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Critical Book Review Contrastive Analysis & Error Analyis



Supporting Lecturer : Asrina Sari Sembiring, S.Pd.I, M.Hum Arranged by : Helkin NIM : 0304172065



DEPARTEMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION TARBIYAH SCIENCE AND TEACHERS TRAINING FACULTY STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATRA MEDAN 2021



PREFACE First at all, give thanks for God’s love and grace for us. Thanks to God Allah SWT for helping us and give us chance to finish this assignment timely. And me would like to say thank you to Mam. as the lecturer that always teaches us and give much knowledge about English especialy in Contranstive errors analysis. This assignment is the one of English task about “CRITICAL BOOK REVIEW ”. I realized this assignment is not perfect. But I hope it can be useful for us. Critics and suggestion is needed here to make this assignment be better. Hopefully we as a student can work more professional by using English as the second language whatever we done.



Medan, 28 January 2021



Helkin



TABLE OF CONTENTS



FOREWORD......................................................................................................................i TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................ii BAB I PRELIMINARY....................................................................................................1 1.1 Background..................................................................................................................1 1.2 The Aim.......................................................................................................................1 BAB II BOOK CONTENT...............................................................................................2 2.1 Book Identity...............................................................................................................2 2.2 Book Summary ...........................................................................................................3 2.2.1 Fundamental Issues in Contrastive Analysis............................................................3 2.2.2 CA of Some Selected Features of English and Persian............................................3 2.2.3 Linguistic and Psychological Bases of Error Analysis.............................................4 2.2.4 Er-ror Analysis.........................................................................................................6 2.2.5 Hypotheses about Second-Language Learner's Language.......................................8 2.2.6 Techniques and Procedures for Doing Error Analysis...........................................10 2.2.7 Classification of Errors...........................................................................................12 2.2.8 Sources of Errors....................................................................................................15 2.2.9 Communicative Aspects of Error Analysis............................................................16 2.2.10 Pedagogical Implications of Error Analysis.........................................................18 3.1 Book Advantages ......................................................................................................20 3.2 Book Dissadvantages.................................................................................................20 BAB III CLOSING..........................................................................................................21 4.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................21



4.2 Suggestion.................................................................................................................22 REFERENCE



CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY



1.1.



Background Teachers. linguists and psycholinguists have always been intere ted in errors produced by second-language learners, either in their speech or writing or both. In fact, learners' errors have been the subject of extensive investigation and heated controveL y for quite a long time. There have been two major approaches to the study of learner ' error . namely Contrasti ve Analysis and Error Analysis. The author's principal intention in writing this book has been to provide a text for the Contrasti\'c and Error Analysis course now widely taught at the university level in Iran. The previously used material for this course failed to cover many aspects of Error Analy i which are dealt with in the present book. The book is also intended to provide practicing teachers with insights into the nature and types of errors, with which they have to deal in their daily profes ional life. The material in this book is based on the author's lectures on Contrastive and Error Analysis at major universities in Tehran. It has been worked out over several years and has proven to be satisfactory and successful. Attempts have been made to present the material systematically. It is strongly believed that this systematic presentation wiiirnake the teaching and reading of the material smooth and easy. It is hoped that this book, with all its shortcomings, wi II create a positive attitude towards errors, both on the part of educators and students.



1.2 The Aim The Aim and benefits of this critical book report are: This book research is useful for analyzing this book, adding insight into writers and readers in knowing the advantages and disadvantages of books about books for Contrastive Error Analysis.



CHAPTER II BOOK CONTENT 2.1 Book Identity Book Title



: Constrative Analysis & Error Analysis



Author



: Mohammad Hossein Keshavarz, Ph.D.



Publisher



: Acknowledgements



Publishing Year



: 2011



Book Thickness



: 193 Page



City



: Tehran



ISBN-13



:-



ISBN-10



:-



2.2 Book Summary 2.2.1 Fundamental Issues in Contrastive Analysis Since the advocates of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claimed that the most effective materials for teaching foreign languages would be those based on contrastive studies this discipline was recognized as an important and integrated part of foreign language teaching for quite a long time. In fact, Contrastive Analysis was considered the ultimatesolution to all language teaching problems. These studies were essentially pedagogical and aimed at predicting and solving learners' errors and difficulties. In view of the controversies surrounding the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, it seems necessary to discuss different aspects of this discipline in this chapter. Historical Perspective The history of Comparative Linguistics (originally known as Comparative Philology) goes back to the 18th century when scholars began to compare different languages in a systematic and detailed manner in order to find out whether there were correspondences between them. The objective of such comparative studies was to find evidence for the existence of a common origin for a group of languages. Some linguists have also been interested in comparing various stages in the development of a single language, such as comparing Old Persian with Middle Persian and Modem Farsi by some Iranian linguists. Pedagogical Contrastive Analysis and Its Psychological Basis Pedagogical contrastive analysis rests on the underlying assumptions of Behaviorist Psychology. The Behaviorists, inspired by the ideas of Skinner ( 1957), viewed first language acquisition essentially as the formation of new habits acquired through repetition and strengthened by the reinforcement of correct responses. This is similar to the way certain animals can be trained, through the use of appropriate conditioning techniques, to perform certain tasks. In this theory, language acquisition was not viewed as an active mental process but as a passive mechanical one. 2.2.2 Contrastive Analysis of Some Selected Features of English and Persian In this chapter an actual contrastive analysis of certain features of English and Persian will be presented. In this task, ftrst the selected features from these two languages will be described in linguistic terms and then they will be compared and contrasted. Next, based on the differences found between the two languages certain predictions will be made about difficulties Persian-speaking learners of English may encounter. The selection is based on the author's years of experiencein teaching English to Iranian students and familiarity with their learning difficulties and errors.



A Sample of Phonological Contrastive Analysis Syllable Types and Consonant Clusters in English and Persian A syllable is a unit of pronunciation typically larger than a single sound and smaller than a word. For example, in the English word dis.ad.van.tage there are four syllables, and the Persian word /Je.ni.drenl 'hear' consists of three syllables. Therefore, a syllable is usually made up of more than one speech sound, i.e., a vowel plus one or more consonants. The vowel is an essential element in the structure of a syllable. In other words, a syllable is not possible without the vowel. The vowel being the obligatory element in a syllable is called the nucleus or peak. The peak may be preceded by one or more consonants, which constitute the onset of the syllable; it may also be followed by one or more consonants which form the coda. Contrastive Analysis of some Grammatical Features Prepositions in English and Persian Prepositions are perhaps the most notorious aspect of the English language for Persianspeaking learners of English and they present enormous difficulties for them. The difficulty lies in the variety of forms and functions of prepositions in English, on the one hand, and the differences between English and Persian with regard to the form and function of prepositions, on the other hand. Prepositions carry very important semantic and discourse functions. They express notions such as: time, place, directions, purpose and manner, to mention but a few. Direct and Indirect Questions ln English, unlike direct questions in which the interrogative structure is an independent clause (e.g., where are you going?), in indirect questions the interrogative structure is a dependent or subordinate clause as in: He asked me where I was going. These subordinate clauses function as complements of verbs such as ask, wonder, know, remember, etc. The main syntactic difference between direct and indirect questions in English is that in direct questions subject-auxiliary order change isobligatory while in indirect questions this operation nonna11y results in ungrammaticality, e.g., “He asked me where was I going”. However, as Quirk et al. ( 1985) point out, there are some exceptions to this rule. Contrastive Pragmatics Contrastive Analysis can also be carried out with reference to how language functions or uses differ in the two languages. That is, how different languages express the same communicative functions. For example, how the two languages handle language functions such as request, compliment, apology, and the like. This kind of analysis is called contrastive pragmatics. Transfer of pragmatic features can, indeed, be more important than the transfer of grammatical or lexical items of the learner's MT.



2.2.3 Linguistic and Psychological Bases of Error Analysis The 1960s has been viewed as a decade of revolution both in linguistics and psychology. With the publication of Syntactic Structure (Chomsky, 1957}, followed by Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Chomsky, 1965), Structural Linguistics yielded to Generative Transformational Grammar. Soon it became evident that the psychological basis of Structural Linguistics was not compatible with the linguistic theory proposed by Chomsky. Cognitive learning theory and generative transformational grammar are mentalistic in the sense that cognitive (n1ental) processes are believed to exist that are unobservable. These two disciplines will be discussed separately below. Cognitive-Learning Theory Cognitive-Learning Theory is associated with the name of the psychologist David Ausubel who maintained that learning takes place in human beings through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions. In other words, as new material enters the cognitive field, it interacts with already existing materials. The very fact that new material is relatable to stable elements in cognitive structure accounts for its meaningfulness. In cognitive theory, language learning is viewed as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. In other words, learning is a cognitive process, because it is thought to involve internal representations that regulate and guide performance. As performance improves, there is constant restructuring as learners simplify, unify, and gain increasing control over their internal representations. Generative Transformational Grammar and First Language Acquisition The shortcomings of behavioristic views of child language acquisition led researches to seek and formulate an alternative theory, namely the generative theory of first language acquisition. The generative theory with its typical rationalistic approach deals with deeper questions and looks for clearer explanation of the mystery of child language acquisition. This theory is also known as the nativist approach. In other words, the innateness hypothesis holds that all normal newborn children are predisposed to learn whatever natural language(s) they are exposed to in the course of their cognitive development. Innateness hypothesis gained support from Eric Lenneberg' s ( 1967) biological hypothesis. Lenneberg



proposed that language is species-specific (i.e., humans are the only species that use linguistic systems) and that certain modes of perception, categorizing abilities, and other language-related mechanisms are biologically determined. Similarities and Differences between First and SecondLanguage Acquisition One of the main areas of interest to Chomsky and his followers has been the process of language acquisition. This interest has provided both linguists and psychologists alike with new insights into the way that a child acquires and develops his competence in his native language. As mentioned earlier, the child is believed to make a series of hypotheses about the structure of his native language. Evidence for this is to be found in the production of errors by children. A wellknown example of hypothesis-formation is the child's regularization of the English irregular verbs, which leads to overgeneralization errors such as do/doed and go/goed. 2.2.4 Error Analysis Arising from the shortcomings of CAH to adequately account for many aspects of second-language learners' language, a number of researchers began to look for an alternative approach for the study of errors; an approach which would be theoretically more justifiable and pedagogically practicable. This new approach, which is based on theories of first and second language acquisition and possible similarities between them, became known as Error Analysis (EA). On the basis of the foregoing discussion it can be concluded that error analysis is based on three important assumptions, as follows: I. Errors are inevitable as we cannot learn a language, be it frrst or second, without goofing, i.e. without committing errors. 2. Errors are significant in different ways. 3. Not all errors are attributable to the learner's mother tongue, i.e. first language interference is not the only source of errors. Receptive versus Productive Errors Competence in a language is of two kinds: receptive and productive. These two competences do not develop at the same rate. It is not uncommon to hear people say that they understand a language better than they can speak it or vice-versa. Errors can also be classified as



receptive and productive. Receptive errors are those which result in listener's misunderstanding of the speaker's intentions, and productive errors are those which occur in the language learner's utterances. It is easier to analyze productive errors than receptive ones. Errors versus Mistakes A distinction has been made between errors and mistakes. Errors are considered to be systematic, governed by rule, and appear because a learner's knowledge of the rules of the target language is incomplete. Thus, they are indicative of the learner's linguistic system at a given stage of language learning. They are likely to occur repeatedly and not recognized by the learner. Thus, only the teacher or researcher can locate them (Gass & Selinker, 1993). For instance, a Persian-speaking Ieamer of English who makes frequent use of subject-verb inversion in indirect questions (e.g. • I don't know where does he live) does, in fact, follow the grammar of his interlanguage which allows the use of such structures at that particular stage of development. In contrast to errors, mistakes are random deviations, unrelated to any system, and instead representing the same types of performance mistakes that might occur in the speech or writing of native speakers, such as slips of the tongue or pen, false starts, lack of subject-verb agreement in a long complicated sentence, and the like. Significance of Errors Many scholars in the field of error analysis have stressed the significance of secondlanguage learners' errors. Pit Corder, for instance, in his influential article (1967), remarks that they are significant in three different ways. First to the teacher, in that they tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. St!cond, they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, and what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language. Thirdly, they are indispensable to the learner himself, because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in order to learn. Branches and Uses of Error Analysis The field of error analysis can be divided into two branches: (i) theoretical, and (ii) applied. Theoretical error analysis, as stated above, is primarily concerned with the processes and



strategies of second-language learning and its possible similarities with frrstlanguage acquisition. In this sense, error analysis is one of the central activities in the psycho linguistic investigation of language learning. In other words, it seeks to throw light on the nature of language learning in general. As learners are exposed to samples of the target language, they form hypotheses about it.



Another theoretical implication of error analysis is to infer that language learners use



strategies in dealing with the second language, e.g., overgeneralization and simplification strategies (For the definition and examples of such strategies see Chapter 8 of the present book, and for a detailed study of second-language learning strategies see Chesterfield & Chesterfield, 1985). Types of Errors Representing Stages of Second Language Development Learners go through different stages of language learning with each stage having certain characteristics. Relying on the findings of other researchers, development as follows: The first is a stage of random errors, a stage which Corder calls presystematic in which the learner is only vaguely aware that there is some systematic order to a particular class of items. These rules may not be correct by target language standards, but they are nevertheless legitimate in the mind of the learner. Generally, the learner at this stage is still unable to correct errors when they are pointed out to him by someone else. A voidance of structures and topics is typical. Consider the following conversation between a learner (L) and a native speaker (NS) of English: L: I go New York. NS: You are going to New York? L: (doesn't understand) what? NS: You will go to New York? L: Yes. NS: When? L: 1972 NS: Oh, you went to New York in 1972. L: Yes, I go 1972.



2.2.5 Hypotheses about Second-Language Learner's Language Following the discovery of the weaknesses of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis and the emergence of Error Analysis, attempts were made to develop an understanding of the processes of second language learning. Emphasis was shifted from studying and analyzing the systems of the native and target languages to the analysis of the learner's language which began to be seen as a phenomenon to be studied in its own right. The Interlanguage Hypothesis The term interlanguage was coined by Selinker in 1969 and elaborated on in 1972 in an influential paper bearing the title interlanguage to refer to the language-learner's language as a separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from a learner's attempted production of TL norms. Selinker put forward five processes as being central to second language learning: (a) language transfer, (b) overgeneralization, (c) transfer of training, (d) second-language learning strategies, and (e) second-language communication strategies. The Approximative Systems Hypothesis Closely related to the lnterlanguage Hypothesis is the Approximative Systems Hypothesis introduced by Nemser (1971). This hypothesis emphasizes the developmental nature of the learner's language since with the addition of new elements the Ieamer's linguistic system is continually being modified and developed. According to Nemser, the acquisition of a second language involves systematic stages with an approximative system at each stage. These approximative systems are internally structured and are distinct from both the source and the target languages. The Idiosyncratic Dialect The Ieamer's language is referred to by Pit Corder (1971) as idiosyncratic dialect to emphasize the idea that the learner's language is unique to a particular individual and the grammar of this language is peculiar to that individual alone. Corder maintains that idiosyncratic dialects are regular, systematic, meaningful, and unstable. Corder further explains that the language of the second-language learner is not the only kind of idiosyncratic dialect. One class of idiosyncratic dialects is the language of poems, where parts can be deliberately deviant; another



is the speech of an aphasic, which categorizes as pathologically deviant. A third class of idiosyncratic dialects is that of an infant learning his mother tongue. However, the idiosyncratic dialect of the second-language learner differs from the rest in that it shares features of not one but two languages, the native language and the target language while maintaining some of its own. That is, some of the rules and characteristics are idiosyncratic (are unique to a particular individual). 2.2.6 Techniques and Procedures for Doing Error Analysis This chapter is devoted to the practical aspects of Error Analysis. First, different types of data-collecting procedures will be presented. Then, the methodology for the identification and interpretation of errors will be discussed. Data-Collecting Procedures Having adequate data is essential for any error analysis. The choice of appropriate procedures for collecting data is, in fact, one of the crucial steps in the investigation of the learner's language. The job of such procedures is either (a) to provoke a language learner into producing a linguistic response using the grammar of his interlanguage; or (b) to examine his intuition regarding the grammaticality of an utterance presented to him. The choice of elicitation procedure is by and large dependent upon the overall objective of the interlanguage study in hand and the type of data required. Spontaneous Procedures For collecting spontaneous (unplanned) data from spoken language, unmonitored conversation and interview are used, and for collecting spontaneous data from written language free composition and examination papers can be used where the learner's attention is focused on the content rather the form of what he wants to say or write. For collecting natural spontaneous data a variety of topics should be used. These include personal information, future plans, religious, social, and political issues, and the like. A spontaneous conversation calls for considerable flexibility in what the learner talks about. Following are some types of questions that can help obtain free conversational data.



1. Questions that must be answered by conversation rather than yes-no answers, such as questions that elicit narratives or descriptive accounts, e.g., Tell me how you spent your summer holiday. 2. Questions about the learner's interests and hobbies. Here the researcher can ask general questions, such as: What's your hobby? How do you spend your spare time?, or alternatively he may start with a yes-no question and then if the answer is positive he may ask the learner to elaborate on the subject. An example of this would be: Researcher: Do you play football? Learner: Yes. Researcher: How often? Leamer: Once a week. Researcher: I don't know much about football. Could you tell me how it is played and what the rules of the game are? Since such questions relate to the learner's interests and hobbies they can elicit long and animated accounts. Asking the learner to describe one of his favorite television programs would be another example of specific questions in this respect. 3. Questions about the learner's future plans and aspirations, e.g., What are you planning to do after you are finished with your studies?



Elicited Procedures 1.Translation Corder (1974) has suggested an elicitation procedure which requires direct translation from the native language to the target language. Although it may be argued that a translation test may encourage mother tongue influence, it has proven successful as an elicitation method in studies conducted at Edinburgh and elsewhere (Taylor, 1975). The translation technique has several advantages. First of all, it forces the subject to attempt to produce the structure under investigation. Secondly, it assures the researcher that the



subject understands the semantics of the structure he is required to produce. Moreover, by forcing a subject to produce a structure which has not been completely mastered, the researcher can gain insights into how the subject understands the language to operate and how he/she organizes new syntactic constructions in his/her interlanguage. 2.Multiple-Choice Test Traditionally, a multiple-choice item consists of an incomplete sentence followed by three or more choices, one of which is the correct response and the others are distracters. It is proposed here, however, that certain modifications should be made in a multiplechoice technique which is used for eliciting data from secondlanguage learners. 2.2.7 Classification of Errors Important concepts and terms used in this chapter: Linguistic Specification Construction Taxonomy Permutation Substitution Orthograph Membership Criteria Subcategorization Grammaticalized Forms After errors are being identified, it is necessary to group them according to their linguistic specifications. In this way, it would be possible to build up a clear picture of the features in the target language that might cause problems for the learners. It is crystal clear that a wellorganized and systematic linguistic taxonomy (classification) oferrors would be very helpful in assessing the nature and the probable causes oferrors. In setting up a taxonomy of errors, linguistic features should be grouped into different classes. There are usually two general types of classifications: (a) category-based classification, and (b)



sample- based classification. In category-based classification, the linguist or teacher establishes his own categorization of errors before he/she actually stans to collect the necessary data. Linguistic-Based Classification Having presented some general remarks on establishing a linguistic classification of errors, we may now tum to a detailed description of the taxonomy below. In this taxonomy, four major categories of errors are introduced namely orthographic, phonological, Jexico-semantic,and morphological-syntactic. These categories will then be classified into sub-categories in order to give a more detailed description of error types. The erroneous sentences in the taxonomy are culled from a corpus of data collected by the author. More specifically, they have been extracted from the written assignments of lranian university students over several years. The example sentences have been granunaticlalized to a certain extent to make them more intelligible. However, most of the examples may include types of errors other than those in question. Orthographic Errors A large number of orthographic (spelling) errors are caused by the inconsistencies of English spelling system. ln the majority of cases, there is no one-to-one correspondence between letters of alphabet and the sounds they represent. Typical orthographic errors are presented below. Phonological Errors Phonological errors are of several kinds. Four maJor types of phonological errors are illustrated in the table below. Phonological Errors Lack of Certain TL Phonemes m the Leamer's NL Differences in Syllable Structures ofLl&L2 Spelling Pronunciation of Words The Problem of Silent Letters Lexico-Semantic Errors Lexico-semantic errors refer to errors related to the semantic properties of lexical items, as illustrated in the following examples. * Iran is my mother country.



*My father learned me the Koran. * Economic problems effect our lives. * I am working 24 o'clock each week. * I play different exercises in the evening. *Today we have a very speeding progress. * The teacher said we should read hard. * The bank where my cousin works was stolen last week. • I always want (ask) my teacher to help me with my English. *English is an alive language by which everyone can convey his ideas. • I think my tolerant for learning English is more than for learning anything else. Morpho-Syntactic Errors TYPICAL MORPHO-SYNTACTIC ERRORS



Wrong Use of Plural Morpheme * By learning English we can get much informations. * Our teacher always gives good advices. Wrong Use of Parts of Speech * All people need food for being Uviog. • It is naturally that everybody needs money. Wrong Use of Tenses Present Continuous instead of Simple Present • I m going to work everyday. * We are drinking tea after lunch everyday. • I am going to university at 8 o'clock every morning. • I am saying my prayers before anything else every morning. Present Perfect instead of Simple Past



• I have visited Mashad a few years ago. • I have graduated from high school two years ago. • They have gone on a picnic last week. • My father hilS been born in Shiraz. 2.2.8 Sources of Errors Important terms and concepts used in this chapter: False Cognates Overgeneralization Cross-association Hypercorrection False Analogy Faulty Categorization Redundancy Reduction Language Switch Simplification Hyperextension Topic Avoidance Prefabricated Patterns Errors have generally been attributed to cognitive causes, i.e., evidence o f the learner's psychological process o f rule formation. But, as Widdowson (1991) says, ''they can also be seen as communicatively motivated, the realization of available resources to get a message across" (p. 111). Long before EA was introduced as an alternative to CA, errors (produced by second or foreign language learners) were identified and classified into various categories to deal with practical needs of foreign language teaching. In Error Analysis, while interference from Ll is acknowledged as a source of errors, it is by no means considered to be the only source for making errors. In fact, one of the major contributions of Error Analysis was its recognition of the sources of errors, which extend beyond just interlingual errors in learning a second language. It is now clear that intralingual and developmental errors play an important role in second language learning.



Interlingual Errors By definition, interlingual errors result from the transfer of phonological, morphological, grammatical, lexico-semantic, and stylistic elements of the learner's mother tongue to the learning of the target language. Five different types of interlingual errors are presented below: 1. Transfer of Phonological Elements of L1 2. Transfer of Morphological Elements 3. TransferofGrammaticalElements 4. Transfer of Lexico-Semantic Elements 5. Transfer of Stylistic and Cultural Elements Intrallngual and Developmental Errors Intralingual and developmental errors are caused by the mutual interference of items in the target language, i.e., the influence of one target language item upon another. For instance, a learner may produce *He is comes, based on the blend of the English structures: He is coming, and He comes. Such errors reflect the learner's competence at a particular stage of second language development and illustrate some of the general characteristics of language learning. Intralingual and developmental errors are divided into six sub- categories given below: Overgeneral ization Ignorance ofRule Hypercorrection Faulty Categorization.



Restriction



False



Analogy



Hyperextension



Teacher-induced Errors Teacher-induced errors (or Transfer of Training) are those which result from pedagogical procedures contained in a text or employ by the teacher. An induced error is an error, which has been caused by the method in which a language item has been presented or practiced (through teaching techniques or course design). A teacher may unintentionally mislead his students by the way he defines a lexical item, or by the order in which he presents teaching materials. For example, introducing worship as a general word for pray, the students may immediately attach to the new word the same preposition they have already used with the familiar one, and therefore produce utterances such as *worshiping to God. To cite another example, look at the following sentence: *The cat is at the table. (Instead of The cat is under the table.) Communication Strategies



Communication strategies are used when the learner is forced to express himself with the limited linguistic resources available to him. In other words, these strategies refer to the learner's tactics to bridge the gap between his limited linguistic knowledge and his communication needs by using elements, which are not linguistically appropriate for the context. Nevertheless, the learner communicates, but at the expense o f grammatical accuracy. Here are some examples: • Sorry, /late (instead ofSorry, I am late). • a cloth for my nose (instead of handkerchief). 2.2.9 Communicative Aspects of Error Analysis In addition to their important role in the study of language acquisition in general and second or foreign language learning, in particular, errors are also important in terms of different communicative tasks learners perform and the effects their errors may have on communicating with native speakers of the target language. These are briefly discussed below. Errors Related to Different Communicative Tasks Differences are observed in performance depending on whether the communicative task is spoken or written. Foreign language learners tend to commit relatively more errors in spontaneous speech than in written discourse. There tend to be various degrees of monitoring, and its degree of accuracy, depending on the task language learners perform and the amount of attention they pay to form (Tarone, 1983, 1985; Ellis, 1987). Even native speakers exhibit differences in perfonnance between writing and spontaneous speech. Compared to spontaneous speech, planned discourse allows for greater use of language and results in fewer errors. Time seems to play a determining role in this regard. Hulstin & Hulstin ( 1984) suggest that poor learners need more time to produce speech material because they have little control over their linguistic awareness. A similar hypothesis is made by Krashen ( 1981) in his monitor theory. He believes that the learners' monitor (i.e., their capacity for modifying utterances by using rule they have consciously learned) operates under three conditions: time, focus on form, and knowledge of the rule. Native Speakers' Judgment of Learners' Errors



While earlier studies of Error Analysis concentrated on types and frequency of errors in an effort to discover linguistic and communication strategies of the learners, in the late seventies and early eighties researchers began to explore the effe·ct of errors on communication by asking native speakers to evaluate second language learners' speech or writing samples. Gunterman ( 1978) and Politzer ( 1978) focused on oral samples, while Chastain ( 1980) and Delisle (1982) studied written ones. Piazza (1980) contrasted reaction to oral and written errors. Piazza & Politzer's samples consisted of sentences while those of Gunterman were made up of lengthier, contextualized samples. These communicative error studies typically emphasized phonology, semantics, and syntax as three major components in which errors of the type mentioned were believed to manifest themselves. A good proportion of communicative error studies was and is concerned with errors in pronunciation and their effects on the perception of the spoken message. Successful communication seems to be mostly dependent on the correct pronunciation of the target language sound system. However, in the studies conducted by Politzer ( 1978) and Ensz ( 1982) concerning the phonology of the learners' interlanguage, it is implied that although the acquisition of accent-free pronunciation seems to be difficult for second language learners, this linguistic component has not been viewed as a severe barrier to successful communication. Nevertheless, too deviant and faulty pronunciation can lead to failure in communication. Ensz ( 1982) reports that French listeners will accept slightly deviant pronunciation "whereas a strong accent may bring a different reaction" 2.2.10 Pedagogical Implications of Error Analysis Students' errors have always been important to teachers, syllabus designers, and test developers. It is widely held that insights gained from the study of learners' errors can provide invaluable information for devising appropriate materials and effective teaching techniques as well as constructing tests suitable for different groups of learners at various stages of second language development. Accordingly, this chapter is intended to offer some pedagogical implications of error analysis. Implications for EFL/IESL Teachers



Teachers can benefit from the fmdings of error analysis in different ways. As mentioned earlier, long before the theoretical dimension of error analysis came into existence, learners' errors were identified and classified by classroom teachers in an attempt to deal with their practical needs, and to devise appropriate materials and teaching techniques. From the study of learners' errors teachers can identify the problematic areas for learners at different levels of instruction. They will be able to infer the nature of the learners' knowledge of the target language at a given stage in his learning career and discover what he still has to earn. Implications for Syllabus Designers Errors are significant to syllabus designers to see what items are important to be included in the syllabus and what items are redundant and should be excluded. An error-based analysis can provide reliable results upon which remedial materials can be constructed. In other words, analysis of second-language learners' errors can help identify learners' linguistic difficulties and needs at a particular stage of language learning. This can serve as a basis for remedial courses and programs of re-teaching. Error analysis can be used as a means for both assessing the students' learning in general and the degree of match between the Iearner's learning syllabus and that of the teacher. Implications for Test Developers The discussion of the pedagogical implications of error analysis would not be con1plctc without a brief note on testing, since it is believed that teaching and testing do, indeed, go hand in hand. Thus, testing should be based on what has been taught and the test developers should be fan1iliar with students' difficulties and errors. Test constn1ctors can concentrate on parts of the teaching materials which are proved by error analysis to be more difficult for the students. Moreover, errors can from good distracters for test constructors, especially in multiple choice items. In fact, as suggested earlier (Chapter 6), the distracters of a multiple-choice test designed for eliciting data from second language lean1ers should be selected from the common errors of the students. Error Correction and Attitudes towards Errors



Another pedagogical implication of error analysis is error correction and attitudes towards errors. Over the past few decades, there has been a significant change in foreign language methodologies and teaching materials. Similarly, there has been a significant change of attitudes towards student ' errors. Throughout the fifties and well into the sixties, when Contrastive Analysis and Audio-lingual Approach to teaching foreign languages were at the peak of their popularity, a rather negative attitude towards errors was prevalent. Some of the wellknown scholars during that period regarded second-language learners' errors from a somewhat puritanical perspective. For example, Nelson Brooks ( 1960), in his then famous book, Language and Language Learning, which became a manifesto of the language teaching profession of the 1960s, considered error to have a relationship to learning resembling that of sin to virtue. He stated: "Like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcome, but its presence is to be expected" (p.58). Brooks suggested an instructional procedure that would help language learners produce error-free utterances: "The principal method of 11voiding error in language learning is to observe and practice the right model a sufficient number of times; the principal way of overcoming it is to shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and the presentation once more of the correct model" (p.58).



3.1 Advantages - Conclude that each language has both similarities and differences. - There is ISBN ( International Standard Book Number) which is a unique number used for publik identification this book. - This book also equipped with pages so that it no longer makes it difficult for readers to criticize this book. - This book has a clear and complete identify - The learning material is very broad and complex. - The design of the book is right and directed, suitable for learning material for undergraduate student.



- There are many arguments from experts that can make readers know the various types of information 3.2 Disadvantages - There is many difficult vocabulary to understand. - The use of standardized test is ruled out. - There are not many clear explanations with examples to make it easier for readers to understand phonems more deeply. - The language of this book is so high that difficiult for beginner readers to understand. - The book cover is less interesting. - The discussion is complete, but the translation is not broad enough.



CHAPTER III CLOSING 4.1 Conclusion As it was mentioned earlier, CA was widely influential in the 1950s and 1960s in the field of foreign language teaching; however, from the 1970s its influence began to decline. This was due in part to the shortcomings of structural linguistics, with which it was closely associated. The CAH was also at odds with the views of second language acquisition and inter language theory, according to which only a small proportion of errors derived from first language interference. However, interest in CA has not faded away entirely. As discussed earlier, contrastive analysis is based on two main assumptions: (i) the native language of the learner interferes with the learning of the target language and consequently



interference from the mother tongue constitutes the main cause, if not the sole cause, of errors, and (ii) the greater the difference between the structure of the source and the target language the more difficult it is to learn a foreign language. (Palmero & Howe, 1970; and Stolz & Tiffany, 1972, cited in Cook, 1973), have also claimed to have found similarities between child first-language acquisition and adult secondlanguage learning. Palmero and Howe found that adults approached an experimental learning situation in the same way that children learn the past tense inflections in English. Stolz and Tiffany found that the characteristic differences between word associations of children and adults could be cancelled out by giving adults unfamiliar words. As Brown (2000) rightly points out, these stages of systematicity do not describe a learner's total second language system. We would fmd it hard to assert, for example, that a learner is in an emergent stage, globally, for all linguistic subsystems of language. One may be in a second stage with respect to, say, the perfect-tense system, and in the third or fourth stage when it comes to simple present and past tense. Nor do these stages, whish are based on error analysis, adequately account for sociolinguistic, functional, or nonverbal strategies, all of which are important in assessing the total competence of the second language Ieamer. For the correction of second-language learners' errors: (1) The teacher should make sure that an error has been committed before attempting to do something about it. That is, it is possible that the teacher does not hear accurately what the student bas said. This is especially true in large classes where noise can often be considered as a distracter. The teacher may also misinterpret what the student has meant. (2) The teacher should feel confident and competent about correcting the error. If he is not sure of the correct model or appropriate correction procedures he should refrain from correcting his students. In this case, he should consult those colleagues of his who have a better command of the target language or his authoritative reference books. 4.2 Suggestion The author realizes this critical book report has many shortcomings. So, I hope this is can make clearer in middle language, researchers can add examples of words so that the writer knows and understands, Researchers can also make it more creative and specific so that explanations are the reader understands.



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