, nonreactive
frying pans
and on
it
Teflon
is.
a variety
is
used for nonstick surfaces on
of other products that require
surfaces.
It is
also used to
make
artificial
valves for the heart.
diffuse into the
upper atmosphere
Other tluorinated compounds of carbon include aerosol propellants for spray cans and Freon, an inert gas used as a refrigerant.
and
the resulting
The use of
1978 because
loss
of ozone
permits dangerous
Earth.
is
known
as fluorocar-
that these gases diffuse into the
react with the
ozone permits dangerous
ozone
layer.
The
upper
resulting loss of
ultraviolet radiation to reach the sur-
face of the Earth.
burns with explosive
In the presence of hydrogen, fluorine
The
force.
surface of the
it
atmosphere and
ultraviolet radiation to reach the
known
tluorinated carbon gases,
bons, in aerosol cans has been banned in the United States since
reaction
is
spontaneous, and not even a match or
needed. The reaction forms hydrogen fluoride, which
spark
is
when
dissolved in water
is
an acid. Hydrofluoric acid
dangerous and must be carefully handled.
A
small
is
extremely
amount on
the
skin can cause extreme pain. However, this acid has the ability to dissolve glass
An rine- 18,
and
is
artificially is
used to etch designs on glass objects.
made, radioactive isotope of fluorine,
one of several isotopes used
in the
fluo-
medical procedure
called positron emission tomograph}' (PET). Fluorine- 18 sponta-
neously emits positrons, which are the antiparticles of electrons
and resemble the
When
a
latter in
every respect but their electric charge.
positron collides with an electron, the two particles
"annihilate" each other, yielding a burst of energy that takes the
form of X-ray-like
radiation. If fluorine- 18
body, this "annihilation" radiation
is
is
introduced into the
emitted within the body and
can be scanned by special detecting instruments to produce cross-sectional pictures of portions of the body. Fluorine-18 ideal for this
technique because
minutes, which the patient's
is
body
it
is
has a half-life of only 109.8
important for minimizing radiation injury to tissues.
— 53
Neon
lA
A
.
IIA
|
Be
Li
IVA
VA
C
N
Si
P As
IMA
VHAjHe
VIA
F
Ne
s
CI
Ar
Se
Br
Kr
VIIIB
No Mg
—
VB
IVB
Vlb
«
,
1
iB
Ni
Cu
MB
Al
r
K
Co
Sc
V
Ti
Mn
Cr
Rb
*
T
Zr
Nb Mo
Cs
Bo
La
Hf
Ta
Fr
Ra
Ac Rf
•
Co
Fe
Zn Go Ge
Pd Ag Cd
In
Sn
Sb Te
Pt
Au Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
LKin
Uuu Uub
Nd Pm Sm
Gd
Tb
Dy Ho
Np Pu Am Cm
Bk
Cf
Ru Rh
Tc
Xe
1
*
Ce
Pr
Th
Pa
W
Re Of
Ir
Eu
Po At
Rn
Uuq
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm Md No
Lr
Er
1
•
U
Noon,
unreactrve.
am Its
gas thai
the
is
fifth
concentration
is
It
in air
group,
in its
is
a
compound
with
a colorless, odorless gas
common
most
1
extremef) inert and
is
tonus no known
It
other element.
and atmosphere.
other noble gases
like the
monatomk
Es
element
in
the
about 0.002 percent, or
is
approximate}) one-tenth that of carbon dioxide.
The
familiar
restaurant
The
that
we
see in storefront
windows contain neon gas that glows when
energized by an
atoms
neon signs
electrical discharge.
When
this
and is
it
happens, the neon
the gas gi\e off radiation in the form of orange-red light.
in
name "neon"
tubes, although
sign
mm
is
often used for
main contain
all
such glowing
gases other than neon. Different
when
gases are used to produce signs of different colors. Every gas, excited, radiates
produces
its
purple
a
own light,
characteristic color. Argon, for example,
while xenon produces
Neon was discovered I
nglish chemist
who
in
1898 by
recognized
first
experiments with the fractional it
after the
(
ireek
word
neos,
blue-green
light.
William Ramsay, an
Sir it
a
as
an element during his
distillation
of liquid
air.
He named
which
means "new." Commercial neon duced
is
pro-
in large air-liquefication
plants.
Because neon has
point of -229 C,
remains volatile
it
a
boiling
typically
as a residue after the
Atomic Number 10
more
oxygen and nitrogen gases
have bo.led off
V( „
;
^
Chemical Symbol am[iUn uw/ ,
^
glows when energized by an elect ne charge.
Ne
that
Group VIIIA—The Noble Gases
1
54
Sodium
IA
-
.
IA
1
IVA
VA
B
C
N
Al
Si
P
IMA
He
.
H,is one of the most important
sodium.
ot
example,
tact that
ot salt as
Sodium hydroxide, N.H industrial
s.ilt.
has been traded and bartered since early
salt
he word
ot
pound of
a
It
is
produced commercially
b)
the electrolysis ot a solution of sodium chloride in water, also
known
aqueous sodium chloride. Sodium hydroxide
as
base that
available in
is
caustic soda secret
and serves
most markets under the name
converting this material into
Soap
is
a
soluble
sodium hydroxide
sodium
chemically with
"salt" tat,
handled with great
is
it
of the is
tat.
a
common
strong
be or
The
reacts with batty material, will dissolve in water.
In the
tat,
manufacture
creating a water-
Because sodium hydroxide reacts
quite dangerous to skin and
must be Sodium
care.
compound
is
cleaning agent and bleach.
mercially as soda ash glass.
it
saponifies the
Vnother important sodium
which
that
is
substance that
a
mixture offal and sodium hydroxide.
ot soap, the
ot
as a drain cleaner or aw
from magnesium oxide.
abundant element
in the
present in such large quantities in seawater that
the world's oceans contain an almost unlimited supply of the dis-
solved metal. tant
is
It
methods
not surprising, then, that one ot the most impor-
obtaining the metal, called the
ot
involves the extraction of magnesium oyster shells
and other
which when added tion in the
from seawater.
seashells are used to supply
to seawater precipitates
form of an insoluble
After the solid
solid
The molten metal
Magnesium
is
become important
that
it
is
very
grams/cm \ For comparison's
gram/cm \ Magnesium has
form an
sium makes the
latter
sion-resistant than
it
light,
with a density of only 1.74
a density that
makes
it
alloy.
When
normally
is.
is
lighter,
Many
usually
1
mixed with
Atomic Number
1
aluminum, magne-
and even more corro-
people, for
alloy ladders in their
ideal tor fabricating
of
only about one-fifth that
It is
alloyed with
metal stronger,
aluminum-magnesium also
metal.
as a structural material. Its
sake, water has a density
of iron and two-thirds that of aluminum. these metals to
form magnesium
magnesium
then cast into solid bars for shipment.
has
is
In this process,
calcium oxide,
milk of magnesia.
as
treated with hydrochloric acid to
is
process,
magnesium out of solu-
known
chloride, electrolysis of the chloride yields pure
great advantage
Dow
example, have
homes.
automobile and
Its light
weight
aircraft parts, as
Chemical Symbol
Mg
—The
Group HA
Alkaline-Earth Metals
Magnesium
well as
power
Magnesium
Magnesium
is
powder or metal
in the Earth's crust
and
also present
is
hums
it
often seen in fireworks
is
magnesium
burn
will also
produce carbon dioxide
Magnesium oxide
smother
to
them would be
getting to
carbon dioxide.
in
important
,\n
is
compound
\\.\\\
to supply
important for proper nutrition
for the
magnesium
as a dietary
sis
and therefore Milk >H
»,
sun
in the
magnesia
ot
somewhat
in water.
basic
The
and
a
is
is
sulfate,
Epsom
milk
it.
still
Magnesium in the
essential role in
is
is
essential it
is
photosynthe-
cream) -looking suspension
in the
is
magnesium
stomach.
are a hydrated
salts
form of magnesium
molecule has several water molecules
that this
Epsom
is
were noted as long ago as the early 17th
salts
used as an aid
in
healing certain rashes of the
commerciallv
also used
treatment of fabrics to
in the
make them
Relatively large concentrations of
some
it
discovered in a well in Epsom, England, the medic-
first
oentury. The) are
am
supplement. Magnesium
over-the-counter remedy containing magne-
inal properties ot
and
animal
in
of green plants on the Earth.
ival
familiar,
These
salts
which means
attached to
skin.
of magnesium
used
humans because
used as mi antacid because
is
common
Another
^\n
fire.
suspension ot magnesium hydroxide,
hydroxide neutralizes excess acid
sium
in
It is
proper functioning ot several enzymes. Additionally,
present in chlorophyll, which plays
by
tlash-
pure oxygen
of a magnesium
also
iirtilizcii
A
preventing oxygen from
fires b\
useless in the case
in seawater.
the itonnuh
flares,
extinguishers that
ire
I
obtained directh from the mineral magnesite.
in
and
an
atmosphere, so that the magnesium burns very rapidly. Interestingly,
in large quantities
Is
ot a
ignited electrically by
is
interior of the bulb usuallv contains a
The
form
hrilliantly in air, giving off
hulh consists ot a thin magnesium wire that a battery.
abundant element
housings, and racing hikes.
a chemically reactive metal. In the
is
particles,
intense white light that
the seventh most
mower
lawn
tools,
tanning of leather
accept dyes
magnesium
natural water supplies. This contributes to
are
found
in
making the water
, '
mtn
hard.
I
he dissolved magnesium interferes with the action o\
detergents and torms
with soap.
water softening, interteres
scummy
he magnesium
1
much
in
which
less
Magnesium
it
also plays a crucial role in the all
green plant
color to
and
all
abilitv to
absorb
promote the formation of
light.
these-
it
The
mixed
makeup of the abilitv
green
of the chloro-
by photosynthesis to
biological energy.
The
structure of
complex atomic structures
magnesium atom, endows
its
cells.
and convert
the ultimate source of
the
is
replaced by dissolved sodium, which
the chlorophyll molecule, a ring of
around
the water
in a process called
is
phyll to capture solar energy is
when
removed
usually
with the action of detergents and soaps.
chlorophvlls present in
energy
precipitates
is
the molecule with
its
deep
The role played by magnesium light-absorbing structu:
is
— 59
Aluminum
IA
A
I
Be
Li
A
VA
IVA
MIA
1
C
N
7T
Si
P
VIA
He
VIIA
F
Ne
a
Ar
viiib
No Mg 1
VB
IVB
NIB
VIB
VIIB
«
%
Co
Ni
i
IB
IIB
s
'
K
V
Ca
S
t
is
mixture of iron ore and lime
heated, the lime combines with
The
impurities in the iron ore to form a glassy material called slag.
molten
slag then
removed
rately
Bows
as the
to the
bottom
ot the furnace
and
sepa-
is
molten iron pours from the furnace.
Limestone caves are
among
the most impressive naturally
occurring structures. These caves are formed slowly over thou-
sands ot years when slightly acidic groundwater, formed by the presence of carbon dioxide
in the water, seeps
through cracks
in
the rocks and dissolves enough limestone to hollow out a large
opening. The limestone often reprecipitates to form the
formations
known
downward from a cave's floor
stalactite
as stalactites
mm\
icicle-like
stalagmites. Stalactites
grow
caves ceiling and stalagmites grow upward from
a
an easy way to
remember
this
is
to associate the cin
with "ceiling" and the g in stalagmite with "ground").
Marble
is
composed of calcium carbonate and
tive to acid rain.
Many marble
is
very sensi-
structures, such as statues,
columns,
and the facades of public buildings, have been badly damaged by acid rain.
Governments dedicated
ot historic interest or that have
working very hard (
is
artistic
merit have been
to control the emissions that
rvpsum, the popular
(CaSO/ZHO),
to preserving structures that are
some
name
produce acid
rain.
for calcium sulfate dihydrate
an important mineral derived from the
sea.
The
A limestone cave at Carlsbad Caverns National Mexico,
Piirk in
Sew
78
Calcium
Calcium
is
word dihydrate
an
refers here to the
every molecule of calcium sulfate in gypsum.
especially impor-
tant nutrient for a
and
also a highly
Monument
New
in
Mexico, for example.
important building material and
plaster casts used to set artists'
cal-
cium, and marine
organisms build
It is
widely distributed in nature, constituting most of the White
plaster used to coat the walls
bones contain
familiar white
is
and
ceilings of
It is
used to make a
variety o( products that everyone has seen or used.
ing organisms. teeth
A
to
the great inland seas
once dotted the Earth dried up eons ago.
lakes that
Sands National
wide range of liv-
gypsum was formed when
chalky material,
and
Human
two water molecules attached
It
forms the
houses as well as the
broken bones and the plaster molds
for
sculptures.
The
versatility of
water molecules
when
called plaster of paris. plaster of paris,
it
gypsum it is
is
based on the
loss
heated, giving rise to a
When
water
is
added
to the
of some of
new
its
material
powdered
re-creates small crystals of gypsum,
which
join
with one another to form a hard mass of gypsum. This reaction
their shells of cal-
happens very rapidly and produces
Gypsum
cium carbonate.
ter.
a great deal of heat.
also exists in the crystalline
This material
is
favorite material of
form known
very soft and easy to carve, making
many
sculptors.
becomes translucent, which adds Calcium chloride (CaCl 2
)
is
When
it
a
polished, alabaster
greatly to a
as alabas-
beauty.
its
compound
of calcium that
has a strong affinity for water and can actually absorb water
from the
air,
pounds of
often absorbing
this
enough
itself. ComMany commercial
to dissolve
kind are called deliquescent.
products contain calcium chloride because of
remove moisture from damp places such
its
ability to
as basements.
79
Scandium
IVA
IMA
He
I
O
C
N
Si
PS
VlMB
Na Mq N
niB
VB
IVB
VUB
VIB
/
Ca S
il\
Dy Ho
Tb
Bk Cf
Es
Po At
why
terrestrial
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm Md No
Lr
Er
ery metal found chiefly in the ore
compound
of nickel and
1
sulfur.
percent of the earth's crust
is
on the surface
o\
Although nickel
is
scarce
interior. In fact, the
of
this
metal
molten core of the Farth
nickel
is
often found in meteorites, since these extra-
rock fragments are thought to have been formed
about the same time
as the farth.
Atomic Number 28 Chemical Symbol Ni
Group
Rn
u*
thought to be composed chiefly of iron and nickel. This may
explain
— First-Row
VIIIB
Transition Element
Xe
1
considered a rare element because only one
nickel.
its
Ne
Sn
scientists believe that large deposits
deep within
He
F
In
one-hundredth of
is
B
-
VIA
VIA
Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
Re Os
Th
Nickel
exist
VA
Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
Ce
many
IVA
-
*—^
called millerite, a
the Earth,
MA
idl as this
one found
in Arizona, often contain nickel.
at
95
Nickel
Although nickel compounds have been known since ancient
was
times, the pure metal
named
Swedish chemist
isolated by a
first
Axel Fredrik Cronstedt in 1751. Nickel
for Satan, and the element
German
a
is
thought to have been
is
German word named for the
Kiipfernickel, or Satan's copper. Like cobalt, nickel
pounds were known
world
to the ancient glass.
The
com-
way of coloring
as a
characteristic color that nickel
compounds add substances
and other
green.
is
Nickel
to glass
The
extremely resistant to
is
U.S. five-cent coin,
called the nickel,
corrosion and
frequently added
is
form
to other metals to
actually
alloys
of copper. Only 25 percent of the alloy
resistant to oxidation. Nickel
plating, often called electroplating,
technique that adds
is
made primarily
is
is
nickel.
a protective
coating of nickel to the surface ot\\ metal,
such as iron or
steel, that is
which
Stainless steel,
chromium and
known
to
corrode
typically contains
fairlv easily.
about 18 percent
8 percent nickel, provides another
use of nickel to prevent corrosion.
An
alloy
example of the
known
as
monel
is
a
mixture oi nickel and copper whose hardness and resistance to corrosion
make
it
the metal ot choice for such applications as the
propeller shafts of boats.
Nichrome, the familiar metal used elements in toasters and electric ovens,
and
nickel.
with
its
The high
make
it
a
the heating
an alloy of chromium
is
electrical resistance
high melting point,
make
to
of nichrome, combined
very efficient material for
converting electrical energy into heat energv.
Perhaps the most obvious use of nickel coin,
which
called the nickel.
is
copper and
magnetic.
and
The
cobalt,
is
alloy.
Like iron
alloy
named
is
actually
made of
and
cobalt, nickel can be
made
alnico, formed with aluminum, nickel,
used to create some of the most powerful magnets
known.
One of the
oxide. This battery
use of nickel
is
electrodes in this battery is
rechargeable, which
useful in calculators, computers,
It
is
is
a
makes
and cordless
form of nickel it
1
.5 volts
1.4 volts,
electric shavers, for
or only slightly
produced by an ordinary dry
and
the element to
is
have
cell.
been
named for
particularly
of great importance in electronic equipment.
produces a power output of
the
for Satan,
the nickel-cadmium
example. The nickel-cadmium battery can also be sealed to prevent leakage, which
a
German word
thought
An important modern battery.
is
in the U.S. five-cent
making up approximately 25
nickel, with nickel
percent of the
The coin
Nickel is
less
than
the
German
Kupfernickel, or Satan's copper.
96
Copper
t
.
|UA
MIA
Be
Li
IVA
VA
C
N
Si
P
VIA
VA He F
Ne
s
CI
Ar
Br
Kr
1
Xe
VIIIB
No Mg 1
VB
IVB
1MB
VIB
VIIB
*
,
IB
s
116
Al '
Q.
V
Co
s
with carbon-12
ions using the
Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC)
at Berkeley.
Their success in synthesizing nobelium-254 was confirmed by a
group of Russian Ghiorso and
his
physicists
the element, which in
working
Dubna,
at
had been assigned
to
it
Union.
in the Soviet
coworkers decided to retain the original
name
of
by the Stockholm group
honor of Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite. Eleven isotopes of nobelium have so far been synthesized,
and
all
are radioactive.
Nobelium-259
is
the longest-lived of the
isotopes, with a half-life of 57 minutes.
Nobelium has not been
produced in quantities large enough
permit the study of
to
its
chemical and physical properties.
Atomic Number
1
Chemical Symbol
02
No
Group 1MB— Transition Element (The Actinides)
218
Lawrencium
IA
-
.
-
1
a
Be
Li
(A
VA
B
C
N
Al
Si
P
VIA
W
He
F
Ne
VIIIB
No Mg 1
IVB
IIIB
VB
VIB
V
VIIB
1
*
,
IB
%
IIB
Mn
Fe
Tc
Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
In
Au Hg
Tl
Co Ni Cu In Ga Ge As Se
K
Co Sc
Rb
Sr
Cs
Bo 'La Hf Ta
Fr
Ra TAc Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt UunUuuUub
Ti
Y
Zr
Cr
Nb Mo
W
!
Re Os
*
Ce
Pr
Nd Pm Sm
t
Th
Pa
U Np Pu
Eu
Ir
Gd
Am Cm
Continuing
S
Pt
Tb Dy
Ho
Bk
Es
Cf
Sn
Sb Te
Pb
Bi
Ar
CI
Kr
Br
Xe
.
Po At
Rn
Uuq
Er
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm Md No!
Lr
their astonishing string of discoveries
at Berkeley, a
team of scientists
by Albert
led
Ghiorso synthesized and identified lawrencium, a
new transuranium element
nobelium,
heavier than
in 1961.
Using the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC) University of California, they
bombarded
isotopes of californium with boron- 10 target
a
at
the
mixture of three
and boron- 1
1
ions.
The
weighed only a few millionths of a gram. Careful analysis
of
the reaction indicated that the Berkeley team had manufactured law rencium-258, an isotope of
seconds.
It
was named
tor of the cyclotron
in
and
a
lawrencium with
a halt-life ot 4
honor of Ernest O. Lawrence, the invenformer professor
at
the University of
California.
Eight isotopes of lawrencium have been synthesized to date,
with the longest-lived being lawrencium-256, which has a
half-life
of about 30 seconds. Very
little is
known about
the
chemical and physical properties of
lawrencium, although Ghiorso and his colleagues,
ably small
working with unbelie\
-
amounts of lawrencium
equivalent to a few atoms
managed
a
very preliminary study of the oxida-
Atomic Number
1
03
tion behavior of the element.
They
found that the chemical behavior of
Chemical Symbol Lr
—
Group IIIB Transition Element (The Actinides)
lawrencium seemed to resemble that of the lighter actinides.
Etanent lOs was named
lawrencium
m
honor of Ernest
O. Lawrence, the inventor of the cyclotron.
219
Rutherfordium
IA .
-
j
IIIA
IVA
VA
C
N
.
A
He
-
1
Be
Li
1
Na Mg 1 K
F
Ne
CI
At __
VIIIB
IVB
1MB
Co
*
VB
Rb
Sr
Y
Ir
Ba
La
Hf
Fr
Ra
Ac Rf
VIIB
_____________ V
Ti
Cs
VIB
Mn
Cr
Nb Mo
IB
.
Fe
Co
Cu
Ni
MB
_AJ Si P S Zn Go Ge As Se .
Tc
Ru Rh
Pd Ag Cd
Re
Os
Pt
In
Au Hg
TI
Sn
Sb Te
Pb
Bi
Br
Kr
1
Xe
1
•
1
Pa
Ir
Db Sg Bh Hs Ml Uun Uuu Uub
Ce Pr Nd Th
W
To
U
A
Pm Sm
Gd
Tb
Dy Ho
Np Pu Am Cm
Bk
Cf
history
Eu
E$
Po At
Rn
Uuq
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm Md No
Lr
Er
of competing claims confused die
naming of dement
104, the
of the elements
first
beyond the actinides in the periodic table, which are usually called transactinide elements. The
honor the discoverer
When
ol
naming
the discovery
new element usually goes
a is
Union of Pure and Applied
clature designed b) the International
Chemistry
IT I'M
new element. For
used to identify the atomic
is
purpose,
this
which assigns
of the following code,
element's atomic number, with
=
a
2
3
=
8 = oct
4
= quad
7
tri
9
=
of"
the
the use
each digit
in .\n
in turn.
sept
= enn
the discovery of element 104 began in 1964,
team of Russian at
a syllable to
names ending 5 = pent
nil
number
recommended
all
6 = hex
The dispute over Nuclear Research
has
= un = bi
1
when
T\(
II
to
nomen-
disputed, a system oi
scientists
Dubna,
working
in the So\
iet
at
the Joint Institute for
Union, reported that
they had created a new element, unnilquadium-260, with a half-life
of three-tenths of a second.
of "un-nil-quad-ium" system;
its
(
The
original, ungainly
1-0-4-ium) was based on the
name
IUPAC
chemical symbol was Unq. In their experiments, the
Russian scientists
bombarded plutonium-242 with neon-22
They subsequently suggested the name kurchatovium
ions.
for the
new
Atomic Number
1
04
element, in honor of the head of Soviet Research, Ivan Kurchatov.
The evidence
for this discovery, however,
to the international
Then,
was not very convincing
community.
in 1969, a
team
led
by the American physicist Albert
Ghiorso bombarded californium-249 with carbon- 12 ions using
Chemical Symbol Rf
Group IVB—
A Transactinide
220
Rutherfordium
Soviet scientists claimed credit for discovering both rutherfo rdium
which they proposed the Ivan Kurchatov, above
1
name kurchatoviwn
in
honor of Soviet chemist
and hahnium. now named diibnium. Ho\
their claims were rejected by the International
Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry.
Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC)
the
California at Berkeley.
They reported the
at
the University of
positive identification
of unnilquadium-257, an isotope with a half-life of four to seconds. Large detected.
The Berkeley group proposed naming
rutherfordium, in honor of the distinguished icist
Ernest Rutherford,
the element
New
Zealand phys-
whose work had been instrumental
the early understanding of the atom. the day,
five
amounts of this isotope have subsequently been
and the name rutherfordium
in
The American claim won is
now
the
name endorsed
by the American Chemical Societv. Six isotopes of rutherfordium,
all
radioactive, have *o far
been identified. Rutherfordium-261, the longest life
of 62 seconds.
Little
is
properties of the element.
known about
lived,
has a halt-
the chemical or physical
221
Dubnium
:A
-
H
".'«
Be
Li
IVA
IMA
!
VA
VIA
VIIA
N
He
Ne
VIIIB
Na Mg 1
VB
IVB
1MB
V
K
Co
St
Ti
A
Sr
Y
Zr
Cs
Ba
la
Hf
Fr
Ra !Ac Rf
Mn
Cr
Nb Mo Ta
W
Ce
Pr
t
Th
Pa
«
,
Fe
.,
Ce
Re Os
Ni
IIB
IB
Al
Pt
Ir
In
Au Hg
Np
U
I
Gd
Am Cm
Pu
Tb
TI
1
'
slV tne
S(-'
ctU)n
tion of the
CI
Sn
Sb Te
Pb
Bi
Ar
Br
Kr
1
Xe
Po At
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm Md No
Lr
Er
Es
Rn
discover) have plagued
its
clement 105, previously
B Zh
S
Uuq
Dy Ho
Bk Cf
>isputed claims ol
P
I
Db Sg Bh Hs Mf Uun Uuu Uub
Eu
Si
Cu Zn Go Ge As Se
Pd Ag Cd
Ru Rh
Tc
Nd Pm Sm
•
— ^_
VMB
VIB
known
as
on rutherfordium
naming process used
unnilpentium for a descrip-
new
for
ele-
ments). In 1967, a group of Russian scientists
winking
at
the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
the Soviet Union,
bombarded americium-243 with
of neon-22. They claimed to have produced
a
few
Dubna,
at
in
the heavy ions
atoms each of
unnilpentium-260 and imnilpentium-261. In 1970, a
team headed by the American physicist Albert
Ghiorso bombarded califbrnium-249 with heavy nitrogen- 13 ions using the
Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC)
University of California
nilpentium-260, with a ucts of the
at
Berkeley and positively identified un-
half-life
of 1.6 seconds,
bombardment. Ghiorso and
The Berkeley group proposed
to
name
among
his colleagues
to duplicate the Russian experiment, but this
uni in
at the
their
proved
the prod-
attempted
fruitless.
new element hahni-
honor of Otto Hahn, the German chemist who discovered
nuclear fission. In view o\ the
overwhelming evidence presented by the
Berkeley team, the American Chemical Society officially endorsed the
name
of hahnium for unnilpentium. Ghiorso and his team
continued their work with the element and produced two new isotopes in 1971. In 1997 the International
Applied Chemistry decided to change the to
dubnium. There
all
are radioactive.
life
of 34 seconds.
unknown.
are
The Its
now
five
known
longest-lived
is
Union of Pure and
name of this element
isotopes of
Atomic Number 105
dubnium, and
dubnium-262, with
chemical and physical properties are
a half-
Chemical Symbol
Group VB
—
A Transactinide
Db
222
Seaborgium
IA
«
|llA
Li
Be
IVA
VA
B
C
N
AJ
Si
P
IDA
VIA
VIA
He
F
Ne
s
CI
Ar
s
VIIIB
Na Mg 1
VB
IVB
NIB
V
VIB
VIIB
i
Mn
«
s
Co
Ni
IB
IIB
Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb Mo
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Fr
Ro tAc Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt UunjUuuUub
Cr
Fe
W
Pd Ag Cd
Ru Rh
Tc
Re Os
Au Hg
Pt
Ir
In
Sn
Sb Te
Tl
Pb
Bi
Br
Kr
1
Xe
Po At
Rn j
Uuq
j
|
*
Ce
Pr
Th
Pa
Nd Pm Sm Np
U
Eu
Like the
Gd Tb Dy Ho
Am Cm
Pu
Bk Cf
Es
Er
Tm Yb
Lu
Fm
Md No
Lr
two preceding elements
table, the
in the periodic
claim of discovery of element 106,
along with the right to
name
it,
was
dispute. After a waiting period of
an international group of referees proved the
name unnilhexium
discussion of
for the
how new elements
are
new element
named
a subject of
some
10 years,
finally ap-
(see the
in the section
on
rutherfordium). In March 1994, the American Chemical Societ\
announced
to be named seaborgium in who was a member of the team that element and who won the 1951 Nobel Prize in
that the
honor of Glenn discovered this
T.
new element was
Seaborg,
chemistry for his work other
artificially
in the discovery
of plutonium and nine
created elements.
team of Russian
In June 1974, a joint Institute for
Nuclear Research
scientists
in
Dubna,
working in
the
at
what was
then the Soviet Union, reported that they had produced unnil-
hexium by bombarding lead-206 with highly energetic heavy
chromium-54 experiments
was
in
ions produced in their cyclotron. Because other
failed to
confirm
this result, their
claim of discover]
doubt.
At about the
same
Livermore Laboratory
time, a team of scientists
at
the
and the University of California
I
at
awrence Berkeley
triumphantly reported the unambiguous discovery of unnil-
hexium-263, with
Atomic Number
1
06
a half-life
ing the element, the
(
California scientists
Ion linear Accelerator
Chemical Symbol Sg
Group VIB
—
A Transactinide
of nine-tenths of a second. In generat-
i
HI LAG)
to
used the Berkeley Heavy
bombard californium-249
with oxygen- 18. They produced only
a tiny
amount of element
106, however, so that international regulatory
groups delayed
resolving the conflicting claims of prior discovery ol
element.
the new
in
223
Seaborgium
The technique
that
identify the element
is
was used by the California group
quite fascinating.
to
employed an elaborate
It
apparatus previously used to discover rutherfordium and hahn-
ium,
which
in
jets
of air propelled the products of nuclear reac-
tions to the top of a vertical wheel,
where they were deposited. As
the wheel rotated, detectors wired to computers and
around the wheel then
identified these products by
mounted
monitoring
the half-lives of the decay products to which they gave In 1993, scientists at the
I
awrence
rise.
ivermore and Berkeley
I
laboratories repeated their experiment, confirming the original
And established
result.
Four isotopes
106.
seaborgium-263 is
It
group
at
is
ol
seaborgium have been
the
element
their claim to the discovery of
one with the longest
naming
interesting to note that the
the Universit) ot
(
identified; half-life.
national disagreement on the
naming
ot
mam
discovered elements. Although the honor ot
had always been granted
to
seaborgium by
ot
a
alifornia at Berkeley set off an inter-
its
ot the recently
naming an element
discoverers, an international
com-
mission organized by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemists (IUPAC) voted disallow the
name on
at
the end ot August 1994 to
the grounds that
The commission went even new list of names for elements
Glenn
Seaborg was
T.
alive.
further and proposed
ly
104 to 108.
and discussions,
After three years ot meetings
was
finally
ing the
a
.\n
still
entire-
compromise
agreed to by an international group of chemists dur-
summer
of 1997.
The names now accepted by
the
IUPAC
are the ones used in this book. In July 1997, a
Schadel stadt,
at
the
consortium of
Germany, reported
analysis
scientists led
Heavy Ion Research laboratory that they
had managed
on seaborgium. This was the
work had ever been done, and
it
by Dr. Matthias
(G.S.I.) in
first
to
Darm-
do chemical
time that any such
was done with an incredibly
small sample of only seven seaborgium atoms.
They found
that
seaborgium seemed to have chemical properties consistent with its
position in the periodic table. That
products similar to
above
it
in
molybdenum and
column 6 of the
table.
ments 104 and 105 do not appear their position in the table.
It is
This
is, it
produced reaction
tungsten, the elements just
came
to react in
as yet
not
as a surprise, as ele-
ways consistent with
known why seaborgium
behaves differently from these two lighter atoms.
224
Nielsbohnum
IA
-
.
« Li
\z / IVB
NIB
VB
VIB
VIIB
«
-
when Acid rain
that produces
hydrogen ions
dissolved in water.
Rain ihat
made
is
sulfur dioxide
when such
acidic
and nitrogen oxides
pollutants as
are present in
the atmosphere.
>orption
The
attraction of
one substance
to the surface of
another.
Allotrope
One
of several possible physically distinct forms
of an element.
A
.Alloy
metallic substance that
is
either a
compound
or a mixture.
Alpha
particle
A
particle consisting of
protons that substances.
_l
Anion
A
Atom
The
is
two neutrons and two
emitted by certain radioactive
It is
essentially a
helium nucleus.
negatively charged ion. smallest
and most basic unit of an element.
Atomic number The number of protons
in the
nucleus of one
atom of an element. Atomic weight
The average weight of all
the isotopes of an
element.
Base
A
substance that produces hydroxvl ion>
when Beta particle
The
OH
dissolved in water.
electron emitted during the radioactive
decay of certain radioisotopes. Catalyst
A
>ubstance that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction without being changed chemically
itself.
Cation
A
positively charged ion.
Compound
A
substance composed of two or
chemically
Corrosion Crystal
bound
together in a fixed ratio.
The oxidation of metals
An important
more elements
in the
atmosphere.
structure of certain solids in
which the atoms or molecules that are
its
ba>ic
building blocks are arranged in regular repeating intervals.
Glossary
Cyclotron
A machine
that accelerates nuclear particles to
extremely high speeds.
used to investigate
It is
the nature of matter and to form new elements.
Deuteron
The nucleus of the as deuterium.
isotope of hydrogen
known
contains one proton and one
It
neutron. Electrolysis
A
process
m
which the passage
current through a
cell
causes
a
ot electric
chemical
reaction to occur.
A substance
Element
that
cannot be decomposed into
a
simpler substance by any chemical or physical reaction.
Gamma
rays
A form
of electromagnetic energ) given off by
certain radioactive atoms.
Group
1
hev resemble \ rays
in their great
penetrating power.
The elements
that
make up
a
column
in the
periodic table.
Half-life
for radioactive elements, the time required for half of the
Ion
An atom
element
to decay.
or group of chemically
bound atoms
that has either a positive or negative electrical
charge.
Isotopes
Atoms
o\ the
same element
that contain the
same number of protons but
different
numbers
of neutrons.
Mass number
The sum of the number of neutrons and protons that
Molecule
A group
make up
the nucleus of an atom.
of atoms (of the same element or a
combination of elements) that are chemically
bound Neutron
One
together in a fixed ratio.
of the basic particles that
nucleus of an atom.
It is
make up
the
distinguished by
having no electric charge.
Nucleus
The
central core of an atom,
composed of
protons and neutrons, that contains positive charge
and most of
its
mass.
all its
235
236
Glossary
(
Kidation
This term once referred to a chemical reaction in
which
now
a substance
combined with oxygen but
any reaction
refers to
in
which
substance
a
loses electrons.
pH
A measure 7
is
of the acidity of a solution.
said to be neutral.
solution
The pH
becomes more
Period
A
horizontal
Polymer
A
large chain-like
row
A pH
of
decreases as the
acidic.
in the periodic table.
made up of repeat-
molecule
ing smaller molecules that link together.
Radioactive
The spontaneous breaking
decay
.m atom to form a different element. Usually
apart of a nucleus of
accompanied by the emission of particles and
gamma Reduction
A
rays.
chemical reaction that once referred to reduc-
ing an ore to erally
its
pure metal.
It
now
more gen-
is
conceived of as a reaction that involves
the gain of electrons.
Salt
A
crystalline
compound formed from
the ions
released into solution by an acid or a base.
Group
Transition
The elements
elements
Group
Transuranium
The elements
elements
periodic table. These elements are
located between
II
A and
IIIA in the periodic table.
that follow
uranium
in the all
made
artificially.
Valence
The
electrons
an atom. They often determine the chemical
electrons that occupy the outermost shell of
behavior of the element.
237
Some elements
>-
copper, ny,
—carbon,
silver, gold, tin,
mercury, and lead
iron,
— haw-
been known and used for thousands of years.
It
1772
antimoNitrogen discovered by Daniel Rutherford.
impossible
is
to date their discovery. This
Jl
the dates of discovery
chart
lists
of
the other elements.
all
1250 Arsenic discovered by Albert us
Magnus.
z
1669 Phosphorus
discove red by
Hennig Brand.
1774 Chlorine discovered by Carl
1739
Wilhelm Scheele;
Cobalt discovered by Georg
by
Brandt.
X
u
sir
it
was identified
Humphry Davy
in 1810.
Manganese discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
Oxygen discovered by Joseph
1741 Platinum discovered
Priestley.
bj Charles
Wood.
1778 Molybdenum
1746 Zinc discovered by Andreas
Wilhelm
isolated
by Carl
Scheele.
Marggraf.
1782 Tellurium discovered by Franz
1751 Nickel isolated by Axel Fredrik
Joseph von Reichenstein.
Cronstedt.
1783 Tungsten discovered by Juan Jose
1753 Bismuth
identified by
Claude
and Fausto d'Elhuar y de
Suvisa.
Geoffroy
1787 1766 Hvdrogen discovered by Henry Cavendish.
Zirconium discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth.
238
Chronology
1789
1808
Strontium identified by I raw lord.
\d.ui
1
Yttrium identified by lohan (
Boron
uidolin.
>avy,
1827 isolated by Sir
Humphry
Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac
Aluminum
discovered by Hans
Christian Oersted.
and Louis Jacques Thenard.
Magnesium, calcium, and barium first isolated and identified by Sir
1828
Humphry
Thorium
I
'aw.
1791
discovered by Jons Jakob
Berzelius.
Titanium discovered by Reverend
Beryllium discovered In
William Gregor.
I
nedrich
Wohler.
1797
1839
Chromium
discovered by Louis-
Lanthanum discovered by
Nieolas Vauqueliii.
Carl
Custaf Mosander.
1798
1841
Beryllium discovered by Louis
Uranium
Nicolas Vauquelin.
isolated
and
identified
by Eugene-Melchior Peligot. Henri Becquerel discovered that urani-
um
1811
1801 Vanadium discovered by Andres Manuel del Rio. Niobium discovered by
(
in 1896.
Iodine discovered by Bernard Courtois.
1843 Terbium and erbium discovered
Charles
Hatchett
was radioactive
by Carl Custaf Mosander.
1817 Lithium discovered by Johan August Arfwedson.
1802 Tantalum discovered by Anders (
iusta\
1
keberg.
1844
Selenium discovered by Jons Jakob
Ruthenium discovered by
Berzelius.
K. K. Klaus.
Cadmium
discovered by Friedrich
Strohmeyer.
1803
1860
Rhodium and palladium ered by William
Cerium simultaneously discovered In Ions Jakob Berzelius,
Hisinger,
Wilhelm
Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff.
Silicon isolated by Ions Jakob Berzelius.
1861 Rubidium discovered by Robert
iridium discovered
Smithson Tennant
1807 Sodium and potassium Sir lumphry Daw. I
1824
and Martin Klaproth.
Osmium and In
Cesium discovered by Robert
discov-
Hyde Wollaston.
isolated by
1826
Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
Bromine discovered by Antoine-
Thallium discovered
lerome Balard.
William Crookes.
In Sir
Chronology
1863
1913
1894
Indium discovered by Ferdinand
Argon
Reich.
and
identified
Sir
by Lord Rayleigh
William Ramsay.
1868
Protactinium discovered by Kasimir Fajans and O. H. Gohring.
1923
Helium discovered by
Hafnium discovered by Dirk
Pierre
[anssen.
(
oster
and George Karl von
Hevesy.
1875 1928
Gallium found and identified by
Rhenium
Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran.
discovered by Otto Berg
and Wilhelm N'oddack.
1878 Ytterbium discovered by lean de
1895 Helium
Marignac
1937 discove red b) William
redmetium discovered by Emilio
Ramsay.
Segre and Carlo Perrier.
1879 Scandium discovered by Lars Fredrik Nilson.
Samarium Lmile
discovered by Paul-
Lecoq de Boisbaudran.
Holmium and thulium by Per Teodor
(
lc
discovered
Praseodymium
1939 Francium discovered by Marguer-
ered by sir William Ramsay.
ite
1940 1899
Neptunium first produced by Edwin M. McMillan and Philip H.
Actinium discovered by Andre
Abelson.
Debierne. isolated
Astatine created by a team of
and iden-
chemists that included Dale R.
by Carl Auer von Welsbach.
Neodymium
Perey.
Polonium and radium discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie.
e.
1885 tified
1898 Neon, krypton, and xenon discov-
discovered bv Carl
Auer von Welsbach.
Corsun, K. R. Mckenzie and
1900
Emilio Segre.
Radon discovered by
Friedrich
Frnst Dorn.
1941
1886
Plutonium discovered by Glenn
Fluorine isolated by Henri
1901
Moissan.
Europium
Germanium
discovered by
isolated
by Eugene-
Anatole Demarcay.
Clemens Winkler.
1944
Gadolinium discovered by PaulFmile Lecoq de Boisbaudran and
Americium
1907
Jean de Marignac.
Lutetium discovered by Carl Auer
Curium
von Welsbach and Georges Urbain.
Seaborg, Ralph A. James and
Dysprosium discovered by
T.
Seaborg.
Paul-
Fmile Lecoq de Boisbaudran.
created by a team of
scientists led
by Glenn
T.
Seaborg.
created by Glenn T.
Albert Ghiorso.
239
240
Chronology
Mirinsky, (
.
I).
1994
1961
1947 Fromcthium discovered by
I.
A.
Glendenin and
L. E.
I
awrendum T.
Sikkeland,
Larsch, and R.
M.
A
1
L'nunnilium and unununium created by an international
scientists that included Albert
Ghiorso,
Coryell.
created by a team of
team of
.
scientists led
by
Peter Armbruster.
Latimer.
1949 BerkeUum
created by Glenn T.
Seaborg, Stanley
Thompson, and
Albert Ghiorso.
1996
1969 Rutherfordium created by o\ scientists led
a
team
by Albert Ghiorso.
Ununbiium tional
created by an interna-
team of scientists
led by
Peter Armbruster.
1970
1950 Californium created
In Stanley
Dubnium
Thompson, Kenneth
Street,
scientists led
Albert Ghiorso
and Glenn
Jr.,
created by a team of
bv Albert Ghiorso.
1999 Ununquadium, element
Seaborg.
tists
from the
Moscow,
Bohrium
a
created by a team of
entists led
Einsteinium and fermium created by
team of
scientists led
sci-
by Peter Armbruster
and Gottfried Munzenberg.
by
Albert Ghiorso.
1982 Meitnerium created by
1955
scientists led
Mendelevium
created by a team of
scientists led by Albert
a
team of
by Peter Armbruster
and Gottfried Munzenberg.
Ghiorso.
1984 1958 Nobelium
Hassium identified by a
scientists led by Albert
team of
Ghiorso.
14, cre-
Joint Institute of
Nuclear Research
1981 1952
1
ated by a collaboration of scien-
T.
created by a team of
scientists led
by Peter Armbruster
and Gottfried Munzenberg.
Russia,
in
Dubna
near
and the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory California.
in
24:
General Information on Chemistry and the Elements Asimov, the
Isaac. Building Blocks oj
Blumberg, Stanley A. Edward Giant of the Golden Age
teller:
Physics.
New York:
'inverse.
I
Biographies
New York:
oj
Scribners,
1990.
Abelard-Schuman, 1961. Hager, [nomas. Force of Nature:
The Search
.
New York
Elements.
Atkins, Peter William.
New
ol the
Basic, 1962.
The Periodic
Kingdom: A Journey
land
The
for the
s.
ox,
P.
Schuster, 1995.
Humphry Daw:
\1.
and Power.
lambridge,
(
Mass.: Bl.kkwcll. 1992.
York: Bask, [995.
\k( (
Simon &
ience
New
Linus Pauling.
ife oj
Knight, David
into the
Chemical Elements.
I
York:
A. The Elements: Their Or-
Abundance, and Distribu-
igins,
New
tion.
York:
(
Kt'ord
Irayne,
Prize I
Science:
1
M
:
I
heir
and Momentous
ncs. Struggles
Discoveries. 2d ed.
University Press, [989.
\Wv/
Sharon BcrtsJi.
Women m
Washington,
National A«.adem\ Press,
2001.
Heiserman. David
I.
Exploring
Chemical Elements and their
ompounds. Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.: lab Books. [992. (
Newton, David
New
I
.
Linus Pauling.
York: Facta on
Quinn, Susan. Marie
wot Chemicals
Lewis, Grace Ross, in
Everyday Products. 2d ed.
New
York: lolin Wiley,
Morgan, Nina.
New
York:
urie:
Simon &
A
1995.
Naomi. Marie Curie and
in
the Science ol Radioactivity.
Action:
1
Everyday
he Molecule-
New
I ife.
I ife.
Schuster,
I
Pasachoff,
hemistry
(
(
ile,
I
New
o!
York:
York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Oxford University
Newton, Vernon
Making
New
I.
Press, 1995.
Adam's Atoms:
Light of the Elements.
York: Viking, 1965.
Segre, Emilia
Motion:
T.,
New
in
he Autobiography of
of California Press, 1993.
and Evans G.
Valens. Elements of the L'niverse.
A Mind Always
York:
1
Hitton,
Strathem, Paul. Mendeleyev's
Dream: The Quest for Elements.
New York:
the
St.
1958. Martin's, 2001.
Snyder, Carl H. The Extraordinary
Chemistry of Ordinary Things.
Genius. Cambridge:
Massachusetts Institute of
York: Wiley, 1995.
System
ol
).
W The
Technology Periodic
Chemical Elements: A
History of the hirst Hundred Years.
New York:
Elsevier, 1969.
D
Wilson, David. Rutherford: Simple
New
Van Spronsen,
I
Emilio Segre. Berkeley: University
Scaborg, Glenn
I
III
Press, 1983.
Ll
242
http://www.webelements.com I
his site features
an interactive
periodic tabic with links to a pagetor each element.
Each page nas
summary information about
the
http://chemicool.com
A
color-coded periodic table with
a
page dedicated to each element
that gives the element's basic properties in a series of charts.
element and further links giving such details as electronic, physical,
and nuclear properties; raphy; and a proper
crystallog-
compound
index. The site also contains a
number of useful graphs and
http://wulff.mit.edu/pt
This at
site
was created for
Technology. other
a
course
the Massachusetts Institute of features a color-
It
coded periodic
table with a series
of related graphs illustrating such
graphics.
properties as heat of fusion, boiling point, and specific heat.
default.htm
site
A
elements relate to each other with
resource for elementary, middle
school,
and high school students
created by the Los
CD
The
http://pearl 1 .lanl.gov/periodic/
The
site
how
provides an
interactive periodic table with
respect to these properties.
http://www.lbl.gov
The
official site
of the Berkelev lab
Orlando Lawrence
(the Ernest
links to a description of each
Berkeley National Laboratory).
element.
site
visiting the lab,
which
to the public.
com An interactive
page has links to table of the ele-
that features a
diagram of
The
contains information about
http://www.chemicalelements.
ments
the
Alamos
National Laboratory's Chemistrv Division.
allows students to see
happenings
Its
offers tours
"Science Beat" articles
about
in the scientific
munity. The
com-
site also features links
each element's atomic structure
to other sites dedicated to science
and an isotope
education.
chart.
BerKelev Lai) """"" did you ever
ond t
unrnl Ni
By Etnpwmfl i."
& '
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90
Street,
14,
i
Welsbach.Carl Auer von, 149, 151, 1
Sodium, 54-56
Steel,
I
B
61-63
127-29
Silver,
Vanadium, B3
Xenon, 140-41
Kenneth, 212
\
ravs,
10,30
Strohmeyer, Friedrich, 130 Strontium, Sulfur,
13-14
1
66-68
1
Ytterbv,
Sweden, 115, 159, 162, 164
Yttrium, 115-16
Sulfuric acid
Tacke, Ida,
Ytterbium, 164
72
Zinc, 99-100
Tantalum, 168-69
Zircon,
Technetium, 122-23
Zirconium, 117-18, 166
Teflon, 51-52 Teller,
Edwaid, 27
Tellurium, 136
1
17
246
AIP Emilio Segre
0)
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Professor Emeritus at the United States Merchant Marine
and previously served
as the
head of the mathematics and science department
Dr. Stwertka conducted research in the field of atomic physics in establishing training
Atoms
for Peace
programs
program. He
including The World
of
Academy
is
for the N.S.
the author of
Savannah nuclear ship during the
numerous books on
Atoms and Quarks, Recent Revolutions
Revolutions in Mathematics and Physics:
there.
and was instrumental
From Newton
to the
science
in Physics,
Big Bang.
and math,
Recent
hem.
students immediately noticed this
Iv
on my
and
desk,
it
has been circulating through
the classroom ever since.
my
effect Oil
1
book
Few books have had
1th graders."
that
—The Science Teacher
chemical elements and the basic principles of
The
chemistry are the foundations of
all
scientific study,
and
award-winning book provides a focused, compre-
this
A
Guide
to the
Elements begins with an introductory section that explains
some
hensive,
and engaging survey of
all
114 elements.
of the basic concepts of chemistry and traces the history and
development of the periodic table of the elements. In
clear,
nontechnical language, noted science writer Albert Stwertka
makes complex
ideas
Brought
life
to
and terms
accessible.
with historical anecdotes and everyday
examples, each element
is
discussed in a separate article. Readers
learn the history of the element's discovery, practical uses. illustrations
new an
A
Guide
to the
Elements
and references such
as
web
is
its
and
properties,
its
enhanced with color
sites
and
a glossary. This
edition brings the periodic table into the 21st century with article
discovered,
about ununquadium, the
latest
element to be
and an epilogue about the ongoing search
for the
"island of stability."
V Albert Stwertka _
my.
He
is
is
professor emeritus at the United States Merchant Marine
the author of numerous books
on
science
World of Atoms and Quarks, Recent Revolutions it
hematics,
and Physics from Newton
and math, includin Physics,
to the
R
Big Bang.
I
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